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America's 25 Worst Highway Bottlenecks, 2012 Each year, the Daily Beast compiles a list of the country's worst bottlenecks using data supplied by INRIX, a traffic tracking and analyzing company. Their Traffic Index collects data from 100 million vehicles to score the amount of extra time it takes to drive through a particular stretch of highway during rush hour. Consult the table below to find out what freeways to avoid when you hit the road. RankCityFreewayWorst corridorLength of worst corridorExtra time during rush hourWorst travel hour 1.Los AngelesHarbor Freeway/CA-100 northboundI-10/Santa Monica Freeway to Stadium Way/Exit 24C3.1 miles8 minutesTuesday, 6–7P.M. 2.New York CityVan Wyck Expressway/I-678 northboundBelt Parkway/Exit 1 to Maine Street/Exit 83.1miles10 minutesMonday, 8–9A.M. 3.San FranciscoCalifornia Delta Highway/CA-4 westboundHillcrest Avenue to Somersville Road2.9 miles6 minutesTuesday, 6–7A.M. 4.ChicagoStevenson Expressway/I-55 southboundState Street/Exit 293C to Pulaski Road/Exit 2875.7 miles10 minutesThursday, 4–5P.M. 5.Dallas-Ft. WorthLoop 820/I-820 westboundTX-26/Grapevine Highway to US-377/Denton Highway/Exit 193.1 miles6 minutesFriday, 5–6P.M. 6.HoustonUS-59 northboundBuffalo Speedway to I-454.8 miles7 minutesFriday, 5–6P.M. 7.SeattleI-405 southboundWA-520/NE 14th Street/Exit 14 to SE Coal Creek Parkway/Exit104.5 miles7 minutesThursday, 5–6P.M. 8.Washington, D.C.Capital Beltway/I-495 outer loopUS-1/Baltimore Avenue/Exit 25 to MD-97/Georgia Avenue/Exit 316.3 miles8 minutesWednesday, 8–9A.M. 9.BostonSoutheast Expressway/I-93 southboundI-90 to Freeport Street/Exit 133.7 miles6 minutesFriday, 4–5P.M. 10.PittsburghPenn Lincoln Parkway/I-376 eastboundLydia Street/Exit 2 to US-19/PA-51/Exit 53.4 miles9 minutesWednesday, 8–9A.M. 11.Austin, Texas1-35 southboundUS-183/Exit 239-240 to Woodland Avenue6.7 miles10 minutesThursday, 5–6P.M. 12.MiamiDolphin Expressway/SR 836 westboundI-95 to FL-959/Red Road5.5 miles11 minutesFriday, 5–6P.M. 13.San DiegoCA-78 eastboundRancho Santa Fe Road to Mission Road4.2 miles5 minutesWednesday, 5–6P.M. 14.HonoluluLunalilo Freeway/I-1 eastboundHI-92 to S. Vineyard Boulevard/Ward Avenue3.9 miles9 minutesWednesday, 5–6P.M. 15.Minneapolis-St. PaulI-494 eastboundUS-212/Prairie Center Drive/Exit 1 to CR-32/Penn Ave/Exit 65.7 miles6 minutesThursday, 5–6P.M. 16.PhiladelphiaDelaware Expressway/I-95 southboundAcademy Road/Exit 32 to Girard Avenue/Exit 238.3 miles7 minutesTuesday, 8–9A.M. 17.New OrleansI-10 westboundCauseway Boulevard/Exit 228 to End Boulevard/Florida Boulevard5 miles5 minutesThursday, 5–6P.M. 18.BaltimoreBaltimore Beltway inner loop/I-695 northboundUS-1/Southwestern Boulevard/Exit 12 to Security Boulevard/Exit 175.3 miles4 minutesThursday, 5–6P.M. 19.AtlantaGA-400/US-19 southboundCA-120/Old Milton Parkway/Exit to GA-140/Holcomb Bridge Road/Exit 74.7 miles4 minutesTuesday, 8–9A.M. 20.Bridgeport, Conn.Connecticut Turnpike/I-95 northboundField Point Road to Mill Plain Road/Exit 2122.2 miles12 minutesFriday, 5–6P.M. 21.PhoenixPapago Freeway/I-10 westboundAZ-51/AZ-202/Exit 147 to 35th Avenue/Exit 1416.2 miles4 minutesThursday, 5–6P.M. 22.Sacramento, Calif.S. Sacramento Freeway/CA-99 southbound12th Avenue to Mack Road/Bruceville Road5.4 miles4 minutesWednesday, 5–6P.M. 23.San JoseBayshore Freeway/US-101 southboundFair Oaks Avenue to De La Cruz Boulevard4.2 miles5 minutesThursday, 5–6P.M. 24.Baton Rouge, La.I-12 eastboundEssen Lane to O'Neal Lane5.8 miles6 minutesThursday, 5–6P.M. 25.Riverside, Calif.Riverside Freeway/CA-91 westboundMcKinley Street to Auto Center Drive/Serfas Club Drive5.6 miles6 minutesMonday, 6–7A.M. Source: The Daily Beast, INRIX.

Traffic Congestion in U.S. Cities, 2002 RankUrban areaAnnual delay per person in hours 1. Los Angeles, Calif.136 2.San Francisco-Oakland, Calif.92 3.Washington, DC-Md.-Va.84 4.Seattle-Everett, Wash.82 5. Houston, Tex.75 6. San Jose, Calif.74 6.Dallas-Fort Worth, Tex.74 8.New York, N.Y.-Northeastern N.J.73 9. Atlanta, Ga.70 10.Miami-Hialeah, Fla.69 11.Chicago, Ill.-Northwestern Ind.67 11. Boston, Mass.67 11. Denver, Colo.67 14.Orlando, Fla.66 15.San Bernardino-Riverside, Calif.64 16.Ft. Lauderdale-Hollywood-Pompano Beach, Fla.61 16. Austin, Tex.61 18. Phoenix, Ariz.59 19. Detroit, Mich.55 20.Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minn.54 21. San Diego, Calif.51 22. Baltimore, Md.50 23.Portland-Vancouver, Ore.-Wash.47 23. Charlotte, N.C.47 25.Louisville, Ky.-Ind.46 26.Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater, Fla.45 26. Albuquerque, N.M.45 28.Nashville, Tenn.44 29.Cincinnati, Ohio-Ky.43 29.W. Palm Beach-Boca Raton-Delray Beach, Fla.43 29. Indianapolis, Ind.43 29. San Antonio, Tex.43 29.St. Louis, Mo.-Ill.43 34. Sacramento, Calif.42 34.Philadelphia, Pa.-N.J.42 36.Providence-Pawtucket, R.I.-Mass.41 37. Las Vegas, Nev.38 38. Columbus, Ohio36 39.Tacoma, Wash.34 39.Memphis, Tenn.-Ark.-Miss.34 41. Milwaukee, Wis.32 41. Jacksonville, Fla.32 43.Birmingham, Ala.31 44. Colorado Springs, Colo.27 45.Charleston, S.C.26 46. Tucson, Ariz.25 46.Norfolk-Newport News-Virginia Beach, Va.25 46.Omaha, Neb.-Iowa25 49. Fresno, Calif.24 49. Honolulu, Hawaii24 49.Pensacola, Fla.24 NOTE: Study conducted in 75 urbanized areas. Source:Texas Transportation Institute, the Texas A&M University System.The 2002 Urban Mobility Report,David Schrank and Tim Lomax. Web: http://mobility.tamu.e du.

Nano: World's Cheapest Car: Nano Specs Cost: $2,500 Five-door hatchback Two-cylinder engine Speeds of up to 65 miles per hour Avg. MPG: 50 No: radio, air conditioning, power steering, or power windows The newest Nano has four wheels and runs on two cylinders. No, Apple Computer did not introduce a self-propelled MP3 player (not yet, anyway). The Tata Nano is a tiny, five-door hatchback that was unveiled at a car show in early January 2008 in New Delhi, India. A two-cylinder engine, which is located in the back, powers the car. The Nano, nicknamed the "People's Car," can reach speeds of up to 65 miles per hour and gets about 50 miles per gallon of gasoline, which is on par with most hybrids. The five-seat mini car, which looks a lot like a bubble on wheels, is about 11 feet long and 5 feet wide. Cheap but Spare At only $2,500, the Nano lacks many of the accessories and luxuries of other, more expensive cars. Indeed, it doesn't have a radio, air conditioning, power steering, or power windows, and the dashboard is adorned with only a speedometer, an oil light, and a fuel gauge. Ratan Tata, the chairman of the Tata Group, which developed the Nano, said he hopes to sell about one million of the cars in India. "We indeed have a People's Car, which is affordable and yet built to meet safety requirements and emission norms, to be fuel efficient and low on emissions," Tata said. He chose the name "Nano" because the word "connotes high-tech and small size," he said. Environmental Impact While some auto enthusiasts hailed the Nano for its fuel efficiency and low price, which will provide mobility to a much wider population in India, many environmentalists are concerned that a million new cars in India, the world's second-most-populous country, with a population of more than 1.1 billion, will contribute further to global warming. Indeed, India's emissions of carbon dioxide are the fourth highest in the world, and New Delhi, the capital of India, is the fourth-most-polluted city in the world. Some suggested that Tata should have used his significant resources to work toward improving India's mass transportation system rather than further clog India's already intolerably congested roads. "In my view, this represents a bankruptcy of policy as far as transport options are concerned," said chief U.N. climate scientist Rajendra Pachauri, who shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prizewith Al Gore. "If our roads are going to be flooded with these cars by a few million each year, what is that going to do? Every car that goes on the road is going to use road space. Congestion and air pollutionare twin problems," he said. "Why not improve the quality and reliability of buses?"

Most Expensive Cars, 2007 RankMake, modelPrice 1.Bugatti Veyron 16.4$1.4 million 2.Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren 722 Edition482,750 3.Maybach 62S SSC Ultimate Aero428,750 4.Rolls-Royce Drophead Coupe412,000 5.Lamborghini Murcielago LP640 Roadster362,400 6.Bentley Azure337,085 7.Ferrari 599 GTB Fiorano F1280,295 8.Aston Martin DB9 Volante convertible175,550 9.Porsche 911 Turbo Cabriolet (2008 model)136,500 10.Maserati Quattroporte Automatic Executive GT126,500 NOTE: All base prices are for 2007 models, unless noted otherwise. Includes only vehicles currently sold in the U.S. Source: Forbes.com.

Top AAA Cars, 2006 AAA evaluates more than 200 vehicles each year and selects the top-rated vehicle in each category, based on cost and type. Cars are rated according to value, fuel economy, braking, ride, handling, passenger environment, cargo space, and other criteria. CategoryMake/model $50,000 or moreJaguar XJ8L $40,000–$50,000Infiniti M35/M45 $35,000–$40,000Volvo S80 $30,000–$35,000BMW 3 Series $25,000–$30,000Toyota Avalon $20,000–$25,000Dodge Charger $15,000–$20,000Honda Accord Sedan Under $15,000Mazda 3 SUV over $30,000Mercedes-Benz M-Class SUV under $30,000Ford Escape Hybrid MinivanHonda Odyssey Pickup TruckHonda Ridgeline Cool CarChevrolet Corvette Z06 Source:AAA. Web: www.aaa.com.

Most Stolen Cars, 2007 RankYear, make, model 1.1995 Honda Civic 2.1991 Honda Accord 3.1989 Toyota Camry 4.1997 Ford F150 Series 5.1994 Chevrolet C/K 1500 Pickup 6.1994 Acura Integra 7.2004 Dodge Ram Pickup 8.1994 Nissan Sentra 9.1988 Toyota Pickup 10.2007 Toyota Corolla Source:National Insurance Crime Bureau

Most and Least Knowledgeable U.S. Drivers, 2010 Based on the average scores on a 20-question driving test commissioned by the GMAC Insurance Company, the most knowledgeable drivers in the U.S. are from Kansas and the least knowledgeable are from New York. RankState 1. Kansas 2. Oregon 3. South Dakota 4. Minnesota 5. Iowa 6. Nebraska 7. Indiana 8. Idaho 9. Montana 10. Alaska 11. Washington 12. Wisconsin 13. Oklahoma 14. North Dakota 15. Michigan 16. Missouri 17. Arizona 18. Wyoming 19. Tennessee 20. Maryland 21. Nevada 22. Vermont 23. Utah 24. Colorado 25. Delaware 26. Maine 27. Ohio 28. Virginia 29. New Mexico 30. South Carolina 31. Alabama 32. Georgia 33. Illinois 34. Connecticut 35. Texas 36. Arkansas 37. North Carolina 38. Massachusetts 39. Pennsylvania 40. Mississippi 41. Florida 42. Kentucky 43. New Hampshire 44. Hawaii 45. West Virginia 46. Louisiana 47. Rhode Island 48. California 49. District of Columbia 50. New Jersey 51. New York Source:General Motors Acceptance Corporation (GMAC) Insurance National Drivers Test administered to 5,000 licensed drivers nationwide. Widespread Bad Driving Habits According to the GMAC survey: 50% report that they do not know how to merge into heavy traffic. 60% say that they change lanes on a highway without using their blinker. 17% percent of Americans have driven without a rear view or driver's side mirror. 20% do not know that a pedestrian has the right of way at a marked or unmarked crosswalk. 25% drivers would roll through a stop sign rather than come to a complete stop. One-third admit they speed up to make a yellow light even when pedestrians are in the crosswalk.

Parents Magazineand AAA Best Cars for Families, 2005 EconomyHonda Civic Mazda3 Scion XB SedansChrysler 300 Honda Accord Toyota Camry Station WagonsFord Freestyle Mazda6 Subaru Legacy/Outback Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs)Dodge Durango Volvo XC90 Nissan Murano MinivansChrysler Town & Country Honda Odyssey Toyota Sienna Source:AAA andParents Magazine,April 2005.

Top-Selling Vehicles in the U.S., 2005 RankVehicleNumber 1.Ford F-Series901,463 2.Chevrolet Silverado705,891 3.Toyota Camry433,703 4.Dodge Ram400,453 5.Honda Accord369,293 6.Honda Civic308,415 7.Nissan Altima255,371 8.Chevrolet Impala246,481 9.Chevrolet Malibu245,861 10.Chevrolet TrailBlazer244,150 Source:Automotive News, Edmunds. Web: www.edmunds.com.

Most Stolen Cars, 2007 RankYear, make, model 1.1995 Honda Civic 2.1991 Honda Accord 3.1989 Toyota Camry 4.1997 Ford F150 Series 5.1994 Chevrolet C/K 1500 Pickup 6.1994 Acura Integra 7.2004 Dodge Ram Pickup 8.1994 Nissan Sentra 9.1988 Toyota Pickup 10.2007 Toyota Corolla Source:National Insurance Crime Bureau

Car Theft by Top Ten U.S. Metropolitan Areas, 2005 RankMetropolitan Statistical AreaVehicles stolenRate1 1.Modesto, Calif.7,0711,418.80 2.Las Vegas/Paradise, Nev.22,4651,360.90 3.Stockton, Calif.7,5861,167.30 4.Phoenix/Mesa/Scottsdale, Ariz.41,0001,103.50 5.Visalia/Porterville, Calif.4,2571,060.20 6.Seattle/Tacoma/Bellevue, Wash.33,4941,057.60 7.Sacramento/Arden-Arcade/Roseville, Calif.20,2681,005.00 8.San Diego/Carlsbad/San Marcos, Calif.28,845983.90 9.Fresno, Calif.8,478978.11 10.Yakima, Wash.2,212965.54 1. Ranked by the rate of vehicle thefts reported per 100,000 people based on the 2000 Census. Source:National Insurance Crime Bureau.

Most Congested Roads, 2012 Below are the most congested roads in the United States, including the average speed and travel time delay for the worst stretches of asphalt in 2012. RoadLocationAverage speedTravel time delay Cross Bronx Expressway New York, N.Y.13 mph41 min I-405 SB Los Angeles, Calif.14 mph26 min Van Wyck Expressway SB New York, N.Y.12 mph23 min I-10 EB Los Angeles, Calif.19 mph32 min CA-91 Riverside, Calif.22 mph38 min Long Island Expressway EB New York, N.Y.19 mph33 min Brooklyn Queens Expressway SB New York, N.Y.16 mph27 min I-405 NB Los Angeles, Calif.22 mph31 min I-90/I-94 WB Chicago, Ill.20 mph30 min I-5 SB Los Angeles, Calif.22 mph31 min Source:Traffic Scorecard, INRIX.

Most Congested Roads, 2010 Below are the most congested roads in the United States, including the amount of fuel, time, and money spent in 2010. RoadLocationHours Wasted in TrafficFuel Wasted in Traffic (gallons)Total Cost of Congestion Harbor Freeway Los Angeles, Calif.1.44 million2.17 million95 million Van Wyck Expressway New York, N.Y.690,0001.086 million46.9 million I-35 Southbound Austin, Tex.546,0001.698 million77.8 million I-10 Eastbound Houston, Tex.475,000951,00043.2 million Southeast Expressway/1-93 Northbound Boston, Mass.470,0002.44 million105 million 1-495 Outer Loop Washington, D.C.465,0001.36 million61 million 1-5 SouthBound Seattle, Wash.441,0001.93 million84.8 million Penn Lincoln Parkway Pittsburgh, Pa.443,000728,00033.3 million Dolphin Expressway Miami, Fla.431,0001.1 million45.3 million Stevenson Expressway Chicago, Ill.414,0001.24 million55 million Source:Texas Transportation Institute, INRIX, The Weather Channel

What Your Car Color Says About You Based on the DuPont Automotive rankings of most popular automotive colors in North America, here’s what Color Answer Book author Leatrice Eiseman says vehicles are revealing about their owners’ personalities: *.Silver:Elegant, loves futuristic looks, cool *.White:Fastidious *.Vibrant Red:Sexy, speedy, high-energy and dynamic *.Light to Mid-Blue:Cool, calm, faithful, quiet *.Dark Blue:Credible, confident, dependable *.Taupe/Light Brown:Timeless, basic and simple tastes *.Black:Empowered, not easily manipulated, loves elegance, appreciates classics *.Neutral Gray:Sober, corporate, practical, pragmatic *.Dark Green:Traditional, trustworthy, well-balanced *.Bright Yellow-Green:Trendy, whimsical, lively *.Yellow Gold:Intelligent, warm, loves comfort and will pay for it *.Sunshine Yellow:Sunny disposition, joyful and young at heart *.Deep Brown:Down-to-earth, no-nonsense *.Orange:Fun loving, talkative, fickle and trendy *.Deep Purple:Creative, individualistic, original Source:2004 DuPont Automotive Color Popularity Report.

Most Popular Car Colors, 2012 (Percentage of vehicles manufactured during these model years) Color% manufactured 1. White/white pearl 23% 3. Black/black effect 21 4. Silver 18 5. Red 8 6. Blue 6 7. Brown/beige 6 8. Green 1 9. Yellow/Gold 1 10. Others 2 Source:2012 Global Color Popularity Report.

Most Popular Car Colors, 2012 (Percentage of vehicles manufactured during these model years) Color% manufactured 1. White/white pearl 23% 3. Black/black effect 21 4. Silver 18 5. Red 8 6. Blue 6 7. Brown/beige 6 8. Green 1 9. Yellow/Gold 1 10. Others 2 Source:2012 Global Color Popularity Report.

Travel Websites *.Adventure Travel & Ecotourism *.Adventure Travel Tips: www.adventuretrav eltips.com *.Outside Online outside.away.com *.International Ecotourism Society: www.ecotourism.or g *.Backpacking and Hiking *.American Hiking Society: www.americanhikin g.org *.Appalachian Mountain Club: www.outdoors.org *.Rocky Mountain National Park: www.explore- rocky.com *.Rail Connection (Europe): www.railconnection. com *.Fares & Reservations *.CheapTickets: www.cheaptickets.c om *.Expedia (Microsoft): www.expedia.com *.Orbitz: www.orbitz.com *.Priceline: www.priceline.com *.Travelocity: www.travelocity.co m *.Student Travel *.Hostelling International: www.hihostels.com *.STA Travel: www.sta- travel.com *.Student Universe: www.studentuniver se.com *.Useful Travel Information *.Exchange Rates: www.x-rates.com *.Intellicast (weather): www.intellicast.com *.National Center for Infectious Diseases Travelers' Health Page: www.cdc.gov/travel *.Travel Guides *.Fodor's Travel Online: www.fodors.com *.Frommer's: www.frommers.com *.Lonely Planet: www.lonelyplanet.c om *.National Park Service: www.nps.gov *.Rough Guides: www.roughguides.c om *.Travel Notes: www.travelnotes.or g *.Volunteer Vacations *.Charity Guide: charityguide.org/cha rity/vacation.htm *.Earthwatch Institute: www.earthwatch.or g *.Global Volunteer Network: www.volunteer.org. nz/ *.Global Volunteers: www.globalvoluntee rs.org

Travel Scams: You Don't Get Something for Nothing Source:U.S. Department of Consumer Affairs Beware of travel companies that misrepresent information about the bookings and transportation costs. For example, a company that offers an unbelievably low airfare may make up the loss in another way such as overpriced hotel accomodations. In most cases, one should assume that “If it sounds too good to be true, it probably is.” The following tips from the U.S. Department of Consumer Affairs can save you from a disappointing vacation. Don't be taken by solicitations by postcard, letter, or phone claiming you've won a free trip or can get discounts on hotels and airfares. These offers usually don't disclose the hidden fees involved, for example, deposits, surcharges, excessive handling fees or taxes. Some travel scams require you to purchase a product to get a trip that is “free” or “two-for-one.” You'll end up paying for the “free trip” or more for the product than the trip is worth, and the two-for-one deal might be more expensive than if you had arranged a trip yourself by watching airfare deals. Be wary of travel offers which ask you to redeem vouchers or certificates from out-of-state companies. Their offers are usually valid only for a limited time and on a space-available basis. The hotels are often budget rooms and very uncomfortable. The company charges you for the trip in advance, but will the company still be in business when you're ready to take the trip? Check the reputation of any travel service you use, especially travel clubs offering discounts on their services in exchange for an annual fee. Contact your state or local consumer protection agency or the Better Business Bureau. Request copies of a travel club's or agent's brochures and contracts before purchasing your ticket. Don't rely on oral promises. Find out about cancellation policies and never sign contracts that have blank or incomplete spaces. Never give out your credit card number to a club or company with which you're unfamiliar or which requires you to call 900 numbers for information. Don't feel pressured by requests for an immediate decision or a statement that the offer is only good “if you act now.” Don't deal with companies that request payment in advance or that don't have escrow accounts where your deposit is held. Research cut-rate offers, especially when dealing with travel consolidators who might not be able to provide your tickets until close to your departure date. You can protect yourself by using a credit card to purchase travel services. If you don't get what you paid for, contact the credit card issuer and you might be able to get the charges reversed. Be aware that you have 60 days to dispute a charge.

Got a Yen...To Learn About Foreign Exchange? Source: FDIC Consumer News,Spring 1995. The value of the U.S. dollar has an impact on all our lives, not just those of us who travel abroad. So what does it mean when the dollar is “up” against the French franc or “down” against the Japanese yen? Is it better to have a “strong” or a “weak” dollar? Who determines the value of the dollar versus foreign currencies? Economic conditions in the U.S. play a big role in why the dollar fluctuates in value. An example: Large trade deficits mean dollars are flooding the world markets, causing a greater supply than demand, which creates a weak dollar. And if foreign investors think U.S. interest rates are heading down, they'll put more money outside the U.S. looking for higher rates, which lessens the demand for dollars and weakens the dollar's value. When the dollar is weak—or down—against a foreign currency, that means it takes more dollars to buy the same amount of foreign money, and items you buy while abroad will cost you more. When the dollar is strong—or up—against a foreign currency, that means it takes fewer dollars to buy the same amount of foreign money, and items you buy while abroad will cost you less (or as many like to look at it, you can buy more stuff). Let's say you're planning a trip to England and you're told a cab ride from the airport to your hotel in London costs 25 British pounds. If it takes $1.50 to buy one British pound, that cab fare will cost the equivalent of about $37.50 ($1.50 × 25). If at the time of your trip the dollar has weakened, however, it might take $1.75 to equal one British pound. That same 25 pound cab ride would end up costing you about $6.25 more ($1.75 × 25 = $43.75). Likewise, if the dollar gets stronger, that cab ride might cost you only $1.25 per British pound, or $31.25 ($1.25 × 25 = $31.25). This same principle applies to anything else you might buy—souvenirs, food and so on—while you're away. Many people planning a trip try to predict what a foreign currency will be worth in the future. If they think the dollar will be strong they may hold off converting their dollars until right before they depart. Or if they think the dollar will be weaker, they may convert their dollars several weeks before they depart. It's a tough decision to make. It's like trying to predict what a stock will be worth on a certain day. As a general rule, you shouldn't exchange all your money at one time because you could end up guessing wrong or converting too much money and losing again when you convert back to dollars or to another currency. Just because you got a good price exchanging dollars for pounds doesn't mean you'll get a good price exchanging pounds for French francs.

A Safe Trip Abroad The U.S. Department of State offers the following tips for safe travel abroad: Dress conservatively. Thieves often target tourists, so avoid wearing anything that will make you stand out, and leave your expensive jewelry at home. Travel light. You will be able to move more quickly and will be more likely to have a free hand. Also, you will be less tired and less likely to set your luggage down and leave it unattended. Conceal your valuables. Leave your passport, cash, and credit cards locked in a hotel safe if possible. When you carry them on you, conceal them in several different places rather than all in one wallet, pocket, or bag. Avoid using handbags, fanny packs, and outside pockets that are easy targets for thieves. If you wear glasses, pack an extra pair. Pack your glasses and any medicines you need in your carry-on luggage. Keep medicines in their original labeled containers. This will help you to avoid problems when passing through customs. Bring copies of your prescriptions and the generic names for the drugs. If a medication contains narcotics, carry a letter from your doctor attesting to your need to take the drug. If you have any doubt about the legality of carrying a certain drug into a foreign country, consult the embassy or consulate of that country first. Bring travelers' checks and a major credit card instead of cash. Leave a copy of the serial numbers of your travelers' checks with a friend or relative at home. Carry your copy with you in a separate place, and as you cash the checks, cross them off the list. Bring an extra set of passport photos and a photocopy of your passport information page. This will make it easier to get a replacement if your passport is lost or stolen. Put your name, address, and telephone number inside each piece of luggage. Use covered luggage tags to avoid casual observation of your name, address, and nationality. Always lock your luggage. Consider getting a telephone calling card that can be used from overseas locations. Access numbers to U.S. operators are published in many international papers, but find out your access number before you go. Source:U.S. Dept. of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs. Web: http://travel.state.gov.

Current Travel Warnings for U.S. Citizens1 Travel warnings are issued when the State Department recommends that Americans avoid a certain country. The countries listed below are currently on that list. In addition to this list, the State Department issues Consular Information Sheets for every country of the world with information on such matters as the health conditions, crime, unusual currency or entry requirements, or any areas of instability. CountryMost recent warning issued Israel, the West Bank and Gaza 6/22/2011 Sudan 6/22/2011 Cote d'Ivoire 6/16/2011 Philippines 6/14/2011 Burundi 6/1/2011 Yemen 5/25/2011 Syria 4/25/2011 Uzbekistan 4/25/2011 Mexico 4/22/2011 Burkina Faso 4/19/2011 Nigeria 4/15/2011 Iraq 4/12/2011 Lebanon 4/4/2011 Algeria 3/16/2011 Mauritania 3/11/2011 Afghanistan 3/8/2011 Mali 3/2/2011 Eritrea 2/27/2011 Libya 2/25/2011 Pakistan 2/2/2011 Haiti 1/20/2011 Central African Republic 1/14/2011 Niger 1/12/2011 Nepal 1/12/2011 Kenya 12/28/2010 Somalia 12/27/2010 Saudi Arabia 12/23/2010 Colombia 12/8/2010 Guinea 12/3/2010 Congo, Democratic Republic of the 11/25/2010 Chad 11/10/2010 Iran 10/8/2010 Korea, Democratic People's Republic of 8/27/2010 NOTE: In the wake of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on Sept. 11, 2001, the State Department issued a worldwide caution for U.S. citizens traveling abroad. 1. As of July 2011. Source:U.S. Department of State. Web: http://travel.state.gov.

Vaccine Recommendations for International Travelers (Two Years of Age and Older) Source:Centers for Disease Control, July 10, 2000 ( http://www.cdc.gov) The following vaccines should be reviewed with a physician at least ten weeks before departure to ensure the proper scheduling of the various appropriate vaccines and dosages. Primary Vaccine Series.For travelers over two years of age the following immunizations normally given during childhood should be up to date: Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) Vaccine Diphtheria, Tetanus, and Pertussis (DTP or DTaP) Vaccine until age 7, then Td Vaccine Polio (OPV) Vaccine Haemophilus Influenza B (HbCV) Vaccine Hepatitis B (HBV) Vaccine Varicella vaccine (for persons who have never had chickenpox) Children over two should be “on schedule” with each vaccine's primary-series schedule, while adults should have completed the primary series. If you are unsure about your vaccine history, consult with your physician. In addition, adult travelers may want to consider: Influenza (Flu) Vaccine—(Recommended for adults 65 years or older, or other high risk individuals) Pneumococcal Vaccine—(Recommended for adults 65 years or older, or other high risk individuals) Booster or Additional Doses: Tetanus and diphtheria: A booster dose of adult Tetanus-diphtheria (Td) is recommended every ten years. Polio: An additional single dose of vaccine should be received by adult travelers going to the developing countries of Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, and the Indian Subcontinent, and the majority of the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union. This additional dose of polio vaccine should be received only once during the adult years. Enhanced Inactivated Polio Vaccine (eIPV) is recommended for this dose. Measles: Persons born in or after 1957 should consider a second dose of measles vaccine before traveling abroad. Additional Vaccines.Yellow fevervaccine is recommended if traveling to certain parts of Africa and South America.Hepatitis Bvaccine should be considered for those who will live six months or more in areas of developing countries where Hepatitis B is prevalent (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Middle East, the islands of the South and Western Pacific, and the Amazon region of South America), and who will have frequent close contact with the local population.Hepatitis AVaccine and/orImmune Globulin(IG) is recommended for travelers to all areasexceptJapan, Australia, New Zealand, Northern and Western Europe and North America (except Mexico).Typhoidvaccine is recommended for travelers spending four weeks or more in areas where food and water precautions are recommended—many parts of the world, especially developing countries.Meningococcalvaccine is recommended for travelers to sub-Saharan Africa, especially if close contact with the locals is anticipated, or if travel occurs during the dry season from December through June.Japanese EncephalitisorTick-borne Encephalitisvaccines should be considered for long-term travelers to geographic areas of risk.Choleravaccine is of questionable benefit to travelers of any age.

Customs Information United States residents must declare all articles acquired abroad and in their possession at the time of their return. In addition, articles acquired in the U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, or Guam and not accompanying you must be declared at the time of your return. The wearing or use of an article acquired abroad doesnotexempt it from duty. Customs declaration forms are distributed on vessels and planes, and should be prepared in advance of arrival for presentation to the customs inspectors. If you have not exceeded the duty-free exemption allowed, you may make an oral declaration to the customs inspector. However, the inspector can request a written declaration and may do so. A written declaration is necessary when (1) the total fair retail value of articles exceeds the personal exemption of $400; (2) over 1 liter of liquor, 200 cigarettes, or 100 cigars are included; (3) items are not intended for your personal or household use, or articles brought home for another person; (4) when a customs duty or internal revenue tax is collectible on any article in your possession; and (5) if your personal exemption was used in the last 30 days. An exception to the above are regulations applicable to articles purchased in the U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, or Guam where you may receive a customs exemption of $1,200. Not more than $400 of this exemption may be applied to merchandise obtained elsewhere than in these islands or $600 if acquired in a Caribbean Basin beneficiary country. Five liters of alcoholic beverages and 1000 cigarettes may be included provided not more than one liter and 200 cigarettes were acquired elsewhere than in these islands. Articles acquired in and sent from these islands to the United States may be claimed under your duty-free personal exemption if properly declared at the time of your return. For information on rules applying to beneficiary countries and a list of them check with your local Customs office or write for the pamphlet “GSP and the Traveler” from the U.S. Customs Services, P.O. Box 7407, Washington, DC 20044. Since rules change it is always wise to check with customs before leaving, to get information pertinent to the areas you will be visiting. Articles accompanying you, in excess of your personal exemption, up to $1000 will be assessed at a flat rate of duty of 10% based on fair retail value in country of acquisition. (If articles were acquired in the insular possessions, the flat rate of duty is 5% and these goods may accompany you or be shipped home.) These articles must be for your personal use or for use as gifts and not for sale. This provision may be used every 30 days, excluding the day of your last arrival. Any items which have a “free” duty rate will be excluded before duty is calculated. You may mail articles bought for your personal use back to the U.S. at a duty free rate of $200 per day (excluding restricted items such as liquor). Other exemptions include in part: automobiles, boats, planes, or other vehicles taken abroad for noncommercial use. Foreign-made personal articles (e.g., watches, cameras, etc.) taken abroad should be registered with Customs before departure. Customs will register anything with a serial number or identifying marks. Sales receipt or insurance document are sufficient Customs identification. Registration of articles for which you have documented proof of purchase is redundant and is not necessary. Gifts of not more than $100 can be shipped back to the United States tax and duty free ($200 if mailed from the Virgin Islands, American Samoa, or Guam). Household effects and tools of trade which you take out of the United States are duty free at time of return. Prohibited and restricted articles include in part: absinthe, narcotics and dangerous drugs, obscene articles and publications, seditious and treasonable materials, hazardous articles (e.g., fireworks, dangerous toys, toxic and poisonous substances, and switchblade knives), biological materials of public health or veterinary importance, fruit, vegetables and plants, meats, poultry and products thereof, birds, monkeys, and turtles. You can get additional information on this subject from the publicationPets, Wildlife, U.S. Customs.For a free copy write to the U.S. Customs Service, P.O. Box 7407, Washington, DC 20044. If you understate the value of an article you declare, or if you otherwise misrepresent an article in your declaration, you may have to pay a penalty in addition to payment of duty. Under certain circumstances, the article could be seized and forfeited if the penalty is not paid. If you fail to declare an article acquired abroad, not only is the article subject to seizure and forfeiture, but you will be liable for a personal penalty in an amount equal to the value of the article in the United States. In addition, you may also be liable to criminal prosecution.

Visas Some countries require visas for entry. These should be obtained from the appropriate foreign consular representative before proceeding abroad. Allow sufficient time for processing your visa application, especially if you are applying by mail. Most foreign consular representatives are located in principal cities, and in many instances, a traveler may be required to obtain visas from the consular office in the area of his/her residence. Processing and visa fees vary. Consult the embassy or consulate of the country you plan to visit for specific details.

U.S. Passport Information With a few exceptions, a passport is required for all U.S. citizens to depart and enter the United States and to enter most foreign countries. Persons who travel to a country where a U.S. passport is not required should be in possession of documentary evidence of their U.S. citizenship and identity to facilitate reentry into the United States. Travelers should check passport and visa requirements with consular officials of the countries to be visited well in advance of their departure date. Application for a passport may be made at a passport agency, many federal and state courts, probate courts, some county and municipal offices, and some post offices. The fourteen major cities with U.S. passport agencies are Boston, Chicago, Denver, Honolulu, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Norwalk, Conn., Philadelphia, San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington, DC. All persons are required to obtain individual passports in their own names. Neither spouses nor children may be included in each other's passports. All applicants must appear in person before the clerk or agent executing the application if it is their first time applying. Applications for children under the age of 14 must have consent of both parents of proper documentation granting custody to the applying parent. First-time passport applicants must apply in person. Applicants must present the following items at a passport facility: Completed Form DSP-11, Application for Passport (available at passport agencies, many travel agencies, or on the Web). This form may be completed in advance; however, it must be signed by you in person before a passport agent. Proof of U.S. citizenship. You may use one of the following: previous U.S. passport; certified birth certificate issued by the city, county, or state; Consular Report of Birth Abroad; Naturalization Certificate; or Certificate of Citizenship. Proof of identity. Acceptable proof includes: previous U.S. passport; Naturalization Certificate; Certificate of Citizenship; current, valid driver's license; government ID (city, state, or federal); military ID (military and dependents); work ID (must be currently employed by the company); student ID (must be currently enrolled); Merchant Marines card (also known as a “Seamen's” or “Z” card); pilot or flight attendant ID.Note:Social Security cards are NOT acceptable as identification. Two passport photographs. Photographs must be 2 × 2 inches in size. The image size from the bottom of the chin to the top of the head should be between 1 inch and 13/8 inches. They may be in color or black and white. They must be full face, front view with a plain white or off-white background. Photographs should be taken in normal street attire, without a hat or headgear that obscures the hair or hairline. The applicable fee. A fee of $110 plus a $25 execution fee is charged for adults 16 years and older for a passport book valid for ten years from the date of issue. The fee for children under 16 years of age is $80 for a five-year passport book plus $25 for the execution of the application. The fee for passport book renewals by mail is $110 (there is no execution fee added). DSP-64 Lost or Stolen Passport Form (if necessary). In addition to the items listed above, if your passport was lost or stolen, you will need to complete and submit this form (available at passport facilities and on the Web). Passport renewals can be handled through the mail in some instances. You may apply by mail if: (1) you can submit your most recent passport and it is not mutilated, altered, or damaged; (2) you were at least 16 years old when your most recent passport was issued; (3) you were issued your most recent passport less than 15 years ago; and (4) you use the same name as on your most recent passport, OR, you have had your name changed by marriage or court order and can submit proper documentation to reflect your name changes. In order to apply for a renewal by mail, you must fill out and submit Form DSP-82, which can be obtained at a passport facility or downloaded from the Web site. Attach to it the following: (1) your most recent passport; (2) two identical passport photographs; and (3) the $40 fee. If your name changed, enclose a certified copy of the Court Order, Adoption Decree, Marriage Certificate, or Divorce Decree specifying another name for you to use. Mail the above items to: National Passport Center; P.O. Box 13349, Philadelphia, PA 19101-3349. Normal processing time for a passport application is 25 working days. However, it is recommended that you apply for your passport several months in advance of your planned departure. If you will need visas from foreign embassies, allow more time. If you need to leave in a hurry, you may expedite the process for an additional fee of $60 per passport. When requesting expedited service, two-way overnight mail for each application is strongly suggested.

Tips on Tipping Source:American Society of Travel Agents, Alexandria, Va. Who do you tip? When? How much? These are the questions that have nagged at consumers since the first service transaction. The practice of tipping is meant as a form of thank-you for services rendered, or beforehand as a subtle bribe for special treatment. Tipping need not be considered mandatory or automatic. Too often, tips are taken for granted or expected regardless of the quality of service. Tipping should be done at your discretion and as a reward for good or superlative service. Below are some tipping suggestions for travelers. At nearly every step of the traveling process, there are professionals waiting to “lighten your load” or provide assistance. So remember to carry a lot of change and small bills for tips. 1.Taxi/Limo Drivers:A $2 to $3 tip is usually satisfactory; more if he helps you with your bags and/or takes special steps to get you to your destination on time. 2.Porters:A standard tip for airport and train porters is $1 per bag; more if your luggage is very heavy. 3.Hotel Bellman:Again, $1 per bag is standard. Tip when he shows you to your room and again if he assists you upon checkout. Tip more if he provides any additional service. Note: A $5 tip upon arrival can usually guarantee you special attention should you require it. 4.Doorman:Typically, a $1 tip for hailing a taxi is appropriate. However, you may want to tip more for special service, such as carrying your bags or shielding you with an umbrella. 5.Concierge:Tip for special services such as making restaurant or theater reservations, arranging sightseeing tours, etc. The amount of the tip is generally dependent on the type and complexity of service(s) provided—$2 to $10 is a standard range. You may elect to tip for each service, or in one sum upon departure. If you want to ensure special treatment from the concierge, you might consider a $10–$20 tip upon arrival. 6.Hotel Maid:Maids are often forgotten about when it comes to tipping because they typically do their work when you are not around. For stays of more than one night, $1 per night is standard. The tip should be left in the hotel room in a marked envelope. 7.Parking Attendants:Tip $1 to $2 when your car is delivered. 8.Waiters:15–20% of your pre-tax check is considered standard. The same applies for room service waiters. Some restaurants will automatically add a 15% gratuity to your bill, especially for large parties—look for it before tipping. If the 15% is added, you need only tip up to another 5% for superlative service. 9.Cloakroom Attendants:If there is a charge for the service, a tip is not necessary. However, if there is no charge, or extra care is taken with your coat and/or bags, a $1 to $2 tip is appropriate. 10.Tour Guides/Charter Bus Drivers:If a tip is not automatically included, tip $1 for a half-day tour, $2 for full-day tour, and anywhere from $5 to $10 for a week-long tour. Tip a private guide more. These are some of the people you are most likely to encounter while traveling in the U.S. Undoubtedly there will be others. If there is one standard rule in tipping it is this: If someone renders special service to you along the way, show your appreciation with a tip. NOTE: International travelers should be aware that tipping customs outside the U.S. are often very different. Consult travel guides for the country you are visiting.

State and Territory Tourism Offices The following is a selected list of state tourism office Web addresses and phone numbers. Where a toll-free number is available, it is given. However, the numbers are subject to change. Alabama 800-ALABAMA www.touralabama.or g Alaska 800-862-5275 www.travelalaska.co m Arizona 866-275-5816 www.arizonaguide.co m Arkansas 800-NATURAL www.arkansas.com California 800-GOCALIF www.gocalif.ca.gov Colorado 800-COLORADO www.colorado.com Connecticut 888-CT-VISIT www.ctbound.org Delaware 866-2-VISIT-DE www.visitdelaware.co m District of Columbia (Washington, DC) 800-422-8644 www.washington.org Florida 888-7FLA-USA www.flausa.com Georgia 800-VISIT-GA http://www.explorege orgia.org/ Guam 671-646-5278/9 (not toll-free) www.visitguam.org Hawaii 800-GO-HAWAII www.gohawaii.com Idaho 888-84-IDAHO http://www.visitidaho .org/ Illinois 800-2-CONNECT www.enjoyillinois.co m Indiana 888-ENJOY-IN www.enjoyindiana.co m Iowa 888-472-6035 www.traveliowa.com/ Kansas 800-2-KANSAS www.travelks.com Kentucky 502-223-8687 (not toll-free) www.tourky.com Louisiana 800-99-GUMBO www.louisianatravel.c om Maine 888-MAINE-45 www.visitmaine.com Maryland 866-MD-WELCOME www.mdisfun.org Massachusetts 800-227-MASS www.massvacation.co m Michigan 800-644-2489 www.michigan.org Minnesota 888-TOURISM www.exploreminneso ta.com Mississippi 800-SEE-MISS www.visitmississippi. org Missouri 800-519-2100 www.visitmo.com Montana 800-VISIT-MT www.visitmt.com Nebraska 877-NEBRASKA www.visitnebraska.or g Nevada 800-NEVADA-8 www.travelnevada.co m New Hampshire 800-FUN-IN-NH www.visitnh.gov New Jersey 800-VISIT-NJ www.state.nj.us/trave l New Mexico 800-733-6396 ext. 0643 www.newmexico.org New York 800-CALL-NYS www.iloveny.com North Carolina 800-VISIT-NC www.visitnc.com North Dakota 800-HELLO-ND www.ndtourism.com Ohio 800-BUCKEYE www.ohiotourism.co m Oklahoma 800-652-6552 www.travelok.com Oregon 800-547-7842 www.traveloregon.co m Pennsylvania 800-VISIT-PA www.visitpa.com Puerto Rico 800-866-7827 www.seepuertorico.co m Rhode Island 800-250-7384 www.visitrhodeisland .com South Carolina 866-224-9339 www.discoversouthca rolina.com South Dakota 800-S-DAKOTA www.travelsd.com Tennessee 800-GO-2-TENN www.tourism.state.tn. us Texas 800-8888-TEX www.traveltex.com U.S. Virgin Islands 800-372-USVI http://www.visitusvi.c om Utah 800-UTAH-FUN www.utah.com Vermont 800-VERMONT www.vermontvacatio n.com Virginia 800-VISIT-VA www.virginia.org Washington 877-260-2731 www.tourism.wa.gov Washington, DC See District of Columbia West Virginia 800-CALL-WVA www.wvtourism.com Wisconsin 800-432-TRIP www.travelwisconsin. com Wyoming 800-225-5996 www.wyomingtouris m.org

Tips to Save Money on Family Vacations With the country mired in a recession, many American families are looking for ways to cut back on expenditures and trim their budgets. At the same time, parents recognize the benefits of taking time off to relax with their kids—and to escape the economic malaise. Here are some tips to save money on much-needed getaways. *.Check to see if you can save money by purchasing tickets to attractions in advance. Many amusement parks offer up to 20% off for advance booking. Check to see how far in advance you must book to qualify for the discount. Note that some destinations charge children by height, not age, so you may end up paying full price for your taller offspring. Also be on the lookout for coupons and discounts offered by groups such as AAA. *.Buy sunscreen, bug spray, and other supplies at home rather than at tourist destinations, which tend to wildly mark up such necessities. *.Rent a house instead of staying at a hotel. A weekly house rental is usually much cheaper than paying nightly hotel rates. This option allows you to cook in rather than eat out every meal. Renting a house is particularly attractive to larger families since most hotels only allow four guests per room. *.Choose a destination that's within driving distance. Driving is much cheaper than flying, and why not explore the treasures in your own backyard? If you must fly, don't fly direct. You can save hundreds of dollars on each ticket by making a connection. *.If you grocery shop at your destination, go to a market outside the tourist area. Small markets in tourist sites tend to be expensive! *.If you're traveling internationally, buy local food and avoid American food. Expand your palette and avoid paying a premium for imported fare. No need to pay $10 for a box of American corn flakes. *.Travel off season. Hotel rates, airfare, and admission prices are often deeply discounted during non-peak periods. Be flexible! Even traveling a few weeks before or after school vacation can save big bucks. *.Don't feel obligated to be on the go every day. Do the tourist thing one day, then have one day of down time. Vacations are meant to be a time to relax and get away from all the over-scheduling. *.Have a friend take care of your pets rather than board them. A week of doggie daycare can cost up to $300. *.Stay with family or friends who live near a tourist area. Alternatively, do a house-swap with another family.

Extreme Vacations How to find adventure and excitement on holiday A tropical getaway or leisurely day at a spa satisfies people who crave R&R, but few thrill seekers are content with extended downtime. Indeed, an increasing number of travelers are seeking out vacations that offer adventure and excitement. As a result, the extreme tourism industry has boomed in the 21st century. Below are some ideas for adrenaline pumping, non-leisure leisure activities. Climb a volcano One of the most fascinating of Earth's formations, volcanoesare vents or fissures in the Earth's crust through which gases, lava, and solid fragments are discharged. Adventure seekers can climb the steep concave sides of Mt. St. Helensin Washington state, the gently sloping large shield cones of the Hawaiian Islands,and the steep slopes of cinder cones made of cinder-like materials such as Parícutinin Mexico. Heli-skiing Heli-skiing provides serious extremists access to untouched slopes, challenging terrain, and wilderness solitude. The helicopter'smaneuverability and ability to land and take off in small areas has been adopted for a wide range of services, including air-sea rescue, fire fighting, traffic control, and now access to otherwise inaccessible peaks such as the Chugach mountain rangein Alaska and the Andes mountainsin South America. Climb to the top of the world At 29,035 feet (8,850 meters) high, on the border of Tibetand Nepal, in the central Himalayas, Mount Everestis the highest mountain in the world. Called Chomo-Lungma (Mother Goddess of the Land) by Tibetans, it is named in English for the surveyor Sir George Everest. Though thousands have summated the peak since it was first climbed in 1953, it's still considered the holy grail of mountain climbing and an achievement of a lifetime. Attempting Everest is not for the feint of heart due to its dangers, including avalanches, crevasses, ferocious winds up to 125 mph, sudden storms, temperatures of 40 degrees Fahrenheit below zero, and oxygen deprivation. Sandboarding Get a rush by riding down sand dunes on a Formica board in the surreal desert landscapes of exotic destinations such as Algeria, Arabia, New Zealand, Oman, or South Africa. Closer to home is Nevada's Sand Mountain with 4,795 acres of sandboarding terrain. A year-round extreme sport, sandboarding provides a similar adrenaline-pumping experience as snowboarding. The world's tallest sand dune resides in Cerro Blanco near the Andes mountain range in Peru. Shark diving Become an underwater explorer by diving in warm waters, where sharksare most abundant, and try to catch a glimpse of the much feared predator. There are about 250 types of sharks from the two feet (60 cm) pygmy shark to 50 foot (15 m) giants. With ears that can hear sounds more than 700 feet away and a nose that smell a distance of 1,600 feet, chances of meeting a shark are good. Locations such as Cape Point, South Africa, Fiji, and Guadalupe Island promise an exhilarating swim with Mako, Blue, Tiger, or Great White sharks with little between you and their rows of teeth. Space exploration If you dreamed of being a Moon-walking astronaut as a kid and love adventure, the new cutting edge space exploration voyages may be your ideal vacation. Travel to the International Space Station, space walk, and orbit Earth. View the billions of stars and neighboring planets 24 hours a day without the atmosphere diminishing their luminescence. Space travel isn't cheap, however, with seats starting at $20 million. Canyoning Canyoning is an exciting outdoor activity that involves hiking, climbing, and rappelling through canyons of waterfalls, limestone walls, and pools of water. Wetsuit wearing canyoners often have to climb challenging boulders and tube through narrow underground cave rivers. The unearthly Waitomo cave system in New Zealand is well-known for its underground rapids. With a mix of climbing, rappelling, and cave tubing, Carlsbad Caverns National Park in southern New Mexicois a challenging adventure with an interesting twist: the 300 caveswere carved out by limestone-dissolving sulfuric acidrather than by rivers and waterfalls. White water rafting White-water rafting is a thrilling and challenging adventure that can vary in intensity depending on the river. Using a raft, passengers navigate rapids and whitewater using paddles and body weight. Rapids are categorized from Class 1 to 6, according to their intensity, required skill level, and level of dange. Class 1 are very small rapids and Class 6 are extremely dangerous and largely unsafe to navigate. Zimbabwe'sZambezi River, below Victoria Falls, is acclaimed as being the wildest river in the world with long and violent rapids, steep gradients, and big drops.

The Gap Year A growing trend among American students After four years of high school or college, not all students are ready to continue with formal education. For some, a one-year break from academia provides time to learn more about themselves and the world. A gap year provides such an opportunity. STA travel, a student travel organization, defines the gap year as "a period of time taken by a student to travel or work, often after high school or before starting graduate school, as a break from formal education, or a career path." Even though a gap year is often taken between high school and college or undergraduate and graduate school, it can be taken at any point in life as a transition from one major event to another. Instead of rest and relaxation, though, most gap years are packed full of adventure, travel, culture, and education. Tradition abroad Although a gap year is a new concept to Americans, it's an established tradition for students in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. In the UK and Australia, about 11% of students take a gap year or go "walking about" before enrolling in University. American universities A gap year can act as an alternative pathway to college for students who are burned out and drained from high school. Many "gappers" who enroll in college appear to have better focus and overall performance during their undergraduate years than students who followed the traditional education track, leading American colleges to recognize the benefits of veering from the traditional educational track. The College Board reports that three out of every five students at public universities do not graduate with a degree within five years. Princeton Universityrecognizes the benefits of the gap year and created a program called "bridge year" that allows accepted students to complete public service abroad before starting their freshman year. What do gappers learn? Students often attain confidence, motivation, and focus during their gap year. "Gappers" have the opportunity to rely on themselves, expand their comfort zone, and establish a wider understanding of themselves and the outside world. Through travel, cultural immersion, working, and volunteering, students acquire skills that allow them to be more self-sufficient, resourceful, and bold. In addition, many students gain an appreciation for hard work and education—all of which contribute to becoming more effective learners. Destination unknown Since there is no existing curriculum or pattern to follow during a gap year, students are free to design their own experience and pursue personal interests. Independent or structured travel, working or volunteering abroad, educational programs, and service work, such as City Year or AmeriCorps, are popular gap year activities.

America's Best Beaches, 2011 The following table lists the top ten best beaches to visit in the United States for 2011, according to Dr. Stephen P. Leatherman, author ofAmerica's Best Beaches. In addition, find a list of the previous top-rated beaches in America below. NameLocation 1.Siesta BeachSarasota, Florida 2.Coronado BeachSan Diego, California 3.Kahanamoku BeachOahu, Hawaii 4.Main BeachEast Hampton, New York 5.Cape HatterasOuter Banks, North Carolina 6.St. George Island State ParkEastpoint, Florida 7.Beachwalker ParkKiawah Island, South Carolina 8.Coast Guard BeachCape Cod, Massachusetts 9.Waimanalo Bay Beach ParkOahu, Hawaii 10.Cape Florida State ParkKey Biscayne, Florida Previous Winners of the Best American Beach Award (excluded from 2011 list) YearNameLocation 2010Coopers BeachSouthampton, New York 2009Hanalei BayKauai, Hawaii 2008Caladesi Island State ParkDunedin/Clearwater, Florida 2007Ocracoke Lifeguard BeachOuter Banks, North Carolina 2006Fleming Beach ParkMaui, Hawaii 2005Fort DeSoto ParkNorth Beach, Florida 2004Hanauma BayOahu, Hawaii 2003KaanapaliHawaii 2002St. Joseph Peninsula State ParkFlorida 2001Poipu Beach ParkHawaii 2000Mauna Kea BeachHawaii 1999Wailea BeachHawaii 1998Kailua Beach ParkHawaii 1997HulopoeHawaii 1996Lanikai BeachHawaii 1995St. Andrews SRAFlorida 1994Grayton Beach SRAFlorida 1993HapunaHawaii 1992Bahia Honda SRAFlorida 1991Kapalua Bay BeachHawaii Released since 1991, 650 major public recreational beaches in the U.S. are rated according to 50 criteria.Source:Dr. Stephen P. Leatherman (aka Dr. Beach), author ofAmerica's Best Beachesand professor of environmental studies at Florida International University.

Paid Vacation Around the World The following table lists nine countries and the average number of paid vacation days per year employees receive in each country. Italy42 days France37 days Germany35 days Brazil34 days United Kingdom28 days Canada26 days Korea25 days Japan25 days U.S.13 days Source:World Tourism Organization (WTO).

Distinctive Destinations for 2011 Each year the National Trust for Historic Preservation designates a dozen distinctive places for Americans to visit. According to Richard Moe, president of the National Trust, “The communities named to this list are pockets of serenity amid the sprawl, clutter, and homogenization that have overwhelmed so many American vacation spots.” Each of the 12 cities and towns met a number of important criteria, including dynamic downtowns, cultural diversity, attractive architecture, cultural landscapes and a strong commitment to historic preservation, sustainability and revitalization. These 12 cities and towns (in alphabetical order by city) are: 1. Alexandria, Virginia 2. Chapel Hill, North Carolina 3. Colorado Springs, Colorado 4. Dandridge, Tennessee 5. Eureka, California 6. Muskogee, Oklahoma 7. New Bedford, Massachusetts 8. Paducah, Kentucky 9. Saint Paul, Minnesota 10. San Angelo, Texas 11. Sheridan, Wyoming 12. Sonoma, California

Distinctive Destinations for 2010 Each year the National Trust for Historic Preservation designates a dozen distinctive places for Americans to visit. According to Richard Moe, president of the National Trust, “The communities named to this list are pockets of serenity amid the sprawl, clutter, and homogenization that have overwhelmed so many American vacation spots.” Each of the 12 cities and towns met a number of important criteria, including dynamic downtowns, cultural diversity, attractive architecture, cultural landscapes and a strong commitment to historic preservation, sustainability and revitalization. These 12 cities and towns (in alphabetical order by city) are: 1. Bastrop, Texas 2. Cedar Falls, Iowa 3. Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania 4. The Crooked Road, Virginia 5. Fort Collins, Colorado 6. Huntsville, Alabama 7. Marquette, Michigan 8. Provincetown, Massachusetts 9. Rockland, Maine 10. Simsbury, Connecticut 11. Sitka, Alaska 12. St. Louis, Missouri

Top U.S. States and Cities Visited by Overseas Travelers, 20101 State/territoryNumber of arrivalsU.S. cityNumber of arrivals 1. New York8.6 million1.New York8.5 million 2. Florida5.8 million2.Los Angeles3.3 million 3. California5.6 million3.Miami3.1 million 4. Nevada2.5 million4.Orlando2.7 million 5. Hawaii2.1 million5.San Francisco2.6 million 6. Guam1.3 million6.Las Vegas2.4 million 7. Massachusetts1.3 million7.Metro DC area1.7 million 8. Illinois1.2 million8.Oahu/Honolulu1.6 million 9. Texas1.0 million9.Boston1.2 million 10. New Jersey975,00010.Chicago1.1 million Top 10 state/territory total30.4 millionTop 10 city total28.2 million NOTE: Includes travelers for business and pleasure, international travelers in transit through the United States, and students; excludes travel by international personnel and international businessmen employed in the United States. 1. Excludes visitors from Canada and Mexico. Source:U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Office of Travel and Tourism Industries/International Trade Administration.

America's Worst Traffic Cities From Los Angeles to Boston, drivers wasted an average of 42 hours in traffic in 2012—the equivalent of one week's vacation. Find the 10 worst cities for traffic in America, along with total annual hours wasted. RankCityAnnual Hours of Delay 1.Los Angeles59 2.Honolulu50 3.San Francisco49 4.Austin38 5.New York50 6.Bridgeport39 7.San Jose31 8.Seattle35 9.Washington, D.C.41 10.Boston31 Source: Inrix, 2013.

Top Ten Honeymoon Destinations, 2012 The following table lists the top ten honeymoon destinations of 2012, according to TheKnot.com's annual survey 1. Costa Ricaand Belize 2. Turks and Caicos 3. Croatia 4. St. Lucia 5. Bora Bora 6. Thailand 7. New Zealand 8. Africa 9. Scotland 10. Marrakesh Source: CNN.com Related Links Top Ten Best Honeymoon Destinations: 2010 Top Ten Best Honeymoon Destinations: 2009

Top Ten Honeymoon Destinations The following table lists the top ten honeymoon destinations of 2008, according toModern Bridemagazine. 1. Italy6. Costa Rica 2. Hawaii7. Bali 3. Tahiti8. Fiji 4. Mexico9. France 5. Greece10. Turks and Caicos Source:The Tenth Annual Honeymoon Survey (of travel agents),Modern Bridemagazine, 2008.

America's Best Beaches, 2013 The following table lists the top ten best beaches to visit in the United States for 2013, according to Dr. Stephen P. Leatherman, author ofAmerica's Best Beaches. In addition, find a list of the previous top-rated beaches in America below. NameLocation 1.Main BeachEast Hampton, New York 2.Kahanamoku BeachOahu, Hawaii 3.St. George Island State ParkEastpoint, Florida 4.Hamoa BeachMaui, Hawaii 5.Waimanalo Bay Beach ParkOahu, Hawaii 6.Barefoot BeachBonita Springs, Florida 7.Cape Florida State ParkKey Biscayne, Florida 8.Cape HatterasOuter Banks, North Carolina 9.Coast Guard BeachCape Cod, Massachusetts 10.Beachwalker ParkKiawah Island, South Carolina Previous Winners of the Best American Beach Award (excluded from 2013 list) YearNameLocation 2012Coronado BeachSan Diego, California 2011Siesta BeachSarasota, Florida 2010Coopers BeachSouthampton, New York 2009Hanalei BayKauai, Hawaii 2008Caladesi Island State ParkDunedin/Clearwater, Florida 2007Ocracoke Lifeguard BeachOuter Banks, North Carolina 2006Fleming Beach ParkMaui, Hawaii 2005Fort DeSoto ParkNorth Beach, Florida 2004Hanauma BayOahu, Hawaii 2003KaanapaliHawaii 2002St. Joseph Peninsula State ParkFlorida 2001Poipu Beach ParkHawaii 2000Mauna Kea BeachHawaii 1999Wailea BeachHawaii 1998Kailua Beach ParkHawaii 1997HulopoeHawaii 1996Lanikai BeachHawaii 1995St. Andrews SRAFlorida 1994Grayton Beach SRAFlorida 1993HapunaHawaii 1992Bahia Honda SRAFlorida 1991Kapalua Bay BeachHawaii Released since 1991, 650 major public recreational beaches in the U.S. are rated according to 50 criteria.Source:Dr. Stephen P. Leatherman (aka Dr. Beach), author ofAmerica's Best Beachesand professor of environmental studies at Florida International University.

The World's Top Tourism Destinations (international tourist arrivals) The following table shows the top ten tourism destinations according to the number and percent of tourist arrivals in each country during 2010. 2010 rankCountryArrivals (millions)Percent change 2009/2008Percent change 2010/2009 20092010 1.France76.876.8-3.0%0.0 2.United States55.059.7-5.18.7 3.China50.955.7-4.19.4 4.Spain52.252.7-8.81.0 5.Italy43.243.61.20.9 6.United Kingdom28.228.1-6.4-0.2 7.Turkey25.527.02.05.9 8.Germany24.226.9-2.710.9 9.Malaysia23.624.67.23.9 10.Mexico21.522.4-5.24.4 Source:World Tourism Organization (WTO). Web: www.world- tourism.org.

Tourism by World Region In 2006, most international travel was undertaken for the purpose of leisure and recreation (51%), reaching a total of 430 million. Business travel accounted for some 16% of the total (131 million) and another 27% covered travel for other motives, such as visiting friends and relatives, religious purposes, and health treatments (225 million). Just about half of all international tourists arrived over land by road (43%) or rail (4%) to their destination in 2006. Air transport represented 46% of arrivals and transport over water accounted for 7%. Region2006 market share Europe54.4% Northern Europe 6.5 Western Europe 17.7 Central/Eastern Europe10.8 Southern/Mediterran ean Europe 19.5 Asia and the Pacific19.8 Northeast Asia 11.1% Southeast Asia 6.4 Oceania 1.2 South Asia 1.0 Americas16.1 North America 10.7 Caribbean 2.3 Central America 0.8% South America 2.2 Africa4.8 North Africa 1.8 Subsaharan Africa 3.0 Middle East4.9 Source:World Tourism Organization (WTO). Web: www.world- tourism.org.

Top Nationalities of Foreign Travelers to the U.S., 2011 The U.S. Travel Association tracks the nationalities of foreigners who visit the United States. In 2011, more Canadians traveled to the U.S. than residents of any other country. Residence of travelers to the U.S.2011 Arrivals 1. Canada21 million 2.Mexico13.4 million 3.United Kingdom3.8 million 4.Japan3.3 million 5.Germany1.8 million 6.Brazil1.51 million 7.France1.50 million 8.South Korea1.15 million 9.China1.09 million 10.Australia1.04 million 11.Italy892,000 12.Spain700,000 13.India663,000 14.Netherlands601,000 15.Venezuela561,000 Total foreign tourists, all countries49,570,225 Source:Office of Travel and Tourism Industries/International Trade Administration. Web: www.tia.org

Top Nationalities of Foreign Travelers to the U.S., 2009 The U.S. Travel Association tracks the nationalities of foreigners who visit the United States. In 2009, more Canadians traveled to the U.S. than residents of any other country. Residence of travelers to the U.S.2009 Arrivals 1. Canada17,964,450 2.Mexico13,164,000 3.United Kingdom3,899,170 4.Japan2,918,270 5.Germany1,686,830 6.France1,204,490 7.Brazil892,610 8.Italy753,300 9.South Korea743,850 10.Australia723,580 11.Spain596,770 12.India549,470 13.Netherlands547,790 14.China524,820 15.Venezuela507,190 16.Columbia424,530 17.Ireland411,200 18.Argentina356,430 19.Switzerland355,730 20.Sweden324,420 21.Israel308,210 22.Belgium245,710 23.Denmark245,620 24.Taiwan239,545 25.Dominican Republic227,950 Total foreign tourists, all countries49,570,225 Source:Office of Travel and Tourism Industries/International Trade Administration. Web: www.tia.org

Top U.S. States and Cities Visited by Overseas Travelers, 20111 State/territoryNumber of arrivalsU.S. cityNumber of arrivals 1. New York 9.50 million1.New York9.28 million 2. California6.13 million2.Los Angeles3.65 million 3. Florida5.68 million3.Miami2.95 million 4. Nevada2.87 million4.San Francisco2.87 million 5. Hawaii2.28 million5.Orlando2.78 million 6. Massachusetts1.42 million5.Las Vegas2.78 million 7. Texas1.28 million7.Metro DC area1.81 million 8. Illinois1.25 million8.Oahu/Honolulu1.78 million 9. Guam1.22 million9.Boston1.31 million 10. New Jersey976,00010.Chicago1.19 million NOTE: Includes travelers for business and pleasure, international travelers in transit through the United States, and students; excludes travel by international personnel and international businessmen employed in the United States. 1. Excludes visitors from Canada and Mexico. Source:U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Office of Travel and Tourism Industries/International Trade Administration.

The World's Most-Visited Tourist Attractions: Recently,Travel + Leisurecompiled a list of the most-visited tourist attractions in the world by gathering data supplied by the attraction sites themselves. The results were surprising. 1. Times Square, New York City Over 39 million visitors a year visit the heart of New York City to shop, see a Broadway show, take in all the sights and sounds or just to people watch. In 2009, pedestrian-only areas with tables were added so tourists could sit while taking in the complete spectacle that is Time Square. 2. Central Park, New York City This nearly 850 acre square park is visited yearly by 38 million people. It's the Big Apple location that is enjoyed more than any other by locals and tourists equally. With a zoo, horse-drawn carriages, a John Lennon memorial, and more, this park has something for everyone. 3. Union Station, Washington, D.C. Along with over 12,000 daily commuters, this station also receives visits from 37 million tourists a year. And it's easy to see why. Opened in 1907, the station has over 70 shops and provides architecture buffs with examples of Baroque, Beaux-Arts and Classical styles. 4. The Las Vegas Strip In 2011, nearly 29.5 million travelers stayed in hotels along the Las Vegas strip, an increase from years past. Part of the reason for the increase could be the huge 2009 hit movie,The Hangover, which features the Las Vegas strip, and Caesar's Palace, in particular. The Vegas strip also continues to attract mega stars like Tim McGraw, Faith Hill and Celine Dion for nightly performances which run for weeks at a time, drawing fans from all over. Las Vegas, the amusement park for adults, shows no sign of slowing down. 5. Niagara Falls, New York and Ontario, Canada Even though there are approximately 500 taller waterfalls in the world, Niagara Falls draws 22.5 million visitors a year who want to see its volume and power. Six million cubic feet of water flows down per minute. And Niagara Falls ranges in height from 70 to 188 feet. It's also an easy location for many tourists in the U.S. and Canada to get to. 6. Grand Central Station, New York City Commuters aside, 21.6 million tourists visit Grand Central's terminal each year. Visitors take in the ceiling which is painted with night sky constellations as well as shops and events. There is also the popular, historic Oyster Bar, featured on an episode ofMad Men. 7. Faneuil Hall Marketplace, Boston With its history as well as its variety of shops and restaurants, Faneuil Hall attracts 18 million people a year. A downtown marketplace located not too far from Boston's financial district and the harbor, Faneuil Hall is a pedestrian-only area where tourists can get a bite to eat, buy souvenirs and be entertained by street performers. The fact that it's been around since 1742 and was the site of speeches by the likes of George Washington adds to Faneuil Hall's allure. 8. Disney World’s Magic Kingdom, Orlando Nearly 17 million people a year visit the world's most-visited and best known amusement park. A must for any family, people still come in droves to take in Cinderella's castle as well as other classic sites and rides. 9. Disneyland Park, Anaheim, CA The second most-visited theme park in the world brings in nearly 16 million people per year. Smaller than the Magic Kingdom in Orlando, this amusement park still has 85 acres of rides and thrills including the popular Indiana Jones Adventure. 10. Grand Bazaar, Istanbul This 15th-century bazaar receives 15 million visitors a year. Both locals and tourists bargain hunt for carpets, jewelry, ceramics and more. There are vendors selling food and Turkish coffee, too, when people need a break from all the shopping. Source:Travel + Leisure Magazine, 2011

Places to See Before They Disappear: Many of the world's most wondrous and beautiful destinations are in danger of being destroyed by a combination of environmental and social factors: a warming climate, pollution, strained resources, bulging populations, and booming tourist traffic. Below are some popular locations worth visiting before they disappear. Glaciers, Glacier National Park United States and Canada Glacier National Park contains some of the most beautiful, primitive wilderness in the Rocky Mountains. There are more than 200 glacier-fed lakes, high peaks, sheer precipices, large forests, waterfalls, much wildlife, and a great variety of wildflowers. However, temperature fluctuations have caused glacier growth and depletion. Ten thousand years ago, the area of Glacier National Park was covered by ice up to one mile below sea level. The latest warm period has caused the number of glaciers to decrease from 150 in 1850 to 26 today. If current global warming trends continue, there will be no glaciers left in Glacier National Park by 2030. Venice, Italy With as many as 40 floods per year between March and September, Venice is slowly sinking at an estimated rate of 2.5 inches every 10 ten years. Venice, a city of beauty and charm, was built as a collection of 118 separate islands, relying entirely on a canal system of about 150 canals, mostly very narrow, crossed by some 400 bridges. A severe flood in December 2008 brought renewed attention to Venice's vulnerable state and imminent fate as an underwater city. The Dead Sea Border between Israel and the West Bank (W) and Jordan (E) Known as one of the saltiest water bodies in the world and the lowest dry point on earth, the Dead Sea is fed by the Jordan River and a number of small streams. Because it is located in a very hot and dry region, the Dead Sea loses much water through evaporation, causing its level to fluctuate during the year. However, inflow to the Dead Sea has been greatly reduced by the increased use of the Jordan River by Israelis, Palestinians, and Jordanians, who have growing populations and increased agricultural needs, resulting in falling water levels. Currently, the Dead Sea recedes about three feet each year. Mexico City, Mexico In the past 100 years, Mexico City has sunk more than 30 feet. The original city was built on the site of a former lake—the Aztecs built the city on a series of aquatic platforms, but when the Spanish conquered the city, they drained the lake, causing it to sink. As the city population ballooned and the demand for water increased in the 20thcentury, the government began pumping much of the city's supply out of the underground aquifer that once fed the lake, causing the city to sink further. No practical plan has been made for the future to provide the 22 million inhabitants of Mexico City with the water they need without destroying the city. Taj Mahal Agra, Uttar Pradesh state, India A mausoleum in northern India on the Yamuna River, the Taj Mahal is considered one of the most beautiful buildings in the world and the finest example of the late style of Indian Islamic architecture. The Mughal emperor Shah Jahan ordered it built after the death of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The building, which was completed between 1632 and 1638, is visited by three to four million tourists each year. The crowds and air pollution, however, have caused irreversible damage to the building's façade, prompting tourism officials to consider closing the historic site to the public. Pyramids of Giza Giza, Egypt One of the original Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Pyramids of Giza, located outside modern Cairo, consist of three magnificent royal tombs guarded by a Sphinx. The Pyramids have been a heavily trafficked sightseeing area for centuries, but the pollution and magnitude of visitors has taken its toll on the ancient structures, which are not protected by Egyptian officials. Although camel and horseback tours are now banned from the site, the structures are still difficult to see through the crowds and vendors. Little Green Street London, United Kingdom Located in the center of London, Little Green Street, is one of only a few surviving streets from Georgian England. Lined with about a dozen 18thcentury homes, Little Green Street only stretches a city block in length, but has survived the Blitz in World War II and three centuries of construction. As a perfect example of Regency London, it has been featured in poetry, photo shoots, and music videos, but today it is threatened by construction. Although an attempt to acquire the property failed in 2008, developers' appeals continue, and the threat of Little Green Street's destruction looms ahead.

Foreign Embassies in the United States (part 2 & last part): Embassy of the Republic of Chad,2002 R St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009. Phone: 202-462-4009. Fax: 202-265-1937. http://www.chademb assy.org/ Embassy of Chile,1732 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. Phone: 202-785-1746. Fax: 202-887-5579. http://www.chile- usa.org/ Embassy of the People's Republic of China,2300 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-328-2500. Fax: 202-588-0032. http://www.china- embassy.org/ Embassy of Colombia,2118 Leroy Pl., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-387-8338. Fax: 202-232-8643. http://www.colombia emb.org/ Embassy of the Federal and Islamic Republic of Comoros,c/o Permanent Mission of the Federal and Islamic Republic of Comoros to the United Nations, 420 E. 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10022. Phone: 212-972-8010. Fax: 212-983-4712. Embassy of the Democratic Republic of Congo,1800 New Hampshire Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009. Phone: 202-234-7690. Fax: 202-234-2609. Embassy of the Republic of Congo,4891 Colorado Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20011. Phone: 202-726-5500. Fax: 202-726-1860. Embassy of Costa Rica,2114 S St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-234-2945. Fax: 202-265-4795. http://www.costarica- embassy.org/ Embassy of the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire,2424 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007. Phone: 202-797-0300. Embassy of the Republic of Croatia,2343 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008-2853. Phone: 202-588-5899. Fax: 202-588-8936. http://www.croatiaem b.org/ Cuban Interests Section,2630 16th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009. Phone: 202-797-8518. Fax: 202-986-7283. Embassy of the Republic of Cyprus,2211 R St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-462-5772. Fax: 202-483-6710. http://www.cyprusem bassy.net/ Embassy of the Czech Republic,3900 Spring of Freedom St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-274-9100. Fax: 202-966-8540. http://www.mzv.cz /washington/ Royal Danish Embassy,3200 Whitehaven St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-234-4300. Fax: 202-328-1470. http://www.ambwash ington.um.dk/en/ Embassy of the Republic of Djibouti,1156 15th St., N.W., Suite 515, Washington, D.C. 20005. Phone: 202-331-0270. Fax: 202-331-0302. Embassy of the Commonwealth of Dominica,3216 New Mexico Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016. Phone: 202-364-6781. Fax: 202-364-6791. Embassy of the Dominican Republic,1715 22nd St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-332-6280. Fax: 202-265-8057. http://www.domrep.o rg/ Embassy of Ecuador,2535 15th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009. Phone: 202-234-7200. Fax: 202-667-3482. http://www.ecuador.o rg/ Embassy of the Arab Republic of Egypt,3521 International Court, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-895-5463. Fax: 202-244-4319. http://www.egyptemb assy.us/ Embassy of El Salvador,2308 California St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-265-9671. Fax: 202-234-3834 www.elsalvador.org/h ome.nsf/home Embassy of Equatorial Guinea,2020 16th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009. Phone: 202-518-5700. Fax: 202-518-5252. Embassy of the State of Eritrea,1708 New Hampshire Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C., 20009. Phone: 202-319-1991. Fax: 202-319-1304. Embassy of Estonia,2131 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-588-0101. Fax: 202-588-0108. http://www.estemb.or g/ Embassy of Ethiopia,3506 International Dr., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-364-1200. Fax: 202-587-0195. http://www.ethiopian embassy.org/ European Union Delegation,2300 M St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037. Phone: 202-862-9500. Fax: 202-429-1766. http://www.eurunion. org Embassy of Fiji,2233 Wisconsin Ave., N.W., Suite 240, Washington, D.C. 20007. Phone: 202-337-8320. Fax: 202-337-1996. http://www.fijiembas sy.org Embassy of Finland,3301 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-298-5800. Fax: 202-298-6030. http://www.finland.or g/ Embassy of France,4101 Reservoir Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007. Phone: 202-944-6000. Fax: 202-944-6166. http://www.ambafran ce-us.org/intheus /embassy.asp Embassy of the Gabonese Republic,2034 20th St., N.W., Suite 200, Washington, D.C. 20009. Phone: 202-797-1000. Fax: 202-332-0668. Embassy of the Republic of the Gambia,1156 15th St., N.W., Suite 905, Washington, D.C. 20005. Phone: 202-785-1399. Fax: 202-785-1430. Embassy of the Republic of Georgia,1101 15th St., N.W., Suite 602, Washington, D.C. 20005. Phone: 202-387-2390. Fax: 202-393-4537. http://www.georgiae mb.org/ Embassy of Germany,4645 Reservoir Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007-1998. Phone: 202-298-4000. Fax: 202-298-4249. http://www.germany- info.org/l Embassy of Ghana,3512 International Dr., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-686-4520. Fax: 202-686-4527. http://www.ghana- embassy.org/ Embassy of Greece,2211 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-939-1306. Fax: 234-2803. http://www.greekemb assy.org/

Foreign Embassies in the United States (part 1): Source:U.S. Department of State. Embassy of Afghanistan,2341 Wyoming Ave., N.W.,Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-483-6410. Fax: 202-483–6488. www.embassyofafgha nistan.org Embassy of the Republic of Albania,2100 S St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-223-4942. Fax: 202-628-7342. Embassy of the Democratic & Popular Republic of Algeria,2118 Kalorama Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-265-2800. Fax: 202-667-2174. http://www.algeria- us.org/ Embassy of Andorra/Permanent Mission to the UN,2 United Nations Plaza, 25th flr., New York, N.Y. 10017. Phone: 212-750-8064. Fax: 212-750-6630. http://www.andorra.a d/ Embassy of the Republic of Angola,2100–2108 16th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009. Phone: 202-785-1156. Fax: 202-785-1258. http://www.angola.or g/ Embassy of Antigua & Barbuda,3216 New Mexico Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016. Phone: 202-362-5122. Fax: 202-362-5225. http://www.geograph ia.com/antigua- barbuda/ Embassy of the Argentine Republic,1600 New Hampshire Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009. Phone: 202-238-6401. Fax: 202-332-3171. http://www.embassyo fargentina.us/ Embassy of the Republic of Armenia,2225 R Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-319-1976. Fax: 202-319-2982. http://www.armeniae mb.org/ Embassy of Australia,1601 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. Phone: 202-797-3000. Fax: 202-797-3168. http://www.austemb. org/ Embassy of Austria,3524 International Court, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008-3027. Phone: 202-895-6700. Fax: 202-895-6750. http://www.austria.or g Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan,2741 34th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-337-3500. Fax: 202-337-5911. http://www.azembass y.com/ Embassy of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas,2220 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-319-2660. Fax: 202-319-2668. Embassy of the Kingdom of Bahrain,3502 International Dr., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-342-1111. Fax: 202-362-2192. http://www.bahraine mbassy.org/ Embassy of the People's Republic of Bangladesh,3510 International Drive, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-244-0183. Fax: (202) 244-7830. http://www.banglado ot.org Embassy of Barbados,2144 Wyoming Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-939-9200. Fax: (202) 332-7467. Embassy of the Republic of Belarus,1619 New Hampshire Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009. Phone: 202-986-1604. Fax: 202-986-1805. http://www.belaruse mbassy.org/ Embassy of Belgium,3330 Garfield St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-333-6900. Fax: 202-338-4960. http://diplobel.us/ Embassy of Belize,2535 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-332-9636. Fax: 202-332-6888. www.embassyofbeliz e.org Embassy of the Republic of Benin,2124 Kalorama Road, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-232-6656. Fax: 202-265-1996. Bhutan Permanent Mission to the UN,2 UN Plaza, 27th Floor, New York NY 10017. Phone: 212-826-1919. Fax: 212-826-2998. Embassy of Bolivia,3014 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-483-4410. Fax: 202-328-3712. www.bolivia-usa.org Embassy of Bosnia and Herzegovina,2109 E St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037. Phone: 202-337-1500. Fax: 202-337-1502. www.bhembassy.org/ Embassy of Botswana,1531-1533 New Hampshire Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. Phone: 202-244-4990. Fax: 202-244-4164. http://www.botswana embassy.org/ Brazilian Embassy,3006 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-238-2700. Fax: 202-238-2827. http://www.brasilemb .org/ Embassy of Brunei Darussalam,3520 International Court, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-237-1838. Fax: 202-885-0560. http://www.bruneiem bassy.org Embassy of the Republic of Bulgaria,1621 22nd St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-387-0174. Fax: 202-234-7973. http://www.bulgaria- embassy.org/ Embassy of Burkina Faso,2340 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-332-5577. Fax: 202-667-1882. http://burkinaembassy -usa.org/ Embassy of the Republic of Burundi,2233 Wisconsin Ave., N.W., Suite 212, Washington, D.C. 20007. Phone: 202-342-2574. Fax: 202-342-2578. Embassy of the Kingdom of Cambodia,4530 16th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20011. Phone: 202-726-7742. Fax: 202-726-8381. http://www.embassy. org/cambodia/ Embassy of the Republic of Cameroon,2349 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-265-8790. Fax: 202-387-3826. http://www.ambacam -usa.org/ Embassy of Canada,501 Pennsylvania Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20001. Phone: 202-682-1740. Fax: 202-682-7701. http://canadianembas sy.org/ Embassy of the Republic of Cape Verde,3415 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007. Phone: 202-965-6820. Fax: 202-965-1207. Embassy of Central African Republic,1618 22nd St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008. Phone: 202-483-7800. Fax: 202-332-9893.

Some Milestones in U.S. Diplomatic History Source:U.S. State Department Benjamin Franklin was the first U.S. diplomat.He was appointed in 1776 to help gain French support for American independence and later became minister to France (1778). With John Jay and John Adams, he negotiated the peace treaty with Great Britain (Treaty of Paris, Sept. 3, 1783). The rank of ambassador was first used by the United States in 1893. Thomas F. Bayardwas appointed ambassador to Great Britain (March 30) and James B. Eustis became ambassador to France (April 18). Prior to this, the highest-ranking U.S. diplomats were ministers. Six U.S. ambassadors have been killed by terrorists:John Gordon Mein, Guatemala (August 28, 1968); Cleo A. Noel, Jr., Sudan (March 1, l973); Rodger P. Davies, Cyprus (Aug. 19, 1974); Francis E. Meloy, Jr., Lebanon (June 16, 1976); Adolph Dubs, Afghanistan (Feb. 14, 1979); Christopher Stevens, Libya (Sep. 11, 2012). A number of distinguished writers have held diplomatic or consular posts: Washington Irving,Minister to Spain, 1842–46. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Consul at Liverpool, 1853–57. Bret Harte, Consul at Crefeld, 1878–1880, and at Glasgow, 1880–1885. James Russell Lowell, Minister to Spain, 1877–80; to Great Britain, 1880–85. James Fenimore Cooper, Consul at Lyon, 1826. William Dean Howells, Consul at Venice, 1861–65. Archibald MacLeish, Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, 1944–45.

Israel's 60th Anniversary May 14, 1948, the Jewish National Council proclaimed the State of Israel: Ariel Sharon, Israeli Prime Minister, 2001–2006 May 14, 2008, marked the 60th anniversary of the creation of the modern State of Israel. As part of the 19th-century Zionistmovement, Jews had begun settling in Palestineas early as 1820. This effort to establish a Jewish homeland received British approval in the Balfour Declarationof 1917. During the 1930s, Jews persecuted by the Hitlerregime poured into Palestine. The postwar acknowledgment of the Holocaust—Hitler's genocide of 6 million Jews—increased international interest in and sympathy for the cause of Zionism. However, Arabs in Palestine and surrounding countries bitterly opposed prewar and postwar proposals to partition Palestine into Arab and Jewish sectors. The British mandate to govern Palestine ended after the war, and, in 1947, the UN voted to partition Palestine. When the British officially withdrew on May 14, 1948, the Jewish National Council proclaimed the State of Israel. Prominent Israeli Politicians Ehud Barak David Ben-Gurion Yizhak Ben-Zvi Golda Meir Moshe Dayan Abba Eban Levi Eshkol Benjamin Netanyahu Ehud Olmert Shimon Peres Yitzhak Rabin Yitzhak Shamir Moshe Sharett Ariel Sharon Chaim Weizmann Ezer Weizman Other Players in Modern Israel's History Mahmoud Abbas Yasir Arafat Menachem Begin Anwar Sadat

U.S. Representatives to the United Nations YearAmbassador 1946 Edward R. Stettinius, Jr. 1946–1947Herschel V. Johnson (acting) 1947–1953Warren R. Austin 1953–1960 Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. 1960–1961James J. Wadsworth 1961–1965 Adlai E. Stevenson 1965–1968 Arthur J. Goldberg 1968 George W. Ball 1968–1969James Russell Wiggins 1969–1971Charles W. Yost 1971–1973 George H. W. Bush 1973–1975John A. Scali 1975–1976 Daniel P. Moynihan 1976–1977William W. Scranton 1977–1979 Andrew Young 1979–1981Donald McHenry 1981–1985 Jeane J. Kirkpatrick 1985–1989Vernon A. Walters 1989–1992Thomas J. Pickering 1992–1993Edward J. Perkins 1993–1996 Madeleine K. Albright 1997–1998 Bill Richardson 1998–1999A. Peter Burleigh (acting) 1999–2001 Richard Holbrooke 2001James B. Cunningham (acting) 2001–2004 John D. Negroponte 2004–2005 John Danforth 2005–2006 John Bolton 2007–2009Zalmay Khalilzad 2009–2013Susan Rice 2013–Samantha Power

Selected International Organizations Learn about various international organizations that operate cooperatively throughout the world. Each organization is composed of several or many countries with a joint goal. African Union(AU)1 *.Members:(53) Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Western Sahara, Zambia, Zimbabwe Arab League(AL) *.Members: (21 plus the Palestine Liberation Organization) Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, UAE, Yemen, Palestine Liberation Organization *.Observers: (3) Eritrea, India, Venezuela Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) *.Members:(10) Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam *.Associate Member:(1) Papua New Guinea Commonwealth of Nations *.Members:(53) Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, the Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Brunei, Cameroon, Canada, Cyprus, Dominica, Fiji (suspended), the Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guyana, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nauru, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Solomon Islands, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Swaziland, Tanzania, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu, Uganda, UK, Vanuatu, Zambia Commonwealth of Independent States(CIS) *.Members:(12) Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan Group of 8(G-8) *.Members:(9) Canada, EU (as one member), France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, UK, U.S. Group of 20(G-20) *.Members:(20) Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, EU (as one member), France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, UK, U.S. European Union(EU) *.Members:(28) Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, UK. North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) *.Members:(28) Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, UK, U.S. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries(OPEC) *.Members:(12) Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Venezuela 1. The Organization of African Unity (OAU), the African Union's predecessor, was formally disbanded on July 8, 2002. The AU was inaugurated July 9, 2002. The 53 member nations remain the same.

Members of the United Nations (193 nations) This table provides information about the member countries of the United Nations, including the date of admission CountryJoined UN1 Afghanistan1946 Albania1955 Algeria1962 Andorra1993 Angola1976 Antigua and Barbuda1981Argentina 1945 ... Bosnia and Herzegovina1992 Botswana1966 Brazil1945 Brunei1984 Bulgaria1955 Burkina Faso1960 Burma (Myanmar)1948 Burundi1962 Cambodia1955 Cameroon1960 Canada1945 Cape Verde1975 Central African Republic1960 Chad1960 Chile1945 China 21945 Colombia1945 Comoros1975 Congo, Rep. of1960 Congo, Dem. Rep. of1960 Costa Rica1945 Côte d'Ivoire1960 Croatia1992 Cuba1945 Cyprus1960 Czech Republic 31993 Denmark1945 Djibouti1977 Dominica1978 Dominican Republic1945 East Timor 42002 Ecuador1945 Egypt1945 El Salvador1945 Equatorial Guinea1968Eritrea 1993 Estonia... Guinea-Bissau1974Guyana 1966 Haiti ... Korea, North1991 Korea, South1991Kuwait 1963 ... Liechtenstein1990Lithuania 1991 ... Marshall Islands1991Mauritania 1961 ... Montenegro4, 62006 Morocco1956 Mozambique1975 Namibia1990 Nauru1999 Nepal1955 Netherlands1945 New Zealand1945Nicaragua 1945 ... Papua New Guinea1975 Paraguay1945 Peru1945 Philippines1945 Poland1945 Portugal1955 Qatar1971 Romania1955 Russia1945 Rwanda1962 St. Kitts and Nevis1983 St. Lucia1979 St. Vincent and the Grenadines1980 Samoa1976 San Marino1992 São Tomé and Príncipe1975 Saudi Arabia1945 Senegal1960 Serbia62000 Seychelles1976 Sierra Leone1961 Singapore1965 Slovakia 31993 Slovenia1992 Solomon Islands1978 Somalia1960 South Africa1945 South Sudan2011 Spain1955 Sri Lanka1955 Sudan1956 Suriname1975 Swaziland1968 Sweden1946 Switzerland 42002 Syria1945 Tajikistan1992 Tanzania1961 Thailand1946 Togo1960 Tonga1999 Trinidad and Tobago1962 Tunisia1956 Turkey1945 Turkmenistan1992 Tuvalu2000 Uganda1962 Ukraine1945 United Arab Emirates1971 United Kingdom1945 United States1945Uruguay 1945 ... 1. The UN officially came into existence on Oct. 24, 1945. 2. On Oct. 25, 1971, the UN voted membership to the People's Republic of China, which replaced the Republic of China (Taiwan) in the world body. 3. Czechoslovakia was an original member of the United Nations from Oct. 24, 1945. As of Dec. 31, 1992, it ceased to exist and the Czech Republic and Slovakia as successor states were admitted Jan. 19, 1993. 4. Newest members. 5. The General Assembly on April 8, 1993, decided to admit the state provisionally being referred to as “The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia” pending settlement of the difference that has arisen over its name. 6. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a charter member; after its dissolution, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was admitted Nov. 1, 2000. On Feb. 4, 2003, the name of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was changed to Serbia and Montenegro; in 2006, Serbia and Montenegro became separate countries.

UN Peacekeeping Missions Since 1948 there have been 67 UN peacekeeping operations. Close to 130 nations have contributed personnel at various times, and 115 are currently providing uniformed peacekeepers. As of Aug.31, 2012, there were 15 peacekeeping operations under way with a total of 116,515 personnel. Of the 18,170 civilians serving, 12,573 are local. Total fatalities among the peacekeepers stand at 3,025. Current UN Peacekeeping Operations Region/CountryBegan AFRICA Western Sahara (MINURSO)April 1991 Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO)June 2010 Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI)April 2004 Liberia (UNMIL)Sept. 2003 Sudan (UNMIS)March 2005 Darfur (UNAMID)July 2007 AMERICA Haiti (MINUSTAH)June 2004 ASIA and the Pacific India/Pakistan (UNMOGIP)Jan. 1949 Timor-Leste (UNMIT)Aug. 2006 Afghanistan (UNAMA)¹2006 EUROPE Cyprus (UNFICYP)March 1964 Kosovo (UNMIK)June 1999 MIDDLE EAST Middle East (UNTSO))May 1948 Syria (UNDOF)June 1974 Lebanon (UNIFIL)March 1978¹ UNAMA is a special political mission, directed and supported by the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO). Completed UN Peacekeeping Operations Region/CountryDuration AFRICA Congo (ONUC)July 1960–June 1964 Congo (MONUC)Nov. 1999–July 2010 Angola (UNAVEM I)Dec. 1988–May 1991 Aouzou Strip (UNASOG)May-June 1994 Namibia (UNTAG)April 1989–March 1990 Angola (UNAVEM II)May 1991–Feb. 1995 Somalia (UNOSOM I)April 1992–March 1993 Mozambique (ONUMOZ)Dec. 1992–Dec. 1994 Côte d'Ivoire (MINUCI)May 2003-April 2004 Somalia (UNOSOM II)March 1993–March 1995 Rwanda/Uganda (UNOMUR)June 1993–Sept. 1994 Liberia (UNOMIL)Sept. 1993–Sept. 1997 Rwanda (UNAMIR)Oct. 1993–March 1996 Angola (UNAVEM III)Feb. 1995–June 1997 Angola (MONUA)June 1997–Feb. 1999 Sierra Leone (UNOMSIL)July 1998–Oct. 1999 Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL)Oct. 1999–Dec. 2005 Central African Republic (MINURCA)April 1998–Feb. 2000 Central African Republic and Chad (MINURCAT)Sept. 2007–Dec. 2010 Burundi (ONUB)June 2004–Dec. 2006 Ethiopia/ Eritrea (UNMEE)September 2000–July 2008 AMERICAS Dominican Republic (DOMREP)May 1965–Oct. 1966 Central America Observer Group (ONUCA)Nov. 1989–Jan. 1992 El Salvador (ONUSAL)July 1991–April 1995 Haiti (UNMIH)Sept. 1993–June 1996 Haiti (UNSMIH)July 1996–July 1997 Guatemala (MINUGUA)Jan.–May 1997 Haiti (UNTMIH)Aug.–Nov. 1997 Haiti (MIPONUH)Dec. 1997–March 2000 MIDEAST Middle East—1st UN Emergency Force (UNEF I)Nov. 1956–June 1967 Lebanon (UNOGIL)June–Dec. 1958 Yemen (UNYOM)July 1963–Sept. 1964 Middle East—2nd UN Emergency Force (UNEF II)Oct. 1973–July 1979 Iran/Iraq (UNIIMOG)Aug. 1988–Feb. 1991 Iraq/Kuwait (UNIKOM)April 1991–Oct. 2003 ASIA West New Guinea (UNSF)Oct. 1962–April 1963 India/Pakistan (UNIPOM)Sept. 1965–March 1966 Afghanistan/Pakistan (UNGOMAP)May 1988–March 1990 Cambodia (UNAMIC)Oct. 1991–March 1992 Cambodia (UNTAC)March 1992–Sept. 1993 Tajikistan (UNMOT)Dec. 1994–May 2000 East Timor (UNTAET)Oct. 1999–May 2002 East Timor (UNMISET)May 2002–May 2005 EUROPE Former Yugoslavia (UNPROFOR)Feb. 1992–March 1995 Croatia (UNCRO)March 1995–Jan. 1996 Former Yugoslavia (UNPREDEP) Rep. of Macedonia March 1995–Feb. 1999 Bosnia & Herzegovina (UNMIBH)Dec. 1995–Dec. 2002 Georgia (UNOMIG)Aug. 1993–June 2009 Croatia (UNTAES)Jan. 1996–Jan. 1998 Prevlaka Peninsula (UNMOP)Feb. 1996–Dec. 2002 Croatia (UNPSG)Jan. 1998–Oct. 1998 Source:United Nations Dept. of Public Information.

Agencies of the United Nations Linked to the United Nations through special agreements, the separate, autonomous specialized agencies of the UN family set standards and guidelines, help formulate policies, provide technical assistance, and other forms of practical help in virtually all areas of economic and social endeavor. *.The International Labor Organization (ILO) formulates policies and programs to improve working conditions and employment opportunities, and defines international labor standards as guidelines for governments. *.The Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) works to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living, to improve agricultural productivity and food security, and to better the conditions of rural populations. *.The UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) promotes education for all, cultural development, protection of the world's natural and cultural heritage, press freedom, and communication. *.The World Health Organization (WHO) coordinates programs aimed at solving health problems and the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health; it works in areas such as immunization, health education, and the provision of essential drugs. *.The World Bank group provides loans and technical assistance to developing countries to reduce poverty and advance sustainable economic growth. *.The International Monetary Fund (IMF) facilitates international monetary cooperation and financial stability, and provides a permanent forum for consultation, advice, and assistance on financial issues. *.The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) sets international standards necessary for the safety, security, efficiency, and regularity of air transport, and serves as the medium for cooperation in all areas of civil aviation. *.The Universal Postal Union (UPU) establishes international regulations for the organization and improvement of postal services, provides technical assistance, and promotes cooperation in postal matters. *.The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) fosters international cooperation for the improvement and use of telecommunications of all kinds, coordinates usage of radio and TV frequencies, promotes safety measures, and conducts research. *.The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) promotes scientific research on the atmosphere and on climate change, and facilitates the global exchange of meteorological data and information. *.The International Maritime Organization (IMO) works to improve international shipping procedures, encourages the highest standards in marine safety, and seeks to prevent marine pollution from ships. *.The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) promotes international protection of intellectual property and fosters cooperation on copyrights, trademarks, industrial designs, and patents. *.The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) mobilizes financial resources for better food production and nutrition among the poor in developing countries. *.The UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) promotes the industrial advancement of developing countries through technical assistance, advisory services, and training. *.The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) an autonomous intergovernmental organization under the aegis of the UN, works for the safe and peaceful uses of atomic energy. *.The UN and the World Trade Organization (WTO) the major entity overseeing international trade, cooperate in assisting developing countries' exports through the Geneva-based International Trade Center.

International Court of Justice The International Court of Justice is the UN's principal judicial organ. Based in The Hague, Netherlands, the Court pursues two primary objectives: (1) settling legal disputes submitted by states in accordance with international law, and (2) advising on legal questions brought by authorized international organs and agencies. The Court consists of 15 judges elected to 9-year terms by the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council during independent sittings. No more than one judge of any nationality may serve simultaneously, and judges are in all respects required to act as independent magistrates. The Court's jurisdiction and competency in settling disputes is dependent upon a state's acceptance of its jurisdiction thereof. The Court rules in accordance with international treaties, conventions, international custom, general principles of law, and, when relevant, judicial decision or teachings of the “most highly qualified publicists.”

Principal Organs of the United Nations Security Council The Security Council is the primary instrument for establishing and maintaining international peace. Its main purpose is to prevent war by settling disputes between nations. Under the charter, the council is permitted to dispatch a UN force to stop aggression. All member nations undertake to make available armed forces, assistance, and facilities to maintain international peace and security. The Security Council has 15 members. There are five permanent members: the United States, the Russian Federation, Britain, France, and China; and ten temporary members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms, from five different regions of the world. Voting on procedural matters requires a nine-vote majority to carry. However, on questions of substance, the vote of each of the five permanent members is required. As of Jan. 2009, the ten elected nonpermanent members were Austria, Japan, Uganda, Mexico, Turkey, Burkina Faso, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Vietnam, Costa Rica, and Croatia. In Jan. 2010 the terms of Burkina Faso, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Vietnam, Costa Rica, and Croatia will expire.

Principal Organs of the United Nations Economic and Social Council This council is composed of 54 members elected by the General Assembly to three-year terms. It works under the authority of the General Assembly and seeks to promote progress in terms of higher standards of living, full employment, and economic and social viability; it also seeks solutions to international socioeconomic, health, and other problems through international and cultural cooperation. Finally, it advocates for the universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all.

Principal Organs of the United Nations Trusteeship Council The UN charter originally established the Trusteeship Council as a main organ of the UN and entrusted it with the administration of territories placed under the trusteeship system. The Trusteeship Council suspended operations on Nov. 1, 1994, after the October independence of Palau, the last UN territory. In a May 1994 resolution, the Trusteeship Council amended its rules of procedure, agreeing to meet only as occasion required (by its decision or by request of a majority of its own General Assembly/Security Council members) rather than annually. The Trusteeship Council is comprised of the five permanent members of the Security Council. Now that the aims of the trusteeship system have been fulfilled, however, its functions and powers have been lying dormant.

The Difference between the U.K., Great Britain, England, and the British Isles Key differences of these names often used interchangeably

There are key differences between Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and England—names often used interchangeably. Great Britain Great Britain is an island that consists of three somewhat autonomous regions that include England, Scotland, and Wales. It is located east of Ireland and northwest of Francein the Atlantic Ocean. The United Kingdom The United Kingdom is a country that includes England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Its official name is “United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.” England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland are often mistaken as names of countries, but they are only a part of the United Kingdom. The British Isles The British Isles is another term altogether and encompasses Great Britain, the island of Ireland, and several other smaller islands, such as the Isle of Man. The Isle of Man is not a part of the United Kingdom or the European Union, even though its Lord is the Monarch of the United Kingdom. The Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nationsis a voluntary association of countries that were formerly British colonies. Members of the Commonwealth of Nations recognize the United Kingdom Monarch as their own king or queen, but remain politically independent. Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Antigua and Barbuda Australia Bahamas Bangladesh Barbados Belize Botswana Brunei Canada Cameroon Cyprus Dominica Gambia Ghana Grenada Guyana India Jamaica Kenya Kiribati Lesotho Malawi Malaysia Maldives Malta Mauritius Mozambique Namibi a Nauru New Zealand Nigeria Papua New Guinea Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Solomon Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Swaziland Tanzania Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tuvalu Uganda United Kingdom Vanuatu Zambia

United Nations Preamble of the United Nations Charter The Charter of the United Nations was adopted at the San Francisco Conference of 1945. The complete text is available on the UN website, www.un.org/aboutun /charter. We the peoples of the United Nations determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and To reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and To establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and To promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, and for these ends To practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbors, and To unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and To insure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and To employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples, have resolved to combine our efforts to accomplish these aims. Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations.

Secretariat This is the directorate on UN operations, apart from political decisions. The staff works under the secretary-general, whom it assists and advises. Secretaries-General Ban Ki-moon, South Korea, Jan. 1, 2007 Kofi Annan, Ghana, 1997–2006 Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egypt, 1992–1996 Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Peru, 1982–1991 Kurt Waldheim, Austria, 1972–1981 U Thant, Burma (Myanmar), 1961–1971 Dag Hammarskjöld, Sweden, 1953–1961 Trygve Lie, Norway, 1946–1953

General Assembly The General Assembly is the world's forum for discussing matters affecting world peace and security, and for making recommendations concerning them. It has no power to enforce decisions. It is composed of the 51 original member nations and those admitted since, totaling 192. On important questions, including international peace and security, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Decisions on other questions are made by a simple majority. Emphasis is given to questions relating to international peace and security brought before it by members, the Security Council, or nonmembers. It also maintains a broad program of international cooperation in economic, social, cultural, educational, and health fields, and for assisting in human rights and freedoms.

The Difference between the U.K., Great Britain, England, and the British Isles Key differences of these names often used interchangeably: There are key differences between Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and England—names often used interchangeably. Great Britain Great Britain is an island that consists of three somewhat autonomous regions that include England, Scotland, and Wales. It is located east of Ireland and northwest of Francein the Atlantic Ocean. The United Kingdom The United Kingdom is a country that includes England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Its official name is “United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.” England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland are often mistaken as names of countries, but they are only a part of the United Kingdom. The British Isles The British Isles is another term altogether and encompasses Great Britain, the island of Ireland, and several other smaller islands, such as the Isle of Man. The Isle of Man is not a part of the United Kingdom or the European Union, even though its Lord is the Monarch of the United Kingdom. The Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nationsis a voluntary association of countries that were formerly British colonies. Members of the Commonwealth of Nations recognize the United Kingdom Monarch as their own king or queen, but remain politically independent. Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Antigua and Barbuda Australia Bahamas Bangladesh Barbados Belize Botswana Brunei Canada Cameroon Cyprus Dominica Gambia Ghana Grenada Guyana India Jamaica Kenya Kiribati Lesotho Malawi Malaysia Maldives Malta Mauritius Mozambique Namibi a Nauru New Zealand Nigeria Papua New Guinea Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Solomon Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Swaziland Tanzania Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tuvalu Uganda United Kingdom Vanuatu Zambia

Former Place Names of Countries and Cities Current nameOld Name EthiopiaAbyssinia Ankara, TurkeyAngora, Turkey Czech Republic and SlovakiaBohemia, Moravia, Chechoslovakia Sri LankaCeylon Istanbul, TurkeyConstantinople, Turkey Beijing, ChinaPeking, China IranPersia IraqMesopotamia ZimbabweSouthern Rhodesia ZambiaNorthern Rhodesia Ho Chi Minh City, VietnamSaigon, South Vietnam St. Petersburg, RussiaPetrograd and Leningrad, Russia ThailandSiam TanzaniaTanganyika and Zanzibar, German East Africa Democratic Republic of CongoZaire NamibiaSouth-West Africa MoldovaMoldavia Burkina FasoUpper Volta LibyaTripolitania and Cyrenaica AlgeriaNumidia MaliSudanese Republic FranceGaul Central African Republic, ChadFrench Equatorial Africa Rwanda and BurundiGerman East Africa China (north)Cathay China (south)Mangi VietnamCochin-China (south), Annam (central), Tonkin (north) MyanmarBurma Tokyo, JapanEdo Korea (North and South)Choson CambodiaKampuchea TaiwanFormosa

State, Country, and Nation The criteria that define a country, an independent State, and a nation: There is a difference between the terms nation, state, and country, even though the words are often used interchangeably. Country and State are synonymous terms that both apply to self-governing political entities. A nation, however, is a group of people who share the same culture but do not have sovereignty. When the “s” of state is lowercase, it constitutes a part of a whole country, such as the different states of the United States of America. When the “S” of State is uppercase it signifies an independent country. How were countries defined in the past? In the past, governments often used two opposing theories to define a country—the Montevideo Convention treaty or the constitutive theory of statehood. In 1933, at the Montevideo Convention in Uruguay, a treaty was signed on the Rights and Duties of States. The treaty defined a State using four criteria—a permanent population, a defined territory, a government, and a capacity to enter into relations with other States. The convention also declared that a State did not have to be recognized by other States, meaning a country could exist even if other countries did not recognize it. Conversely, the constitutive theory of statehood said that a country existed if it was recognized as sovereign by other countries. Therefore, if other countries recognized a country as independent, it was, even if the country did not have control of its territory or a permanent population. What makes an independent State or a country today? Has internationally recognized land and borders even if border disputes exist; Has permanent residents; Has sovereignty so that no other country has power over its territory; Has organized economic activity that regulates foreign and domestic trade and issues money; Has a transportation network for moving goods and people; Has an education system; Has recognition from other independent states How many countries are there in the world? Today, there are 195 independent countries or states recognized in the world. Kosovo, which declared independence from Serbiain February 2008 is the newest country. Territories, such as Hong Kong, Bermuda, Puerto Rico, and Greenlandthat belong to other countries are not considered countries. Disputes often arise when a territory claims to be a country, but is not recognized by any other countries. Taiwan, for example, claims to be an independent country, but Chinastates that Taiwan is a part of China. Therefore, other countries that don’t want to upset China also do not recognize Taiwan as independent. What are a nation and a nation-state? A nation is a group of people who share the same culture, language, institutions, religion, and history—usually a group of people larger than a tribe or community. When a nation of people has an independent State of their own it is often called a nation-state. The Kurdsare a nation without a State, but France, Germany, and Japanare examples of nation-states.

Highest Infant Mortality Rate The countries with the highest infant mortality rate (deaths per 1,000 births) in 2012. 1. Afghanistan121.63 2. Mali108.70 3. Somalia103.72 4. Central African Republic97.17 5. Guinea-Bissau94.40 6. Chad93.61 7. Niger89.70 8. Angola83.53 9. Burkina Faso79.84 10. Malawi79.02 NOTE: Country rankings of the type presented below cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results. Only countries for which statistics were available in sources 1 and 2 figure in these lists.Sources:1.The World Factbook, 2012.2. U.S. Census Bureau, International Database.

Lowest Infant Mortality Rate The countries with the lowest infant mortality rate (deaths per 1,000 births) in 2012. 1. Monaco1.8 2. Japan2.21 3. Bermuda2.47 4. Singapore2.65 5. Sweden2.74 6.Hong Kong2.9 7.Macau S.A.R.3.17 8. Iceland3.18 9. Italy3.36 10. Spain3.37 NOTE:Country rankings of the type presented below cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results. Only countries for which statistics were available in sources 1 and 2 figure in these lists.Sources:1.The World Factbook, 2012.2. U.S. Census Bureau, International Database.

Highest Life Expectancy, 2012 The countries with the highest life expectancy (in years). 1. Monaco89.68 2.Macau84.43 3. Japan83.91 4. Singapore83.75 5. San Marino83.07 6. Andorra82.50 7. Guernsey82.240 8.Hong Kong S.A.R.82.12 9. Australia81.90 10. Italy81.86 NOTE: Country rankings of the type presented below cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results. Only countries for which statistics were available in sources 1 and 2 figure in these lists.Sources:1.The World Factbook, 2012.2. U.S. Census Bureau, International Database.

Lowest Life Expectancy, 2012 The countries with the lowest life expectancy (in years). 1. Chad48.69 2. Guinea-Bissau49.11 3. South Africa49.41 4. Swaziland49.42 5. Afghanistan49.72 6. Central African Republic50.48 7. Somalia50.80 8. Zimbabwe51.82 9. Lesotho51.86 10. Mozambique52.02 NOTE: Country rankings of the type presented below cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results. Only countries for which statistics were available in sources 1 and 2 figure in these lists.Sources:1.The World Factbook, 2012.2. U.S. Census Bureau, International Database.

Lowest Literacy Rates The countries with the lowest literacy rate. 1. Burkina Faso23.6% 2. Mali24.0 3. Chad25.7 4. Niger28.7 5. Guinea29.5 6. Benin34.7 7. Sierra Leone34.8 8. Ethiopia35.9 9. Mozambique38.7 10. Senegal39.3 NOTE: Country rankings of the type presented above cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results. Only countries for which statistics were available in sources 1 and 2 figure in these lists.Sources:1.The World Factbook, 2010.2. U.S. Census Bureau, International Database.

Lowest Inflation The countries with the lowest inflation in 2011. 1. Qatar–2.5% 2. Northern Mariana Islands-.80 3. Bahrain-.40 4. Japan-.30 5. Central African Republic.10 6. Kiribati.20 7. Switzerland.20 8. Liechtenstein.30 9. Saint Martin.70 10. United Arab Emirates.90 NOTE: Country rankings of the type presented below cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results. Only countries for which statistics were available figure in these lists.Source:The World Factbook, 2012.

Lowest Population Density The top ten least densely populated countries, in square kilometers, in 2011. 1. Western Sahara1.85 2. Mongolia1.99 3. Namibia2.59 4. Australia2.80 5. Iceland3.08 6. Mauritania3.11 7. Suriname3.12 8. Botswana3.58 9. Libya3.67 10. Canada3.71 NOTE: Country rankings of the type presented above cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results. Only countries for which statistics were available figure in these lists. †Population density calculated using population and land area.Source:The World Factbook, 2011.

Highest GDP Per Capita The countries with the highest gross domestic product per capita in U.S. dollars, in 2011. 1. Qatar$98,900 2. Liechtenstein89,400 3. Luxembourg80,600 4. Bermuda69,900 5. Singapore59,700 6. Jersey57,000 7. Falkland Islands55,400 8. Norway51,600 9. Brunei49,500 10. Hong Kong49,400 NOTE: Country rankings of the type presented below cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results. Only countries for which statistics were available in sources 1 and 2 figure in these lists.Sources:1.The World Factbook, 2012.2. U.S. Census Bureau, International Database.

Lowest GDP Per Capita The countries with the lowest gross domestic product per capita in U.S. dollars, in 2011. 1. Congo, Democratic Republic of the$300 2. Zimbabwe500 3. Burundi600 4. Liberia600 5. Somalia700 6. Eritrea700 7. Niger800 8. Central African Republic800 9. Malawi900 10. Madagascar900 NOTE: Country rankings of the type presented below cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results. Only countries for which statistics were available in sources 1 and 2 figure in these lists.Sources:1.The World Factbook, 2012.2. U.S. Census Bureau, International Database.

Highest Inflation The countries with the highest inflation in 2011. 1. Belarus53.3% 2. Ethiopia33 3. Venezuela26.1 4. Argentina22 5. Guinea21.4 6. Iran20.6 7. Eritrea20 8. Yemen19.5 9. Uganda14.4 10. Vietnam13.9 NOTE: Country rankings of the type presented above cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results. Only countries for which statistics were available figure in these lists.Source:The World Factbook, 2012.

How Many Countries? There are 196 countriesin the world today. Unless you don't count Taiwan… Taiwanis not considered an official country by many, which would bring the count down to195 countries.Although Taiwan operates as an independent country, many countries (including the U.S.) do not officially recognize it as one. Because the People's Republic of Chinaconsiders Taiwan a breakaway province of China, countries who wish to maintain diplomatic relations with China have had to sever their formal relations with Taiwan (more than 100 countries, however, have unofficial relations with Taiwan). How many countries belong to the United Nations? 192 countriesare UN members. The exceptions are Taiwan (in 1971, the UN ousted Taiwan and replaced it with the People's Republic of China) and Vatican City. Kosovo is not yet a member. The newest UN members are Switzerland(2002) and Montenegro(2006). What are the world's newest countries? The world's newest country is South Sudan, which gained independence from Sudan on July 9, 2011. Before that, the newest country was Kosovo, which declared independence from Serbia in February 2008. Montenegro became a country in June 2006, after splitting off from Serbia. Since 1990, 29 new nations have come into being. Many of these emerged from the collapse of the Soviet Union (14 countries) and the breakup of the former Yugoslavia (7 countries).Seeour Guide to New Nations. Are there still any countries that have colonies? There are61 coloniesor territories in the world. Eight countries maintain them: Australia (6), Denmark (2), Netherlands (2), France (16), New Zealand (3), Norway (3), the United Kingdom (15), and the United States (14).See Territories, Colonies, and Dependenciesfor a list of the world's colonies and what countries administrate them, p. 663. Are there still territories in the world that are claimed by more than one country? There aresix major disputed territoriesin the world: the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, the Paracel Islands, Spratly Islands, Western Sahara, and Antarctica(about a dozen nations have laid claims to portions of it). In addition, there are innumerable other territorial disputes throughout the world, many of which had resulted in ongoing armed conflicts.

Largest Countries in the World The top ten largest countries, in square miles, in 2012. 1. Russia6,601,668 2. Canada3,855,102 3. United States3,794,100 4. China3,705,407 5. Brazil3,287,612 6. Australia2,988,901 7. India1,269,219 8. Argentina1,073,518 9. Kazakhstan1,052,089 10. Algeria919,595 NOTE: Country rankings of the type presented above cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results. Only countries for which statistics were available in sources 1 and 2 figure in these lists. *Size refers to the total area of a country, which includes the land area plus bodies of water.Sources:The World Factbook, 2012.

Smallest Countries in the World The top ten smallest countries, in square miles, as of 2012. 1. Vatican City0.17 2. Monaco0.75 3. Nauru8.11 4. Tuvalu10.04 5. San Marino23.63 6. Liechtenstein61.78 7.Saint Kitts and Nevis100.77 8. Maldives115.83 9. Malta122.01 10. Grenada132.82 NOTE: Country rankings of the type presented below cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results. Only countries for which statistics were available in sources 1 and 2 figure in these lists. *Size refers to the total area of a country, which includes the land area plus bodies of water.Sources:1.The World Factbook.2. U.S. Census Bureau, International Database.

Highest Population Density The top ten most densely populated countries, in square kilometers, in 2011. 1. Monaco15,293 2. Singapore6,843 3. Holy See1,884 4. Maldives1,328 5. Malta1,287 6. Bangladesh1,199 7. Bahrain971 8. Taiwan714 9. Barbados664 10. Mauritius637 NOTE: Country rankings of the type presented below cannot pretend to be definitive; instead they aspire only to provide the reader with an approximation of the high and low ends on a particular scale. Country data vary enormously depending on the sources, and the absence of reliable data on some countries requires their omission, which further skews the results.Only countries for which statistics were available figure in these lists. †Population density calculated using population and land area.Source:The World Factbook, 2011.

Global Political, Economic, and Social Facts From the UN'sHuman Development Report 2007/2008 In 2008, 34 journalists died in the line of duty.That's down from the 65 killed In 2007. In 103 countries the proportion ofwomen in parliamentincreased between 1995 and 2008, butaround the world it still averages just 18.4%. As of 2007, only 28 countries, representing 13% of the world's population, arefully democratic.54 countries, representing 38.3% of the world's population areflawed democracies; 30 arehybrid regimes; and 55, or 38.2% of the world's population, areauthoritarian regimes. Between 1970 and 2005 the under-5mortality rateworldwide fell from 96 to 76 per 1,000 live births. Multiparty electionsare now held in 140 of the world's 195 countries. Coups overthrew 46 elected governments in the second half of the twentieth century. The proportion of theworld's extremely poorfell from 29% in 1990 to 23% in 1999. In 2006,2.6 billion people, or 40% of the world’s population, lived on less than $2 a day,with 1 billion of them surviving on the margins of subsistence with less than $1 a day. In 2006, 1.1 billion people lacked access tosafe water, and 2.6 billion did not have access to any form of improved sanitation services. Just 125 countries, with 62% of the world's population, have a free or partlyfree press. Of the world's estimated 854 millionilliterate adults, 544 million are women. Armed conflict continues to blight the lives of millions: since 1990, 3.6 million people have died as a result ofcivil wars and ethnic violence,more than 16 times the number killed in wars between states. Civilianshave accounted for more than90% of thecasualties—either injured or killed—in post-cold war conflicts. Ninety countries are affected bylandminesand unexploded ordinance, with rough estimates of 15,000 to 20,000 mine victims each year. Greenhouse gasesin the Earth’s atmosphere are accruing at a record rate. In 2007, there were 380 parts per million ofcarbon dioxidein the atmosphere, which exceeds the natural range of the past 650,000 years. The United States has acarbon footprintfive times that of China, and over 15 times that of India. The 23 million residents of the US state of Texas emit morecarbon dioxidethan the entire population of sub-Saharan Africa, which is 720 million people.

A Profile of the World, 2012 Source: The World Factbook, 2012 Geography Age:4.55 billion years old. Total area:510.072 million sq km (196.940 million sq mi).Land area:148.94 million sq km (57.506 million sq mi).Water area:361.132 million sq km (139.434 million sq mi).Coastline: Land boundaries:251,060 km (156,262.58 mi.), not counting shared boundaries twice. Climate:Two large areas of polar climates are separated by two rather narrow temperate zones from a wide equatorial band of tropical to subtropical climates. Terrain:Highest elevation is Mt. Everest at 8,850 m (29,035 ft) and lowest land depression is the Dead Sea at –411 m (–1,349 ft) below sea level. The greatest ocean depth is the Mariana Trench at –10,924 m Land use:Arable land:10.57%.Permanent crops:1.04%.Other:88.39% (2005 est.).Irrigated land:3,245,556 sq km. See also Atlas of the World. People Population:7,021,836,029 (July 2012 est.). Growth rate:1.096% (2012 est.). Birth rate:19.14 births/1,000 population (2012 est.). Death rate:7.99 deaths/1,000 population (2012 est.). Sex ratio (at birth):1.07 males/females (2011 est.). Infant mortality rate:39.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2012 est.). Life expectancy at birth:Total population:67.59 years.Male:65.59 years.Female:69.73 years (2012 est.). Total fertility rate:2.47 children born per woman (2012 est.). Literacy:Age 15 and over who can read and write (2005 est.).Total population:83.7%.Male:88.3%.Female:79.2%NOTE:More than two-thirds of the world's 793 million illiterate adults are found in only eight Government and Economy Political divisions:195 sovereign nations, 72 dependent areas, and 6 disputed territories. Economy:In 2011, world output — and per capita income — began to recover from the 2008–09 recession, the first global downturn since 1946. Gross World Product (GWP) grew 3.7%, a slowdown GWP/PPP:$79.39 trillion (2011 est.). GWP—real growth rate:3.7% (2011 est.). GWP/PPP—per capita:$11,900 (2011 est.). GWP composition:agriculture 6%, industry 30.7%, services 63.4% (2011 est.). Inflation rate (consumer price index):developed countries: 3.1%; developing countries: 6.3% (2011 est.). Note: Developed countries 0% to 4% typically; developing countries 5% to 10% typically; Unemployment rate:9.1% (2011 est.). Exports:$18.15 trillion (2011 est.). Imports:$17.94 trillion (2011 est.). External debt:$69.05 trillion (2011 est.)

History and symbolism of the Irish tricolour Rarely has a flag possessed such lasting relevance as that of the "Tricolour," the national flag of the Republic of Ireland. Its three equal stripes illustrate the Irish political landscape as accurately today as in 1848, the year the flag was first unfurled. orange— standing for Irish Protestants green— signifying Irish Catholics and the republican cause white— representing the hope for peace between them Why Orange? The color orange is associated with Northern Irish Protestants because of William of Orange(William III), the King of England, Scotland, and Ireland who in 1690 defeated the deposed King James II, a Roman Catholic, in the fateful Battle of the Boynenear Dublin. William III's victory secured Protestant dominance over the island, to the enormous benefit of the 17th-century colonizers of northern Ireland — the English (mainly Anglicans) and Scots (mostly Presbyterians). Sometimes called Orangemen, Protestants in Northern Ireland celebrate the anniversary of the battle each July 12th. Green for the Emerald Isle? Green as the color standing for the Irish Catholic nationalists of the south may have something to do with shamrocks and verdant landscapes, but more importantly, green symbolizes revolution. An earlier, unofficial Irish flag —the gold harp on a green background— served from 1798 until the early twentieth century as a symbol of nationalism. As the revolutionary James Connollywrote, just weeks before he participated in the quixotic Easter Rebellion (1916) that led to his execution by firing squad: For centuries the green flag of Ireland was a thing accurst and hated by the English garrison in Ireland, as it is still in their inmost hearts... ...the green flag of Ireland will be solemnly hoisted over Liberty Hall as a symbol of our faith in freedom, and as a token to all the world that the working class of Dublin stands for the cause of Ireland, and the cause of Ireland is the cause of a separate and distinct nationality. —Worker's Republic,April 8, 1916 A Lasting Truce between Orange and Green? Although it was not adopted as the national flag of Ireland until independence from Britain on December 6, 1921, the Tricolour was first unfurled in public on March 7, 1848, by the militant nationalist Thomas Francis Meagher1, (the stripes, however, were arranged differently at that time). Explaining the significance of the Tricolour, Meagher expressed a hope for his country that is unfortunately still unrealized today: The white in the center signifies a lasting truce between the "Orange" and the "Green," and I trust that beneath its folds the hands of the Irish Protestant and the Irish Catholic may be clasped in generous and heroic brotherhood. 1. Irish revolutionary was just one of Meagher's careers: he was also a prisoner in a Tasmanian penal colony, a New York City lawyer, and a Civil War general for the Union Army.

U.S. Flag Timeline A history of Old Glory by Ann-Marie Imbornoni 1776 1777 1794 1814 1818 1912 1916 1949 1960 1776 Jan. 2 The first unofficial national flag, called the Grand Unionor Continental Colours, was raised at the behest of Gen. George Washingtonnear his headquarters outside Boston, Mass. The flag had 13 alternating red and white horizontal stripes and the British Union Flag (a predecessor of the Union Jack) in the upper left corner. May According to a popular story, George Washington and two other representatives from the Continental Congresscalled upon a Philadelphia seamstress, Betsy Ross, to ask her to make a new American flag. This version of events cannot be confirmed by historians, however. Although nobody knows for sure who designed the flag, it may have been Continental Congress member Francis Hopkinson. Top 1777 June 14 The first official flag, also known as the Stars and Stripes or Old Glory, was approved by the Continental Congress: "Resolved, That the Flag of the United States be 13 stripes, alternate red and white; that the Union be 13 stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation." The resolution did not specify how the stars should be arranged, and so the layout varied. Top 1794 Jan. 13 Congress authorized the addition of two more stars and two more stripes to mark the admission of Vermontand Kentuckyto the Union in 1791 and 1792, respectively. This 15-star, 15-stripe flag, which came into use after May 1795, was the " star-spangled banner" that inspired lawyer and poet Francis Scott Key. Top 1814 Sept. 14 As daylight broke, Francis Scott Key saw the American flag still flying over Fort McHenry, after it had been bombarded all night by the British. Inspired, he wrote a poem entitled "The Defense of Fort M'Henry," which was later set to music and renamed the " Star-Spangled Banner." Congress made it the official national anthem in 1931. Top 1818 April 4 After five more statesjoined the Union, Congress passed legislation fixing the number of stripes at 13 and requiring that the number of stars equal the number of states. (Each new star was to be added on the 4th of July following the state's entry into the Union.) Top 1912 After New Mexicoand Arizonajoined the Union on Jan. 6 and Feb. 14, respectively, the flag had 48 stars. On June 24, President William Howard Taftissued an executive order that established the proportions of the flag and set the arrangement of the stars in horizontal rows. Top 1916 May 30 President Woodrow Wilsonproclaimed Flag Daya day of national celebration. Top 1949 Aug. 3 President Harry Trumansigned an Act of Congress that requested that the president issue an annual proclamation calling for the observance of Flag Dayand for the display of the flag on all federal government buildings. Top 1960 July 4 The last new star, bringing the total to 50, was added after Hawaiibecame a state.

Disaster Survival Guide You never know when disaster will strike. If it does, it’s important to be prepared. Your life—or the lives of others—may depend on knowing how get out of a tough jam. Here are some tricks that experts say will increase a person’s chances of surviving a sticky situation. You are bitten by a snake Even if you once saw it done in a movie, don’t try to suck the venom and spit it out. This will only make you absorb even more venom. Remain calm-most snake bites aren’t fatal. Panic will only make your heart beat faster, speeding the venom through your body. Clean the wound the way you would any other type of wound. Then tie a band between the wound and your heart to keep the venom from spreading too quickly. Don’t make the band as tight as a tourniquet. Seek medical attention right away. If you are in the woods and can’t easily get to a doctor, go to a road and wave down a car. You are in water with sharks Try to keep still, to keep the shark from noticing you. If you think it’s attacking, hit it in the eyes or gills. (Punch the nose only if you can’t reach the eyes or gills.) Use your fists or any hard object. Sharks aren’t interested in going after prey that fights back, so it will probably swim away. To avoid this frightening problem, it’s best not to swim alone far from the ocean’s shore. Don’t swim during the twilight or evening or wear brightly colored swimwear. Don’t swim if you have an open wound. You are attacked by a bear Don’t turn your back on the bear and run away. The bear will think you are prey and chase you. There’s no way you can outrun a bear. Nor can you out-climb one. Bears will chase you up a tree, where there’s no escape. Your best hope is lie down and play dead. The bear might come over and inspect you, maybe even swipe at you with its claws. With any luck, it will lose interest and leave. Your car is sinking First and most importantly, open the car windows. You want water to fill the car so the pressure on the car’s inside and outside will be equal. Now you will be able to open the doors. Get out of the car as quickly as possible. If you can’t open the windows, try to break them. If that doesn’t work, wait while the car slowly fills with water. Once the water has reached your head, the water pressure should be equalized. Hold your breath, open the door and swim out. You are in a lightning storm It’s not what you do—it’s what you shouldn’t do: don’t stay in high places or open ground. Don’t stand under a tree or flagpole or in a picnic area, baseball dugout or bleachers. Don’t go near metal fences and any body of water. It’s better to stand inside a large building than a small one. Once inside, don’t touch anything conductive that leads to the outside, such as window frames, showers and pipes. Don’t pick up a telephone or use a computer or TV. If you’re inside a car, roll up the windows and try not to touch anything that can conduct electricity. Your tongue is stuck to a cold pole This isn’t life-threatening—but it’s painful and embarrassing. The best advice is not to put your tongue on a freezing pole in the first place. But if you do, don’t try to quickly pull your tongue off the pole—you’ll rip it! Instead, move your hands (they should be in gloves!) over the pole near your tongue. This should warm the pole enough to let you slowly pull your tongue off. If warm water is nearby, splash it over your tongue to thaw it. Don’t put cool water or your saliva over the area: they will both freeze, making the situation stickier.

Billion Dollar U.S. Weather Disasters, 1980–2013 (part 3 & last part): Severe Storms and Tornadoes(March 2006); preliminary estimate of over $1.0 billion in damage/costs; 10 deaths reported. 2005Hurricane Wilma(October); preliminary estimate of over $ 10.0 billion in damage/costs; estimated 35 deaths. Hurricane Rita(September); preliminary estimate of over $ 10.0 billion in damage/costs; estimated 35 deaths. Hurricane Katrina(August); preliminary estimate of around $100 billion in damage/costs, making this the most expensive natural disaster in U.S. history; circa 1800 deaths - the highest U.S. total since the 1928 major hurricane in southern Florida. Hurricane Dennis(July); preliminary estimate of over $2 billion in damage/costs; at least 12 deaths. Midwest Drought(Spring-Summer); preliminary estimate of over $1.0 billion in damage/costs; no reported deaths. 2004Hurricane Jeanne(September); preliminary estimate of over $6.9 billion in damage/costs; at least 28 deaths. Hurricane Ivan(September); NY. estimate of over $14 billion in damage/costs; at least 57 deaths. Hurricane Frances(September); estimate of approximately $9 billion in damage/costs; at least 48 deaths. Hurricane Charley(August); estimate of approximately $15 billion in damage/costs; at least 34 deaths. 2003Southern California Wildfires(Oct.–Nov.); estimate of over $2.5 billion damage/costs; 22 deaths. Hurricane Isabel(Sept.); estimate of approximately $5 billion in damages/costs; at least 55 deaths. Severe Storms and Tornadoes(May); over $3.4 billion in damages/costs; 51 deaths. Storms and Hail(April.); over $ 1.6 billion in damages/costs: 3 deaths. 2002Widespread Drought(Spring–Fall); estimate of over $ 10.0 billion in damages; no deaths. Western Fire Season(Spring–Fall); $ 2.0 billion in damages/costs; 21 deaths. 2001Tropical Storm Allison(June); preliminary estimate of approximately $5.0 (5.1) billion; 43 deaths. Midwest and Ohio Tornadoes(June); $1.9 billion in damage/costs, at least 3 deaths. 2000Drought/Heat Wave(Spring–Summer); preliminary estimate more than $4.0 (4.2) billion; estimated 140 deaths nationwide. Western Fire Season(Spring–Summer); more than $2.0 (2.1) billion; no deaths reported. 1999Hurricane Floyd(Sept.); at least $6.0 (6.5) billion; 77 deaths. Eastern Drought/Heat Wave(Summer); more than $1.0 (1.1) billion; estimated 502 deaths. Oklahoma-Kansas Tornadoes(May); at least $1.6 (1.7) billion; 55 deaths. Arkansas-Tennessee Tornadoes(Jan.); approximately $1.3 (1.4) billion; 17 deaths. 1998Texas Flooding(Oct.–Nov.); approximately $1.0 (1.1) billion; 31 deaths. Hurricane Georges(Sept.); estimated $5.9 (6.5) billion; 16 deaths. Hurricane Bonnie(Aug.); approximately $1.0 (1.1) billion; 3 deaths. Southern Drought/Heat Wave(Summer); $6.0-$9.0 billion; at least 200 deaths. Minnesota Severe Storms/Hail(May); more than $1.5 (1.7) billion; 1 death. Southeast Tornadoes and Flooding(Winter–Spring); more than $1.0 (1.1) billion; at least 132 deaths. Northeast Ice Storm(Jan.); more than $1.4 (1.5) billion; 16 deaths. 1997Northern Plains Flooding(April–May); approximately $3.7 (4.1) billion; 11 deaths. Mississippi and Ohio Valleys Flooding and Tornadoes(March); estimated $1.0 (1.1) billion; 67 deaths. West Coast Flooding(Dec. 1996–Jan. 1997); approximately $3.0 (3.4) billion; 36 deaths. 1996Hurricane Fran(Sept.); more than $5.0 (5.8) billion; 37 deaths. Southern Plains Severe Drought(Fall 1995–Summer 1996); approximately $5.0 (6.0) billion; no deaths. Pacific Northwest Severe Flooding(Feb.); approximately $1.0 (1.2) billion; 9 deaths. Blizzard of '96 and Flooding(Jan.); approximately $3.0 (3.5) billion; 187 deaths. 1995Hurricane Opal(Oct.); more than $3.0 (3.6) billion; 27 deaths. Hurricane Marilyn(Sept.); estimated $2.1 (2.5) billion; 13 deaths. Southern Severe Weather and Flooding(May); 5.0-$6.0 (6.5-7.1) billion; 32 deaths. California Flooding(Jan.–March); more than $3.0 (3.6) billion; 27 deaths. 1994Western Fire Season(Summer–Fall); approximately $1.0 (1.2) billion; death toll undetermined. Texas Flooding(Oct.); approximately $1.0 (1.2) billion; 19 deaths. Tropical Storm Alberto(July); approximately $1.0 (1.2) billion; 32 deaths. Southeast Ice Storm(Feb.); approximately $3.0 (3.7) billion; 9 deaths. 1993California Wildfires(Fall); approximately $1.0 (1.3) billion; 4 deaths. Midwest Flooding(Summer); approximately $21.0 (26.7) billion; 48 deaths. Drought/Heat Wave(Summer); about $1.0 (1.3) billion; at least 16 deaths. “Storm of the Century” Blizzard(March); $3.0-$6.0 (3.8-7.6) billion; approximately 270 deaths. 1992Nor'easter of 1992(Dec.); $1.0-$2.0 (1.3-2.6) billion; 19 deaths. Hurricane Iniki(Sept.); about $1.8 (2.4) billion; 7 deaths. Hurricane Andrew(Aug.); approximately $27.0 (35.6) billion; 61 deaths. 1991Oakland Firestorm(Oct.): approximately $2.5 (3.5) billion; 25 deaths. Hurricane Bob(Aug.); $1.5 (2.1) billion; 18 deaths.

Billion Dollar U.S. Weather Disasters, 1980–2013 (part 2): Southeast/Midwest Tornadoes and Severe Weather(June 18-22, 2011); over $1.3 billion in total damages/costs; an estimated 81 tornadoes over central and southern states; wind and hail damage in the Southeast; 3 deaths. Midwest/Southeast Tornadoes(May 22–27, 2011); estimate of over $9.1 billion in total damage/costs; an estimated 180 tornadoes over central and southern states; 177 reported deaths. Southeast/Ohio Valley/Midwest Tornadoes(April 25-30, 2011); over $10.2 billion in total damages/costs; an estimated 343 tornadoes over central and southern states; 321 deaths (240 in Alabama). Midwest/Southeast Tornadoes(April 14–16, 2011); Over $2.1 billion in total losses/costs; an estimated 177 tornadoes in several central and southern states; 38 deaths (22 in North Carolina). Midwest/Southeast Tornadoes(April 8–11, 2011); over $1.5 billion in losses/costs; an estimated 59 tornadoes in central and southern states; no deaths reported. Midwest/Southeast Tornadoes(April 4–5, 2011); over $2.8 billion in total losses with damage in several central and southern states; an estimated 46 tornadoes reported; 9 deaths. Groundhog Day Blizzard(Jan. 29–Feb. 3, 2011); over $1.8 billion in damages/costs from a large winter storm affecting central, eastern and northeastern states; Chicago was at a standstill; 36 deaths. 2010Midwest Tornadoes and Severe Weather(May 2010 ); total losses exceeded $3.0 billion in damages/costs; 3 deaths. Mid-South Flooding and Severe Weather(April-May 2010 ); total losses exceeded $2.3 billion in damages/costs; 32 deaths. Northeast Flooding(March 2010 ); over $1.5 billion in damages/costs; 11 deaths. 2009Southwest/Great Plains Drought(entire year 2009); estimate of over $5.0 billion in damage/costs; no reported deaths. Western Wildfires(Summer-Fall 2009); over $1.0 billion in damages/costs (including annual fire suppression costs); 10 deaths. Midwest, South and Eastern Severe Weather(June 2009); Over $1.1 billion in damages/costs; no deaths reported. South/Southeast Tornadoes and Severe Weather(April 2009); over $1.2 billion in damages/costs; 6 deaths. Midwest/Southeast Tornadoes(March 2009); Over $1.0 billion in damages/costs with majority of damage in TX; no deaths reported. Southeast/Ohio Valley Severe Weather(February 2009); over $1.4 billion in damages/costs with majority of damage in OK and OH; 10 deaths. 2008Widespread Drought(entire year 2008); estimate of over $2.0 billion in damage/costs; no reported deaths. Hurricane Ike(September 2008); estimate of over $27.0 billion in damage/costs; 112 deaths reported. Hurricane Gustav(September 2008); preliminary estimate of at least $5.0 billion in damage/costs; 43 deaths reported. Hurricane Dolly(July 2008); preliminary estimate of over $1.2 billion in damage/costs; three deaths reported. US Wildfires(Summer-Fall 2008); preliminary estimate of over $2.0 billion in damage/costs; 16 deaths reported. Midwest Flood(June 2008); preliminary estimate of over $15 billion in damage/costs; 24 deaths reported. Midwest/Mid-Atlantic Severe Weather/Tornadoes(June 2008); preliminary estimate of over $1.1 billion in damage/costs; 18 deaths reported. Midwest/Ohio Valley Severe Weather/Tornadoes(May 2008); preliminary estimate of over $2.4 billion in damage/costs; 13 deaths reported. Southeast/Midwest Tornadoes(February 2008); preliminary estimate of over $1.0 billion in damage/costs; 57 deaths reported. 2007Great Plains and Eastern Drought(entire year 2007); preliminary estimate of over $5.0 billion in damage/costs; no reported deaths. Western Wildfires(Summer-Fall 2007); preliminary estimate of over $1.0 billion in damage/costs; at least 12 deaths. East/South Severe Weather(April 2007); preliminary estimate of over $1.5 billion in damage/costs; nine deaths reported. 2006Wildfires(Entire year 2006); preliminary estimate of over $1.0 billion in damage/costs; 28 deaths, including 20 firefighters. Widespread Drought(Spring-Summer 2006); preliminary estimate of over $6.0 billion in damage/costs; some heat-related deaths, but not beyond typical annual averages. Northeast Flooding(June 2006); preliminary estimate of over $1.0 billion in damage/costs; at least 20 deaths reported. Midwest/Southeast Tornadoes(April 2006); preliminary estimate of over $1.5 billion in damage/costs; 10 deaths reported. Midwest/Ohio Valley Tornadoes(April 2006); preliminary estimate of over $1.1 billion in damage/costs; 27 deaths reported.

Billion Dollar U.S. Weather Disasters, 1980–2013 (part 1): Source:National Climatic Data Center The U.S. has sustained 123 weather-related disasters during the 1980-2012 period in which overall damages and costs reached or exceeded $1 billion at the time of the event. Twelve occurred during 2011 alone—the most for any year on record, with total costs being approximately $52 billion. Two damage figures are given for events prior to 2002: the first represents actual dollar costs and is not adjusted for inflation. The second (in parentheses) is the dollar cost normalized to 2002 dollars using a GNP inflation/wealth index. The total normalized losses for the 99 events are over $725 billion. Sources include Storm Data (NCDC publication), the National Weather Service, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, other U.S. government agencies, individual state emergency management agencies, state and regional climate centers, and insurance industry estimates. 2013Category 4 Tornado in Oklahoma(May 20, 2013); an enormous category 4 tornado hit Oklahoma City, Moore, and Newcastle. Moore was the hardest hit. The city's Plaza Towers Elementary School was flattened. More than 90 people were killed in the storm, including 20 children. The tornado, stretching about a mile wide, was on the ground for 40 minutes. 2012National Drought(2012); a drought began in the spring of 2012 due to the lack of snow the U.S. received during the previous winter. The drought has caused 123 deaths and over $40 billion in damages / cost. Southeast/Ohio Valley Tornadoes(March 2–3 2012); a total of 75 tornadoes caused 4 billion in damages/costs and 42 deaths. Texas Tornadoes(April 2–3 2012); a total of 22 tornadoes, including several in the Dallas area, caused 1.3 billion in damages/costs. The tornadoes caused no deaths. Midwest Tornadoes(April 13–14 2012); 98 confirmed tornadoes hit Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa. The damage cost $283 million in Wichita alone. The disaster caused nearly $2 billion in total damages/costs. Six people were killed. Midwest/Ohio Valley Storms(April 28–May 1 2012); a total of 38 tornadoes and large hail caused major damage, especially in St. Louis. At least $4 billion in damages/costs was estimated. One person was killed. Southern Plains/Midwest/Northeast Severe Weather(May 25–30 2012); a total of 27 tornadoes and severe storms caused major damage in several states and cost $2.5 billion. One person was killed. Rockies/Southwest Severe Weather(June 6–12 2012); 25 tornadoes and large hail hit Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. The hail damage cost more than $1 billion in Colorado alone. The total cost of the storms was estimated at $3 billion. East/Northeast/Plains Severe Storms (Derecho)(June 29–July 2 2012); a large storm system, also called a derecho, left damage from Ohio and Indiana through the mid-Atlantic. Damage by this disaster was estimated at $4 billion. The storm system also caused 28 deaths. Hurricane Isaac(August 2012); the hurricane hit the Gulf Coast, bringing flooding, strong winds and tornadoes. Isaac caused an estimated 2.3 billion in damages and 42 deaths. Western Wildfires(Summer/Fall 2012); various wildfires burned up 9.1 million acres. The most intense wildfires were in the western part of the United States. The estimated cost of damage was between $1 and $2 billion. Hurricane Sandy(October 2012); Sandy struck the east coast, killing 132 people. Sandy caused an estimated $82 billion dollars in damages to New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut. 2011Texas, New Mexico, Arizona Wildfires(Spring-Fall, 2011); over $1.0 billion in total damages/costs; drought and extreme heat caused several historic wildfires across Texas, New Mexico and Arizona; over 3 million acres burned in Texas; 5 deaths reported. Hurricane Irene(August 20–29, 2011); estimate of over $7.3 billion in total damage/costs; minimal category 1 hurricane hit coastal North Carolina and moved north along Mid-Atlantic Coast causing flooding in the Northeast; numerous tornadoes were also reported; 45 reported deaths. Upper Midwest Flooding(Summer 2011); over $2.0 billion in total damages/costs; melting snow combined with above normal precipitation caused the Missouri and Souris Rivers to flood across the Upper Midwest; 4,000 homes were flooded and 11,000 people evacuated Minot, North Dakota; 5 deaths. Mississippi River Flooding(Spring–Summer 2011); $3.0–4.0 billion in total losses/costs; nearly 300 percent more than normal precipitation amounts in the Ohio Valley combined with melting snow caused historical flooding along the Mississippi River and its tributaries; 7 deaths reported. Southern Plains/Southwest Drought and Heatwave(Spring–Fall, 2011); nearly $10.0 billion in losses to crops, livestock and timber; Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, southern Kansas, and western Louisiana are all impacted; no deaths reported.

Tsunami Factfile The Indian Ocean tsunami that occured in December 2004 was the deadliest in history: Indian Ocean Tsunami: The Deadliest in History On Dec. 26, 2004, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake—the largest earthquakein 40 years—ruptured in the Indian Ocean, off the northwest coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The earthquake triggered the deadliest tsunamiin world history, so powerful that the waves caused loss of life on the coast of Africa and were even detected on the East Coast of the United States. More than 225,000 people have died from the disaster, a half a million have been injured, thousands still remain missing, and millions were left homeless. Eleven countries bordering the Indian Ocean—all relatively poor and vulnerable—suffered devastation. Hardest hit were Indonesia(particularly the province of Aceh), Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, and the Maldives. The catastrophic damage included the destruction of entire cities, the contamination of farmland and forests, and the depletion of fishing stocks. Some areas faced starvation and increased suseptibility to disease. Even countries with relatively low death tolls suffered enormous damage—the Maldives, for example, had less than 100 deaths, yet the tsunami left 14 of the archipelago's islands uninhabitable, requiring its inhabitants to be permanently evacuated, and another 79 islands without safe drinking water. Seestatistics on Deadliest Tsunamisand Deadliest Earthquakes. The Science of Tsunami A tsunami(pronounced soo-NAHM-ee) is a series of huge waves that occur as the result of a violent underwater disturbance, such as an earthquakeor volcanic eruption. The waves travel in all directions from the epicenter of the disturbance. The waves may travel in the open sea as fast as 450 miles per hour. As they travel in the open ocean, tsunami waves are generally not particularly large—hence the difficulty in detecting the approach of a tsunami. But as these powerful waves approach shallow waters along the coast, their velocity is slowed and they consequently grow to a great height before smashing into the shore. They can grow as high as 100 feet; the Indian Ocean tsunami generated waves reaching 30 feet. Tsunamiis the Japanese word for "harbor wave." They are sometimes mistakenly referred to as tidal waves, but tsunamis have nothing to do with the tides. Tsunamis have been relatively rare in the Indian Ocean, and are most common in the Pacific Ocean. For more details on Tsunami, see our encyclopedia articleand Tsunami FAQs. Countries Damaged by the Indian Ocean Tsunami Deadliest Tsunamis in History Fatalities1YearMagnitudePrincipal areas 350,00020049.0Indian Ocean 100,000+1410 b.c.Crete-Santorini, Ancient Greece 100,00017558.5Portugal, Morocco, Ireland, and the United Kingdom 100,0001908Messina, Italy 40,00017827.0South China Sea, Taiwan 36,5001883Krakatau, Indonesia 30,00017078.4Tokaido-Nankaido, Japan 26,36018967.6Sanriku, Japan 25,67418688.5Northern Chile 15,03017926.4Kyushu Island, Japan Source:National Geophysical Data Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Deadliest Earthquakes in History FatalitiesYearMagnitudePrincipal areas 830,00015568.0Shansi, China 255,000+19768.0Tangshan, China 230,000+20049.1off west coast of northern Sumatra 230,0001138n.a.Aleppo, Syria 222,57020107.0Haiti 200,00019208.6Gansu, China 200,00019277.9near Xining, China 200,000856n.a.Damghan, Iran 150,000893n.a.Ardabil, Iran 143,00019237.9Kwanto, Japan Source:National Earthquake Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey. Data compiled from several sources.

The Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake: At 5:12 a.m. on April 18, 1906, the people of San Francisco were awakened by an earthquakethat would devastate the city. The main temblor, having a 7.7–7.9 magnitude, lasted about one minute and was the result of the rupturing of the northernmost 296 miles of the 800-mile San Andreas fault. But when calculating destruction, the earthquake took second place to the great fire that followed. The fire, lasting four days, most likely started with broken gas lines (and, in some cases, was helped along by people hoping to collect insurance for their property—they were covered for fire, but not earthquake, damage). With water mains broken, fighting the fires was almost impossible, and about 500 city blocks were destroyed. The damages were estimated at about $400,000,000 in 1906 dollars, which would translate to about $8.2 billion today. Uncertain Death Toll In 1906 San Franciscowas the ninth largest U.S. city with a population of 400,000, and over 225,000 were left homeless by the disaster. The death toll is uncertain. City officials estimated the casualties at 700 but more modern calculations say about 3,000 lost their lives. The lowballing city figures may have been a public relations ploy to downplay the disaster with an eye on rebuilding the city. On April 20, the U.S.S.Chicagorescued 20,000 victims, one of the largest sea evacuations in history, rivaling Dunkirkin World War II. Martial law was not declared, but some 500 looters were shot by police and the military. Shifting Seismologic Knowledge The epicenter of this earthquake has moved around in the past 100 years, as advances in seismology have been made. It was first thought to have been in Marin County, then northwest of the Golden Gate, and most recently, in the Pacific Ocean about two miles west of San Francisco. The plate-tectonics theorythat would shed some light on the quake wasn't formulated until the 1920s and not embraced until some three decades later. The San Andreas faultis on the boundary between the Pacific plate and the North American plate. During the earthquake, the ground west of the fault tended to move northward and, in the most extreme instance, a 21-foot shift was measured. Earthquake ruptures are fast movers—seismologists estimated the average speed of this rupture to have been 8,300 mi/hr going north, and 6,300 mi/hr traveling south. The quake was felt from southern Oregon to south of Los Angeles and inland as far as central Nevada. Magnitude Charles Richterdeveloped his scale in 1935 to measure the amount of seismic energy released, the magnitude, of an earthquake. Seismologists found the Richter scale fine for lower magnitude quakes, but inaccurate for higher magnitude ones. The 1906 earthquake was assigned a Richter rating of 8.3, but on the newer moment magnitude scaleit has been demoted to one measuring 7.8 or 7.9. "The Big One" On Oct. 17, 1989, at 5:04 p.m., at the height of the rush hour, Bay Area residents thought the "big one" had struck. The 7.1 Richter scale (6.9 moment magnitude) Loma Prieta earthquake, with its epicenter about 60 miles from San Francisco, was the largest one to hit the region since 1906. Sixty to 70 deaths were reported, freeways and bridges were damaged, and the World Series between the Oakland and San Francisco teams was postponed for 10 days. Property damage was estimated at $6 billion dollars, making this the costliest natural disaster to that date. But seismologists said this was not the major earthquake feared by all. That one is still in the future. In 1906 there were only about 650,000 people living in the area, but today more than 7 million people make their homes in the San Francisco Bay region. Scientists in 2003 estimated that there is a 62% probability of a 6.7 magnitude or larger earthquake hitting the Bay Area in the next 30 years and Californians live in the shadow of "the big one."

Hurricane Katrina: Hurricane Katrina slammed into the U.S. Gulf Coast on Aug. 29, 2005, destroying beachfront towns in Mississippiand Louisiana, displacing a million people, and killing almost 1,800. When levees in New Orleanswere breached, 80% of the city was submerged by the flooding. About 20% of its 500,000 citizens were trapped in the city without power, food, or drinking water. Rescue efforts were so delayed and haphazard that many were stranded for days on rooftops and in attics before help arrived. The city became a toxic pool of sewage, chemicals, and corpses, and in the ensuing chaos, mayhem and looting became rampant—about 15% of the city's police force had simply walked off the job. The 20,000 people who made their way to the Superdome, the city's emergency shelter, found themselves crammed into sweltering and fetid conditions. At a second shelter, the convention center, evacuees were terrorized by roaming gangs and random gunfire. Relief workers, medical help, security forces, and essential supplies remained profoundly inadequate during the first critical days of the disaster. Poor and Elderly Disproportionately Affected As most of the city's citizens fled the city, those without cars or the financial means to relocate were left behind. The 100,000 who remained in the drowning city were largely poor and predominantly black, exposing the racial dimension of New Orleans’s persistent poverty: 28% of New Orleanians are poor (twice the national average) and 84% of those are black. The elderly poor were also disproportionately affected by the disaster: 70% of the New Orleans area's 53 nursing homes were not evacuated before the hurricane struck. A Natural Disaster Waiting to Happen Hurricane Katrina has been called the most anticipated disaster in modern American history. For years, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) had ranked New Orleans and San Francisco as the two cities most vulnerable to catastrophic natural disaster, and a day before Katrina's landfall, the National Weather Service warned that the hurricane would cause "human suffering incredible by modern standards." All Levels of Government Falter Americans were shaken not simply by the magnitude of the disaster but by how ill-prepared all levels of government were in its aftermath. Although New Orleans had performed a hurricane drill the previous year, the city and state governments had no transportation or crime prevention plans in place, and such negligence had devastating consequences. Homeland Security and FEMA The Department of Homeland Security, the new cabinet agency created for the very purpose of increasing domestic security, had unveiled its National Response Plan in Jan. 2005, which promised "vastly improved coordination among federal, state, local, and tribal organizations . . . by increasing the speed, effectiveness, and efficiency of incident management." Yet Michael Chertoff, the Department's Secretary, waited until two days after the hurricane hit before putting the plan into effect by declaring it an "incident of national significance." Critics claimed Homeland Security's efforts had been focused on the prevention of terrorism at the expense of preparing for natural catastrophes. Seeming not to grasp the scale of the disaster, Chertoff and Michael Brown, the director of FEMA, expressed surprise at the dangerous conditions in the convention center in New Orleans, days after its horrific images had saturated the airwaves, making them appear less informed than the average TV viewer. Brown was so inept in managing the crisis that he was quietly removed after two weeks. All three top jobs at FEMA had been filled by political appointees with no emergency management experience, and half of the agency's senior career professionals had been cut since 2000. The President's Response In sharp contrast to the leadership he displayed after the Sept. 11 terrorist attack, President Bushinitially seemed off-key and out of touch, declaring that he didn't "think anybody anticipated the breach of the levees" and waiting four days before his first brief visit to the region. Trust in the president's ability to lead the country during a crisis had been a central factor in his reelection, but two-thirds of Americans considered his response to Katrina inadequate. To repair his image, Bush acknowledged the government's faltering response and pledged "one of the largest reconstruction efforts the world has ever seen." A Year Later A year after Katrina, the population of New Orleans was less than half of what it was before the storm hit. Nearly half the city's hospitals remained shut and half its doctors had moved out of the area. Electricity was restored to just 60% of the city.

Hurricanes by the Numbers (Atlantic hurricane statistics) Millions live in the paths of the biggest storms Source: U.S. Census Bureau 10 The number of hurricanes during the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season, with only two of them as major hurricanes (Category 3-strength or higher). However, one of the major hurricanes was Hurricane Sandy. It struck southeastern Cuba at Category 3 strength, then made landfall in New Jersey as a post-tropical cyclone. It was the second costliest cyclone on record (not adjusted for inflation) at $50 billion, ranking only behind Hurricane Katrina from 2005. The only other hurricane to make landfall in the U.S. in 2012 was Hurricane Isaac, which hit Louisiana. 82.2 million Population as of July 1, 2012, of coastal states stretching from North Carolina to Texas — the areas most threatened by Atlantic hurricanes. An estimated 26.2 percent of the nation's population live in these states. 34.1 million Population in 1960 of the states stretching from North Carolina to Texas. Approximately 19 percent of the nation's population lived in these areas at that time. 240.9% Percentage growth of the population of the states stretching from North Carolina to Texas between 1960 and 2012. 591,821 Collective land area in square miles of the states stretching from North Carolina to Texas. 10 Year Anniversary of Hurricane Isabel 2003 The costliest and deadliest hurricane of 2003, Hurricane Isabel made landfall in the U.S. on the Outer Banks of North Carolina on Sept. 18, destroying many homes on the barrier island. Isabel later moved north through Virginia and Washington, D.C., and ended up causing about $3 billion in damage to the mid-Atlantic region. Category 2 The strength of Hurricane Isabel at landfall based on the Saffir-Simpson scale, with maximum sustained winds measured at 105 mph. Isabel reached a peak as a Category 5 storm on Sept. 11 south of Bermuda, but gradually weakened as it approached landfall. 3 Counties that encompass the land area of the Outer Banks of North Carolina. The area includes parts of Currituck, Dare and Hyde counties. 64,509 Population of Currituck County, Dare County and Hyde County in North Carolina in 2012. 26,581 The number of occupied housing units in Currituck, Dare and Hyde counties combined. $236,500; 321,200; and 93,600 Median home value of owner-occupied units in Currituck, Dare and Hyde counties, respectively. 32.0, 19.5 and 25.1 minutes Mean commuting time to work for residents in Currituck, Dare and Hyde counties, respectively. 7.8%, 11.1% and 25.1% The percent of people who live below poverty level in in Currituck, Dare and Hyde counties, respectively. History of Hurricane Naming Conventions Andrea The name of the first Atlantic storm of 2013. Hurricane names rotate in a six-year cycle with the 2013 list being a repeat of the 2007 names. 76 The number of hurricane names officially retired by the World Meteorological Organization. Although hurricane names are recycled every six years, for reasons of sensitivity, hurricane names that were so deadly and costly that re-use of the name would be considered inappropriate are retired. 1950 The year the Weather Bureau officially began naming hurricanes. 2005 In one of the busiest Atlantic hurricane seasons on record, 28 named storms formed, forcing use of the alternate Greek alphabet scheme for the first time. When the National Hurricane Center's list of 21 approved names runs out for the year, hurricanes are named after Greek letters. Of the 28 named storms in 2005, 15 were hurricanes, with four storms reaching Category 5 status (Dennis, Katrina, Rita and Wilma) and three more being considered major. Preparing for Emergencies Using Census Bureau Statistics The growth in population of coastal areas illustrates the importance of emergency planning and preparedness for areas that are more susceptible to inclement weather conditions. The U.S. Census Bureau's official decennial census and population estimates, along with annually updated socio-economic data from the American Community Survey, provide a detailed look at the nation's growing coastal population. Emergency planners and community leaders can better assess the needs of coastal populations using Census Bureau statistics.

Hurricane Season The deadliest, strongest, and costliest Atlantic storms Quizzes and Crosswords Extreme Weather Disasters Quiz Great Disasters Quiz Weather Disasters Crossword Hurricane Season 2013—Predictions According to Tropical Storm Risk (TSR), an above-average hurricane season is predicted for 2013. TSR predicts the Atlantic basin will see 15.4 named storms (winds of 39 mph or higher), including 7.7 hurricanes (winds of 74 mph or higher), and 3.4 major hurricanes (Category 3, 4 or 5; winds of 111 mph or higher) in 2013. Hurricane Season 2012—Review The 2012 Atlantic hurricane season, which began June 1 and ended November 30, tied 2011, 2010, 1995, and 1887 for the third most active season in recorded history. In 2012, there were 10 hurricanes, 2 major hurricanes, 19 tropical storms, and 19 tropical cyclones. Total damage was estimated at $76.8 billion and 322 people were killed. Most of the damage was done by the two major hurricanes, Hurricane Sandy and Hurricane Isaac. Hurricane Season 2011—Review The 2011 Atlantic hurricane season, which began June 1 and ended November 30, tied 2010, 1995, and 1887 for the third highest number of tropical storms with 20, including seven hurricanes, four of them major hurricanes. Hurricanes: Irene, Katia, Maria, Nate, Ophelia, Philippe, Rina Tropical storms: Arlene, Bret, Cindy, Don, Emily, Franklin, Gert, Harvey, Jose, Lee, Sean, tropical depression Ten, unnamed tropical storm. Hurricane Season 2010—Review The 2010 Atlantic hurricane season, which began June 1 and ended November 30, produced the third largest number of named storms, with 20, and the second largest number of hurricanes, with 12. This places 2010 as the tenth most active season since 1950. Hurricanes: Alex, Danielle, Earl, Igor, Julia, Karl, Lisa, Otto, Paula, Richard, Shary, Tomas. Tropical storms: Bonnie, Colin, Fiona, Gaston, Hermine, Matthew, Nicole. Hurricane Season 2009—Review The 2009 Atlantic hurricane season, which began June 1 and ended November 30, produced fewer, shorter-lived, and generally weaker named storms than in years past. There were nine named storms, three of which became hurricanes and two became major hurricanes. An average season sees 11 named storms, with six becoming hurricanes, including two major hurricanes. The named storms were: Ana, Bill, Claudette, Danny, Erika, Fred, Grace, Henri, and Ida.

Tornadoes Facts and figures about twisters Tornado Index Average number of tornadoes per year (1950–2010):1,253 Top 5 states with highest incidence of tornadoes:Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Florida, Nebraska States with lowest incidence of tornadoes):Alaska, Rhode Island, Hawaii, Vermont, Oregon Most tornadoes in one day:316 (April 2011) Most tornadoes in one month:543 (May 2003) Most tornado deaths in one year:550 (2011) Fewest tornado deaths in one year:15 (1986) Source: Storm Prediction Centerat the National Weather Service Although tornadoescan happen at any time of year, they are especially common during the spring and early summer. May and June are the peak months in terms of numbers of tornadoes, but April appears to be the deadliest month. Two of the all-time worst tornado disasters occurred in April. On April 3-4, 1974, 148 twisters struck 13 states, causing more than 300 deaths, and on April 27, 2011, 137 reported tornadoes swept through the south, killing nearly 300 people in six states. Most of the fatalities occurred in Alabama. May holds the record for experiencing the most tornadoes. In May 2003, there were 543 recorded tornadoes. On average, 60 people die each year as a result of tornadoes, mostly from flying and falling debris. What Is a Tornado? A tornado is a dark funnel-shaped cloud made up of violently rotating winds that can reach speeds of up to 300 m.p.h. The diameter of a tornado can vary between a few feet and a mile, and its track can extend from less than a mile to several hundred miles. Tornadoes generally travel in a northeast direction (depending on the prevailing winds) at speeds ranging from 20-60 m.p.h. What Causes a Tornado? Tornadoes are most often spawned by giant thunderstorms known as "supercells." These powerful, highly organized storms form when warm, moist air along the ground rushes upward, meeting cooler, drier air. As the rising warm air cools, the moisture it carries condenses, forming a massive thundercloud, sometimes growing to as much as 50,000 ft. in height. Variable winds at different levels of the atmosphere feed the updraft and cause the formation of the tornado's characteristic funnel shape. Did you know? April is the deadliest month for tornadoes [ more] Where Do Tornadoes Occur? The conditions that lead to the formation of tornadoes are most often met in the central and southern U.S., where warm, humid air from the Gulf of Mexico collides with cool, dry air from the Rockies and Canada. This area, dubbed "tornado alley," extends roughly from the Rocky Mountains to the Appalachians, and from Iowa and Nebraska to the Gulf of Mexico. Tornadoes can also occur elsewhere, though, including all U.S. states, Europe, Asia, and Australia. What Kind of Destruction Do Tornadoes Cause? The Fujitascale classifies tornadoes according to the damage they cause. Almost half of all tornadoes fall into the F1 or "moderate damage" category. These tornadoes reach speeds of 73-112 m.p.h. and can overturn automobiles and mobile homes, rip off the roofs of houses, and uproot trees. Only about 1 percent of tornadoes are classified as F5, causing "incredible damage." With wind speeds in excess of 261 m.p.h., these tornadoes are capable of lifting houses off their foundations and hurling them considerable distances.

Lightning Zeus, park rangers, and the probability of being struck by lightning Here are a few things to bear in mind if you don't want to become a victim of a "fiery flaming thunderbolt," as Homercalled Zeus's favorite weapon: Avoid Florida, Texas, and North Carolina—the states with the greatest number of lightning deaths. Especially avoid these states in June (the worst month for lightning), followed by August, July, April, and September. open spaces, fields, and ballparks(location of 28% of deaths and 29% of lightning injuries) standing under trees (18% of deaths and 13% of injuries) boating, fishing, and other water-related activities (13% of deaths and 6% of injuries) golfcourses, tractors or heavy road equipment, and telephone booths airplanes are also a bad idea—the deadliest lightning strike ever was of a Boeing 707 near Elkton, Maryland, on Dec. 8, 1963. The plane then crashed, killing 81 people. Zeus, the Greek king of the gods, punished wayward mortals and miscreant gods by hurling thunderbolts at them. Sky deities from many world religions, including Zeus's Roman counterpart Jupiter, the Germanic Thor, the MayanChac, and the SlavicPerun, all used the thunderbolt as the paramount symbol of power. Whether deserving the wrath of the gods or not, chances are slim that you'll meet your end from a bolt of lightning. Lightning causes only an average of 57 deaths and 300 injuries in the United States each year. The National Weather Service publicationStorm Datarecorded a total of 9,207 deaths—the most of all the severe weather categories—between 1940 and 2011. In 2012, there were 28 lightning fatalities in the U.S. Dead Ringers Whatever your strategy for avoiding lightning, be sure to stay clear of church bells. During the Middle Ages, their ringing was believed to diffuse lightning, and many medieval bells were engraved withFulgura frango("I break up the lightning"). This suspect theory was discredited by a medieval scholar who observed that over a 33-year period, there were 386 lightning strikes on church towers and 103 fatalities among bell ringers. Shocking Humor Should you live to tell the tale of being struck by lightning, you can join the Lightning Strike and Electric Shock Survivors International, Inc. (LSESSI), a non-profit support group for such survivors. With its motto, "Join us if it strikes you," and newsletter,Hit or Miss, the group emphasizes the necessity of a sense of humor in overcoming trauma. One LSESSI member has been victimized both indoors and outdoors. The record holder, however, is Roy C. Sullivan, an ex-park ranger who survived seven different lightning strikes. According to theGuinness Book of Records, Sullivan was first hit by lightning in 1942, which caused him to lose his big toenail. Over the next 35 years, lightning burned off Sullivan's eyebrows, seared his left shoulders, set his hair on fire, struck his legs, injured his ankle, and burned his stomach and chest. Safe Spots The safest place to be during a thunderstorm is in a building, preferably one with a lightning rod. The rod offers protection by intercepting lightning—an electrical charge—and transmitting its current into the ground. Made out of metal so that it conducts the charge, it is usually located as high as possible because of lightning's tendency to strike the nearest object to it. (And yes, Benjamin Franklindid invent the lightning rod, as well as prove that lightning was actually electricity through his flying-a-kite-during-a-thunderstorm experiment.) The other safe place is a car with the windows rolled up, as long as you don't touch any of the metal parts. If lightning strikes, the car's metal body will conduct the charge down to the ground—contrary to popular belief, the rubber of the wheels offers no protection.

Major Terrorist Acts Suspected of or Inspired by al-Qaeda (part 3 & last part): *.2010 (Oct.):Two packages are found on separate cargo planes. Each package contains a bomb consisting of 300 to 400 grams (11-14 oz) of plastic explosives and a detonating mechanism. The bombs are discovered as a result of intelligence received from Saudi Arabia's security chief. The packages, bound from Yemen to the United States, are discovered at en route stop-overs, one in England and one in Dubai in the United Arab Emirates. A week after the packages are found, al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) takes responsibility for the plot. *.2011 (Jan.):Two Frenchmen are killed in Niger. France highly suspects the al-Qaeda Organization in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). *.2011 (Jan.):Four suicide bombings occur in Iraq between January 18-20. At least 137 people are killed and 230 are injured. Al-Qaeda is suspected in all four bombings. *.2011 (April):Men claiming to be Moroccan members of AQIM appear on the internet and threaten to attack Moroccan interests. The following week a bomb killing 15 people, including 10 foreigners, explodes in Marrakesh, Morocco. *.2012 (Summer):Over the summer of 2012, al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb and Ansar Dine, another radical Islamist group, take advantage of the instability and an increasingly weak military in Mali and capture Timbuktu, Kidal, and Gao, cities in the north. They implement and brutally enforce Shariah, or Islamic law. They also destroy many ancient books and manuscripts and vandalized tombs, saying that worshipping saints violates the tenets of Islam. The Islamists continue to stretch their area of control into the fall, prompting concern that legions of Islamists will gather and train in northern Mali and threaten large swaths of Africa. ECOWAS begins planning a military action to reclaim the north from the Islamists. *.2012 (Sept.):Militants armed with antiaircraft weapons and rocket-propelled grenades fire upon the American consulate in Benghazi, Libya, killing U.S. ambassador to Libya Christopher Stevens and three other embassy officials. U.S. secretary of state Hillary Clinton says the U.S. believes that al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, a group closely linked to al-Qaeda, orchestrated the attack. *.2013 (Jan.):Militants push into the southern part of Mali, crossing into the area controlled by the government. France sends about 2,150 troops to Mali to push them back. By the end of January, French troops push the militants out of Gao and Timbuktu, forcing them back to northern Mali. Soldiers from other African nations are also deployed to Mali to aid in the effort and will take a more active role in both combat and training Malian troops once France withdraws from Mali. *.2013 (Jan. 16):Islamic militants enter neighboring Algeria from Mali and take dozens of foreign hostages at the BP-controlled In Amenas gas field. Algerian officials say the militants are members of an offshoot of al-Qaeda called Al Mulathameen and are acting in retaliation for France's intervention in Mali. On Jan. 17, Algerian troops storm the complex and attack the kidnappers. By the end of the standoff on Jan. 20, 29 militants and 37 hostages are killed. Three Americans are among the dead. *.2013 (April 15):Multiple bombs explode near the finish line of the Boston Marathon. Two bombs go off around 2:50 in the afternoon as runners finish the race. Three people are killed and more than 170 people are injured. Three days later, the FBI releases photos and video of two suspects in the hope that the public can help identify them. Just hours after the FBI releases the images, the two suspects rob a gas station in Central Square then shoot and kill a MIT police officer in his car. Afterwards, the two men carjack a SUV and tell the driver that they had set off the explosions at the marathon. Police pursue the vehicle into Watertown. During the shootout, a MBTA officer is shot and one of the suspects, identified as Tamerlan Tsarnaev, age 26, is killed. A suicide vest is found on his body. The other suspect, Dzhokhar A. Tsarnaev, age 19, remains at large for several hours, causing a massive manhunt and lockdown for all of Boston, Cambridge, and many other surrounding communities. The manhunt ends the next evening, on April 19, when he is found alive, but seriously injured, hiding in a boat behind a house in Watertown. The two suspects are brothers and had been living together on Norfolk Street in Cambridge. They have lived in the U.S. for about a decade, but are from an area near Chechnya, a region in Russia. While the ongoing investigation so far has shown that the two suspects were not acting with any known terrorist group, evidence suggests they may have learned how to build the bombs online from an affiliate of Al Qaeda in Yemen.

Major Terrorist Acts Suspected of or Inspired by al-Qaeda (part 2): *.2008 (Jan.):In the worst attack in Iraq in months, a suicide bomber kills 30 people at a home where mourners were paying their respects to the family of a man killed in a car bomb. The Iraqi military blames the attack on al-Qaeda in Iraq. *.2008 (Feb.):Nearly 100 people die when two women suicide bombers, who are believed to be mentally impaired, attack crowded pet markets in eastern Baghdad. The U.S. military says al-Qaeda in Iraq has been recruiting female patients at psychiatric hospitals to become suicide bombers. *.2008 (April):A suicide bomber attacks the funeral for two nephews of a prominent Sunni tribal leader, Sheik Kareem Kamil al-Azawi, killing 30 people in Iraq's Diyala Province. *.2008 (April):A suicide car bomber kills 40 people in Baquba, the capital of Diyala Province in Iraq. *.2008 (April):Thirty-five people die and 62 are injured when a woman detonates explosives that she was carrying under her dress in a busy shopping district in Iraq’s Diyala Province. *.2008 (May):At least 12 worshipers are killed and 44 more injured when a bomb explodes in the Bin Salman mosque near Sana, Yemen. *.2008 (May):An al-Qaeda suicide bomber detonates explosives in Hit, a city in the Anbar Province of Iraq, killing six policemen and four civilians, and injuring 12 other people. *.2008 (June):A car bomb explodes outside the Danish Embassy in Pakistan, killing six people and injuring dozens. Al-Qaeda claims responsibility, saying the attack was retaliation for the 2006 publication of political cartoons in the Danish newspaperJyllands-Postenthat depicted the Islamic prophet Muhammad. *.2008 (June):A female suicide bomber kills 15 and wounds 40 others, including seven Iraqi policemen, near a courthouse in Baquba, Iraq. *.2008 (June):A suicide bomber kills at least 20 people at a meeting between sheiks and Americans in Karmah, a town west of Baghdad. *.2008 (Aug.):About two dozens worshippers are killed in three separate attacks as they make their way toward Karbala to celebrate the birthday of 9th-century imam Muhammad al-Mahdi. Iraqi officials blame al-Qaeda in Iraq for the attacks. *.2008 (Aug.):A bomb left on the street explodes and tears through a bus carrying Lebanese troops, killing 15 people, nine of them soldiers. No one claims responsibility for the attack, but in 2007, the army fought an al-Qaeda linked Islamist group in Tripoli. *.2008 (Aug.):At least 43 people are killed when a suicide bomber drives an explosives-laden car into a police academy in Issers, a town in northern Algeria. *.2008 (Aug.):Two car bombs explode at a military command and a hotel in Bouira, killing a dozen people. No group takes responsibility for either attack, Algerian officials said they suspect al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb is behind the bombings. *.2008 (Sept.):In its first acknowledged ground attack inside Pakistan, U.S. commandos raid a village that is home to al-Qaeda militants in the tribal region near the border with Afghanistan. The number of casualties is unclear. *.2008 (Sept.):A car bomb and a rocket strike the U.S. embassy in Yemen as staff arrived to work, killing 16 people, including 4 civilians. At least 25 suspected al-Qaeda militants are arrested for the attack. *.2008 (Nov.):at least 28 people die and over 60 more are injured when three bombs explode minutes apart in Baghdad, Iraq. Officials suspect the explosions are linked to al-Qaeda. *.2009 (April):on April 6 in Baghdad, a series of six attacks kills 36 people and injure more than 100 in Shiite neighborhoods; April 23: at least 80 people are killed in three separate suicide bombings in Baghdad. This is the largest single-day death toll due to attacks since February 2008. One of the bombings is reportedly set off by a female, who was standing among a group of women and children receiving food aid. *.2009 (Dec.):A Nigerian man on a flight from Amsterdam to Detroit attempted to ignite an explosive device hidden in his underwear. The explosive device that failed to detonate was a mixture of powder and liquid that did not alert security personnel in the airport. The alleged bomber, Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, told officials later that he was directed by the terrorist group al-Qaeda. The suspect was already on the government's watch list when he attempted the bombing; his father, a respected Nigerian banker, had told the U.S. government that he was worried about his son's increased extremism. *.2009 (Dec.):A suicide bomber kills eight Americans civilians, seven of them CIA agents, at a base in Afghanistan. It's the deadliest attack on the agency since 9/11. The attacker is reportedly a double agent from Jordan who was acting on behalf of al-Qaeda.

Major Terrorist Acts Suspected of or Inspired by al-Qaeda (part 1): The following list includes the date, target of attacks, and casualties of significant attacks by the terrorist goup al-Qaeda. *.1993 (Feb.):Bombing of World Trade Center (WTC); 6 killed. *.1993 (Oct.):Killing of U.S. soldiers in Somalia. *.1996 (June):Truck bombing at Khobar Towers barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killed 19 Americans. *.1998 (Aug.):Bombing of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania; 224 killed, including 12 Americans. *.1999 (Dec.):Plot to bomb millennium celebrations in Seattle foiled when customs agents arrest an Algerian smuggling explosives into the U.S. *.2000 (Oct.):Bombing of the USSColein port in Yemen; 17 U.S. sailors killed. *.2001 (Sept.):Destruction of WTC; attack on Pentagon. Total dead 2,992. *.2001 (Dec.):Man tried to denote shoe bomb on flight from Paris to Miami. *.2002 (April):Explosion at historic synagogue in Tunisia left 21 dead, including 11 German tourists. *.2002 (May):Car exploded outside hotel in Karachi, Pakistan, killing 14, including 11 French citizens. *.2002 (June):Bomb exploded outside American consulate in Karachi, Pakistan, killing 12. *.2002 (Oct.):Boat crashed into oil tanker off Yemen coast, killing 1. *.2002 (Oct.):Nightclub bombings in Bali, Indonesia, killed 202, mostly Australian citizens. *.2002 (Nov.):Suicide attack on a hotel in Mombasa, Kenya, killed 16. *.2003 (May):Suicide bombers killed 34, including 8 Americans, at housing compounds for Westerners in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. *.2003 (May):4 bombs killed 33 people targeting Jewish, Spanish, and Belgian sites in Casablanca, Morocco. *.2003 (Aug.):Suicide car-bomb killed 12, injured 150 at Marriott Hotel in Jakarta, Indonesia. *.2003 (Nov.):Explosions rocked a Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, housing compound, killing 17. *.2003 (Nov.):Suicide car-bombers simultaneously attacked 2 synagogues in Istanbul, Turkey, killing 25 and injuring hundreds. *.2003 (Nov.):Truck bombs detonated at London bank and British consulate in Istanbul, Turkey, killing 26. *.2004 (March):10 bombs on 4 trains exploded almost simultaneously during the morning rush hour in Madrid, Spain, killing 191 and injuring more than 1,500. *.2004 (May):Terrorists attacked Saudi oil company offices in Khobar, Saudi Arabia, killing 22. *.2004 (June):Terrorists kidnapped and executed American Paul Johnson, Jr., in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. *.2004 (Sept.):Car bomb outside the Australian embassy in Jakarta, Indonesia, killed 9. *.2004 (Dec.):Terrorists entered the U.S. Consulate in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, killing 9 (including 4 attackers). *.2005 (July):Bombs exploded on 3 trains and a bus in London, England, killing 52. *.2005 (Oct.):22 killed by 3 suicide bombs in Bali, Indonesia. *.2005 (Nov.):57 killed at 3 American hotels in Amman, Jordan. *.2006 (Jan.):Two suicide bombers carrying police badges blow themselves up near a celebration at the Police Academy in Baghdad, killing nearly 20 police officers. Al-Qaeda in Iraq takes responsibility. *.2006 (Aug.):Police arrest 24 British-born Muslims, most of whom have ties to Pakistan, who had allegedly plotted to blow up as many as 10 planes using liquid explosives. Officials say details of the plan were similar to other schemes devised by al-Qaeda. *.2007 (April):Suicide bombers attack a government building in Algeria's capital, Algiers, killing 35 and wounding hundreds more. Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb claims responsibility. *.2007 (April):Eight people, including two Iraqi legislators, die when a suicide bomber strikes inside the Parliament building in Baghdad. An organization that includes al-Qaeda in Mesopotamia claims responsibility. In another attack, the Sarafiya Bridge that spans the Tigris River is destroyed. *.2007 (June):British police find car bombs in two vehicles in London. The attackers reportedly tried to detonate the bombs using cell phones but failed. Government officials say al-Qaeda is linked to the attempted attack. The following day, an SUV carrying bombs bursts into flames after it slams into an entrance to Glasgow Airport. Officials say the attacks are connected. *.2007 (Dec.):As many as 60 people are killed in two suicide attacks near United Nations offices and government buildings in Algiers, Algeria. The bombings occur within minutes of each other. Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, formerly called the Salafist Group for Preaching, claims responsibility. It's the worst attack in the Algeria in more than 10 years. *.2007 (Dec.):Benazir Bhutto, former Pakistani prime minister, is assassinated in a suicide attack on Dec. 27, 2007, at a campaign rally in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. President Pervez Musharraf blames al Qaeda for the attack, which kills 23 other people. Baitullah Mehsud, a Taliban leader with close ties to al Qaeda is later cited as the assassin.

September 11, 2001: Timeline of Terrorism (all times are eastern daylight time) *.An American Airlines Boeing 767 and a United Airlines Boeing 767, both en route from Boston to Los Angeles, were hijacked and flown only minutes apart into the north and south towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Shortly afterward, an American Airlines Boeing 757, en route from Washington, DC, to Los Angeles, crashed into the Pentagon. A fourth hijacked plane, operated by United and headed from Newark to San Francisco, crashed in a field near Shanksville, Pa. Both World Trade Center towers collapsed, and a section of the Pentagon was destroyed. All 266 people aboard the planes were killed; the total number of dead and missing was 3,038 (including the 19 hijackers). The names of the hijackers, Islamic radicals part of the al-Qaeda terrorist organization, were released a few days after the attacks. *.8:45A.M.—American Airlines Flight 11, Boston to Los Angeles, with 92 people aboard, crashes into the north tower of the World Trade Center in New York City. *.9:03A.M.—United Airlines Flight 175, Boston to Los Angeles, with 65 people aboard, flies into the south tower of the World Trade Center. *.9:40A.M.—American Flight 77, Washington, DC, to Los Angeles, with 64 people aboard, crashes into the Pentagon. *.9:48A.M.—The U.S. Capitol and the West Wing of the White House are evacuated. *.9:49A.M.—The Federal Aviation Administration orders all aircraft grounded in the United States. *.9:50A.M.—South tower of the World Trade Center collapses. *.9:58A.M.—Emergency operator in Pennsylvania receives a call from a passenger on United Flight 93, Newark to San Francisco, with 45 people aboard, stating the plane was being hijacked. *.10:00A.M.—United Flight 93 crashes about 80 mi southeast of Pittsburgh. Passengers apparently attempted to overpower the hijackers, who were heading the plane toward Washington, DC. *.10:29A.M.—North tower of the World Trade Center collapses. *.5:20P.M.—Another World Trade Center building collapses.

Miscellaneous Disasters 1952 Dec. 4–7, London, England:high-pressure system settled over London, trapping pollution near the ground. Some 4,000 people died in “Great Smog,” mostly from respiratory and cardiac distress. 1981 July 18, Kansas City, Mo.:suspended walkway in Hyatt Regency Hotel collapsed; 113 dead, 186 injured. 1982 Sept. 29–Oct. 1:seven people in the Chicago area were killed after taking Extra-Strength Tylenol capsules laced with cyanide. 31 million bottles of Tylenol were eventually taken off the market. The murderer was never caught. 1990 July 2, Mecca, Saudi Arabia:a stampede in a 1,800-foot-long pedestrian tunnel leading from Mecca to a tent city for pilgrims resulted in the deaths of 1,426 pilgrims. 1991 Nov. 29, nr. Coalinga, Calif.:a massive traffic accident during a severe dust storm involved 104 vehicles in a pileup on Interstate 5; 17 killed. 1995 June 29, Seoul, Korea:five-story wing of Sampoong Department Store collapsed, killing at least 206 people, injuring 910 others. 1996 May 10–11, Mt. Everest, Nepal:8 climbers died near summit during storm on mountain. A total of 15 climbers died that season, the worst single loss of life on Everest. 1997 April 15, Mecca, Saudi Arabia:fire and stampede in pilgrim's encampment killed 217 and injured at least 1,300. 2004 Feb. 1, Mecca, Saudi Arabia:a stampede at the Hajj pilgrimage, during the stone-throwing ritual, killed 251 pilgrims. 2005 Aug. 31, Baghdad, Iraq:rumor of a bomber led to a stampede of Shiite pilgrims on a bridge over the Tigris, killing more than 950. 2006 Jan. 12, Mecca, Saudi Arabia:a stampede by pilgrims on the annual hajj killed at least 360. Jan. 28, Katowice, Poland:67 people died from the collapse of the roof of. the International Exhibition Hall. There had been 500 people inside at the time. Feb. 21, Moscow, Russia:a market roof collapsed, killing 56 people. April 17, Mexico:an overcrowded tour bus returning from a religious festival veered off the road and plunged down a ravine, killing 47. 2007 June 17, Nashville, Tenn.:A race-car driver performing a stunt at a children's charity event lost control of his car and crashed into bystanders, killing 6. Aug. 1, Minneapolis, Minn.:An eight-lane interstate bridge packed with cars broke into sections and collapsed into the Mississippi River, killing at least nine and injuring at least 60. The bridge was in the midst of repairs when it buckled and broke apart. Aug. 14, Hunan province, China:A bridge undergoing construction collapsed in southern China, killing at least 28 people. 2008 Feb. 21, Venezuela:a Venezuelan passenger plane crashes into an Andean Mountain within the Sierra La Culata National Park killing all 46 people aboard. June 21, the Philippines:a ferry, thePrincess of the Stars, is struck by Typhoon Fengshen, killing most of the 865 passengers and crew. There are 59 known survivors. Almost 500 other people die during the storm. Aug. 1, Pakistan:a large mass of ice breaks on K2, the world's second-highest mountain, causing an avalanche that kills 11 climbers and injures several others. Aug. 4, Himachal Pradesh:almost 150 people die when rumors of a landslide cause pilgrims to stampede during a festival celebrating the Hindu mother goddess at Naina Devi temple in northern India. Sept. 30, India:over 100 people die and hundreds more are seriously injured when a wall of the Chamunda Devi temple in Jodhpur, northern India, collapses during the Navratra religious festival and causes a stampede.

Terrorist Attacks in the U.S. or Against Americans (part 2 of 2): 2001 Sept. 11, New York City, Arlington, Va., and Shanksville, Pa.:hijackers crashed 2 commercial jets into twin towers of World Trade Center; 2 more hijacked jets were crashed into the Pentagon and a field in rural Pa. Total dead and missing numbered 2,9921: 2,749 in New York City, 184 at the Pentagon, 40 in Pa., and 19 hijackers. Islamic al-Qaeda terrorist group blamed. (See September 11, 2001: Timeline of Terrorism.) 2002 June 14, Karachi, Pakistan:bomb explodes outside American consulate in Karachi, Pakistan, killing 12. Linked to al-Qaeda. 20031 May 12, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia:suicide bombers kill 34, including 8 Americans, at housing compounds for Westerners. Al-Qaeda suspected. 2004 May 29–31, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia:terrorists attack the offices of a Saudi oil company in Khobar, Saudi Arabia, take foreign oil workers hostage in a nearby residential compound, leaving 22 people dead including one American. June 11–19, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia:terrorists kidnap and execute Paul Johnson Jr., an American, in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. 2 other Americans and BBC cameraman killed by gun attacks. Dec. 6, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia:terrorists storm the U.S. consulate, killing 5 consulate employees. 4 terrorists were killed by Saudi security. 2005 Nov. 9, Amman, Jordan:suicide bombers hit 3 American hotels, Radisson, Grand Hyatt, and Days Inn, in Amman, Jordan, killing 57. Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility. 2006 Sept. 13, Damascus, Syria:an attack by four gunman on the American embassy is foiled. 2007 Jan. 12, Athens, Greece:the U.S. embassy is fired on by an anti-tank missile causing damage but no injuries. Dec. 11, Algeria:more than 60 people are killed, including 11 United Nations staff members, when Al Qaeda terrorists detonate two car bombs near Algeria's Constitutional Council and the United Nations offices. 2008 May 26, Iraq:a suicide bomber on a motorcycle kills six U.S. soldiers and wounds 18 others in Tarmiya. June 24, Iraq:a suicide bomber kills at least 20 people, including three U.S. Marines, at a meeting between sheiks and Americans in Karmah, a town west of Baghdad. June 12, Afghanistan:four American servicemen are killed when a roadside bomb explodes near a U.S. military vehicle in Farah Province. July 13, Afghanistan:nine U.S.soldiers and at least 15 NATO troops die when Taliban militants boldly attack an American base in Kunar Province, which borders Pakistan. It's the most deadly against U.S. troops in three years. Aug. 18 and 19, Afghanistan:as many as 15 suicide bombers backed by about 30 militants attack a U.S. military base, Camp Salerno, in Bamiyan. Fighting between U.S. troops and members of the Taliban rages overnight. No U.S. troops are killed. Sept. 16, Yemen:a car bomb and a rocket strike the U.S. embassy in Yemen as staff arrived to work, killing 16 people, including 4 civilians. At least 25 suspected al-Qaeda militants are arrested for the attack. Nov. 26, India:in a series of attacks on several of Mumbai's landmarks and commercial hubs that are popular with Americans and other foreign tourists, including at least two five-star hotels, a hospital, a train station, and a cinema. About 300 people are wounded and nearly 190 people die, including at least 5 Americans. 2009 Feb. 9, Iraq:a suicide bomber kills four American soldiers and their Iraqi translator near a police checkpoint. April 10, Iraq:a suicide attack kills five American soldiers and two Iraqi policemen. June 1, Little Rock, Arkansas:Abdulhakim Muhammed, a Muslim convert from Memphis, Tennessee, is charged with shooting two soldiers outside a military recruiting center. One is killed and the other is wounded. In a January 2010 letter to the judge hearing his case, Muhammed asked to change his plea from not guilty to guilty, claimed ties to al-Qaeda, and called the shooting a jihadi attack "to fight those who wage war on Islam and Muslims." Dec. 25:A Nigerian man on a flight from Amsterdam to Detroit attempted to ignite an explosive device hidden in his underwear. The explosive device that failed to detonate was a mixture of powder and liquid that did not alert security personnel in the airport. The alleged bomber, Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, told officials later that he was directed by the terrorist group Al Qaeda. The suspect was already on the government's watch list when he attempted the bombing; his father, a respected Nigerian banker, had told the U.S. government that he was worried about his son's increased extremism. Dec. 30, Iraq:a suicide bomber kills eight Americans civilians, seven of them CIA agents, at a base in Afghanistan. It's the deadliest attack on the agency since 9/11. The attacker is reportedly a double agent from Jordan who was acting on behalf of al-Qaeda.

Terrorist Attacks in the U.S. or Against Americans (part 1 of 2): The following timeline lists terrorist attacks against the United States and Americans living either in the U.S. or abroad. 1920 Sept. 16, New York City: TNT bomb planted in unattended horse- drawn wagon exploded on Wall Street opposite House of Morgan, killing 35 people and injuring hundreds more. Bolshevist or anarchist terrorists believed responsible, but crime never solved. 1975 Jan. 24, New York City:bomb set off in historic Fraunces Tavernkilled 4 and injured more than 50 people. Puerto Rican nationalist group (FALN) claimed responsibility, and police tied 13 other bombings to the group. 1979 Nov. 4, Tehran, Iran:Iranian radical students seized the U.S. embassy, taking 66 hostages. 14 were later released. The remaining 52 were freed after 444 days on the day of President Reagan's inauguration. 1982–1991 Lebanon:Thirty US and other Western hostages kidnapped in Lebanon by Hezbollah. Some were killed, some died in captivity, and some were eventually released. Terry Anderson was held for 2,454 days. 1983 April 18, Beirut, Lebanon:U.S. embassy destroyed in suicide car-bomb attack; 63 dead, including 17 Americans. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility. Oct. 23, Beirut, Lebanon:Shiite suicide bombers exploded truck near U.S. military barracks at Beirut airport, killing 241 marines. Minutes later a second bomb killed 58 French paratroopers in their barracks in West Beirut. Dec. 12, Kuwait City, Kuwait:Shiite truck bombers attacked the U.S. embassy and other targets, killing 5 and injuring 80. 1984 Sept. 20, east Beirut, Lebanon:truck bomb exploded outside the U.S. embassy annex, killing 24, including 2 U.S. military. Dec. 3, Beirut, Lebanon:Kuwait Airways Flight 221, from Kuwait to Pakistan, hijacked and diverted to Tehran. 2 Americans killed. 1985 April 12, Madrid, Spain:Bombing at restaurant frequented by U.S. soldiers, killed 18 Spaniards and injured 82. June 14, Beirut, Lebanon:TWA Flight 847 en route from Athens to Rome hijacked to Beirut by Hezbollah terrorists and held for 17 days. A U.S. Navy diver executed. Oct. 7, Mediterranean Sea:gunmen attack Italian cruise ship,Achille Lauro. One U.S. tourist killed. Hijacking linked to Libya. Dec. 18, Rome, Italy, and Vienna, Austria:airports in Rome and Vienna were bombed, killing 20 people, 5 of whom were Americans. Bombing linked to Libya. 1986 April 2, Athens, Greece:A bomb exploded aboard TWA flight 840 en route from Rome to Athens, killing 4 Americans and injuring 9. April 5, West Berlin, Germany:Libyans bombed a disco frequented by U.S. servicemen, killing 2 and injuring hundreds. 1988 Dec. 21, Lockerbie, Scotland:N.Y.-bound Pan-Am Boeing 747 exploded in flight from a terrorist bomb and crashed into Scottish village, killing all 259 aboard and 11 on the ground. Passengers included 35 Syracuse University students and many U.S. military personnel. Libya formally admitted responsibility 15 years later (Aug. 2003) and offered $2.7 billion compensation to victims' families. 1993 Feb. 26, New York City:bomb exploded in basement garage of World Trade Center, killing 6 and injuring at least 1,040 others. In 1995, militant Islamist Sheik Omar Abdel Rahman and 9 others were convicted of conspiracy charges, and in 1998, Ramzi Yousef, believed to have been the mastermind, was convicted of the bombing. Al-Qaeda involvement is suspected. 1995 April 19, Oklahoma City:car bomb exploded outside federal office building, collapsing wall and floors. 168 people were killed, including 19 children and 1 person who died in rescue effort. Over 220 buildings sustained damage. Timothy McVeighand Terry Nichols later convicted in the antigovernment plot to avenge the Branch Davidian standoff in Waco, Tex., exactly 2 years earlier. (See Miscellaneous Disasters.) Nov. 13, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia:car bomb exploded at U.S. military headquarters, killing 5 U.S. military servicemen. 1996 June 25, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia:truck bomb exploded outside Khobar Towers military complex, killing 19 American servicemen and injuring hundreds of others. 13 Saudis and a Lebanese, all alleged members of Islamic militant group Hezbollah, were indicted on charges relating to the attack in June 2001. 1998 Aug. 7, Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania:truck bombs exploded almost simultaneously near 2 U.S. embassies, killing 224 (213 in Kenya and 11 in Tanzania) and injuring about 4,500. 4 men connected with al-Qaeda 2 of whom had received training at al-Qaedacamps inside Afghanistan, were convicted of the killings in May 2001 and later sentenced to life in prison. A federal grand jury had indicted 22 men in connection with the attacks, including Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden, who remained at large. 2000 Oct. 12, Aden, Yemen:U.S. Navy destroyer USSColeheavily damaged when a small boat loaded with explosives blew up alongside it. 17 sailors killed. Linked to Osama bin Laden, or members of al-Qaedaterrorist network.

Terrorist Attacks in the U.S. or Against Americans (part 1 of 2): The following timeline lists terrorist attacks against the United States and Americans living either in the U.S. or abroad. 1920 Sept. 16, New York City: TNT bomb planted in unattended horse- drawn wagon exploded on Wall Street opposite House of Morgan, killing 35 people and injuring hundreds more. Bolshevist or anarchist terrorists believed responsible, but crime never solved. 1975 Jan. 24, New York City:bomb set off in historic Fraunces Tavernkilled 4 and injured more than 50 people. Puerto Rican nationalist group (FALN) claimed responsibility, and police tied 13 other bombings to the group. 1979 Nov. 4, Tehran, Iran:Iranian radical students seized the U.S. embassy, taking 66 hostages. 14 were later released. The remaining 52 were freed after 444 days on the day of President Reagan's inauguration. 1982–1991 Lebanon:Thirty US and other Western hostages kidnapped in Lebanon by Hezbollah. Some were killed, some died in captivity, and some were eventually released. Terry Anderson was held for 2,454 days. 1983 April 18, Beirut, Lebanon:U.S. embassy destroyed in suicide car-bomb attack; 63 dead, including 17 Americans. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility. Oct. 23, Beirut, Lebanon:Shiite suicide bombers exploded truck near U.S. military barracks at Beirut airport, killing 241 marines. Minutes later a second bomb killed 58 French paratroopers in their barracks in West Beirut. Dec. 12, Kuwait City, Kuwait:Shiite truck bombers attacked the U.S. embassy and other targets, killing 5 and injuring 80. 1984 Sept. 20, east Beirut, Lebanon:truck bomb exploded outside the U.S. embassy annex, killing 24, including 2 U.S. military. Dec. 3, Beirut, Lebanon:Kuwait Airways Flight 221, from Kuwait to Pakistan, hijacked and diverted to Tehran. 2 Americans killed. 1985 April 12, Madrid, Spain:Bombing at restaurant frequented by U.S. soldiers, killed 18 Spaniards and injured 82. June 14, Beirut, Lebanon:TWA Flight 847 en route from Athens to Rome hijacked to Beirut by Hezbollah terrorists and held for 17 days. A U.S. Navy diver executed. Oct. 7, Mediterranean Sea:gunmen attack Italian cruise ship,Achille Lauro. One U.S. tourist killed. Hijacking linked to Libya. Dec. 18, Rome, Italy, and Vienna, Austria:airports in Rome and Vienna were bombed, killing 20 people, 5 of whom were Americans. Bombing linked to Libya. 1986 April 2, Athens, Greece:A bomb exploded aboard TWA flight 840 en route from Rome to Athens, killing 4 Americans and injuring 9. April 5, West Berlin, Germany:Libyans bombed a disco frequented by U.S. servicemen, killing 2 and injuring hundreds. 1988 Dec. 21, Lockerbie, Scotland:N.Y.-bound Pan-Am Boeing 747 exploded in flight from a terrorist bomb and crashed into Scottish village, killing all 259 aboard and 11 on the ground. Passengers included 35 Syracuse University students and many U.S. military personnel. Libya formally admitted responsibility 15 years later (Aug. 2003) and offered $2.7 billion compensation to victims' families. 1993 Feb. 26, New York City:bomb exploded in basement garage of World Trade Center, killing 6 and injuring at least 1,040 others. In 1995, militant Islamist Sheik Omar Abdel Rahman and 9 others were convicted of conspiracy charges, and in 1998, Ramzi Yousef, believed to have been the mastermind, was convicted of the bombing. Al-Qaeda involvement is suspected. 1995 April 19, Oklahoma City:car bomb exploded outside federal office building, collapsing wall and floors. 168 people were killed, including 19 children and 1 person who died in rescue effort. Over 220 buildings sustained damage. Timothy McVeighand Terry Nichols later convicted in the antigovernment plot to avenge the Branch Davidian standoff in Waco, Tex., exactly 2 years earlier. (See Miscellaneous Disasters.) Nov. 13, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia:car bomb exploded at U.S. military headquarters, killing 5 U.S. military servicemen. 1996 June 25, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia:truck bomb exploded outside Khobar Towers military complex, killing 19 American servicemen and injuring hundreds of others. 13 Saudis and a Lebanese, all alleged members of Islamic militant group Hezbollah, were indicted on charges relating to the attack in June 2001. 1998 Aug. 7, Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania:truck bombs exploded almost simultaneously near 2 U.S. embassies, killing 224 (213 in Kenya and 11 in Tanzania) and injuring about 4,500. 4 men connected with al-Qaeda 2 of whom had received training at al-Qaedacamps inside Afghanistan, were convicted of the killings in May 2001 and later sentenced to life in prison. A federal grand jury had indicted 22 men in connection with the attacks, including Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden, who remained at large. 2000 Oct. 12, Aden, Yemen:U.S. Navy destroyer USSColeheavily damaged when a small boat loaded with explosives blew up alongside it. 17 sailors killed. Linked to Osama bin Laden, or members of al-Qaedaterrorist network.

The 2013 Boston Marathon Tragedy Three people were killed and hundreds injured after multiple bombs exploded during the Boston Marathon. Boston Marathon Shrine, April 20, 2013 Photo credit: Natalie Baumgardner On Monday, April 15, 2013, multiple bombs exploded during the Boston Marathon. The bombs went off at 2:50 in the afternoon as runners finished the race. At least three people were killed. One was an eight year old boy. More than 170 people were injured. The first explosion happened on Boylston Street close to the finish line. The second blast came about ten seconds later, 50 to 100 yards away. Another explosion happened during the afternoon at the JFK Library, but officials confirmed that incident was not connected. The Search for Suspects A U.S. government official said that neither the Boston police nor the FBI received any threats of an attack leading up to the marathon. Parents of the 2012 Newtown, Conn., shooting victims were in attendance near the finish line, sitting in the VIP section of the bleachers, but none of them were injured. President Obamasaid from the White House briefing room, "We still do not know who did this or why, and people shouldn't jump to conclusions before we have all the facts, but make no mistake: We will get to the bottom of this. Any responsible individuals, any responsible groups will feel the full weight of justice." On April 18, 2013, three days after the marathon bombing, the FBI released photos and video of two suspects in the hope that the public could help identify them. "Somebody out there knows these individuals as friends, neighbors, co-workers, or family members. Though it may be difficult, the nation is counting on those with information to come forward and provide it to us," said FBI special agent Richard DesLauriers upon the release of the photos and video. On the same day the images were released, President Obama spoke at the Cathedral of the Holy Cross in Boston's South End. After the service, both the president and First lady Michelle Obamavisited those injured in the explosions who were still recovering in the various hospitals throughout Boston. Boston Lockdown Just hours after the FBI released the images, the two suspects robbed a gas station in Central Square then shot and killed a MIT police officer in his car. Afterwards, the two men carjacked a SUV and told the driver that they had set off the explosions at the marathon. Police pursued the vehicle into Watertown. During the shootout, a MBTA officer was shot and one of the suspects, identified as Tamerlan Tsarnaev, was killed. A suicide vest was found on his body. The other suspect, Dzhokhar A. Tsarnaev, age 19, remained at large for several hours, causing a massive manhunt and lockdown for all of Boston, Cambridge, and many other surrounding communities. The manhunt continued throughout Friday, April 19, 2013, until he was found alive, but seriously injured, hiding in a boat behind a house in Watertown. The two suspects were brothers and had been living together on Norfolk Street in Cambridge. They had lived in the U.S. for about a decade, but were from an area near Chechnya, a region in Russia.

Sports Disasters 1955 June 11, Le Mans, France:racing car in Grand Prix hurtled into grandstand, killing 82 spectators. 1964 May 24, Lima, Peru:more than 300 soccer fans killed and over 500 injured during riot and panic following unpopular ruling by referee in Peru vs. Argentina soccer game. It is worst soccer disaster on record. 1971 Jan. 2, Glasgow, Scotland:66 killed in crush at Glasgow Rangers home stadium when soccer fans trying to leave encountered fans trying to return to stadium after hearing that a late goal had been scored. 1972 Sept. 5, Munich, Germany:Arab terrorists invaded the Olympic village killing 2 Israeli athletes and taking 9 hostage. In shootout, 9 athletes, 5 guerrillas, and 1 policeman killed. 1980 Jan. 20, Sincelejo, Colombia:bleachers at a bullring collapsed, leaving 222 dead. 1982 Oct. 20, Moscow:according toSovietsky Sport,as many as 340 died at Lenin Stadium when exiting soccer fans collided with returning fans after final goal was scored. All the fans had been crowded into one section of stadium by police. 1985 May 11, Bradford, England:56 burned to death and over 200 injured when fire engulfed main grandstand at Bradford's soccer stadium. May 29, Brussels, Belgium:when British Liverpool club fans attacked rival Italian supporters of Juventus team at the Heysel Stadium before the European Champion's Cup final, a concrete retaining wall collapsed and 39 people were trampled to death. More than 400 people were injured. 1988 March 12, Katmandu, Nepal:some 80 soccer fans seeking cover during a violent hail storm at the national stadium were trampled to death in a stampede because the stadium doors were locked. 1989 April 15, Sheffield, England:96 people were killed at Hillsborough stadium during a semifinal match between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest. Most of the victims, who were Liverpool fans, were crushed against a barrier on an overcrowded area behind one of the goals. It is Britain's worst soccer disaster. 1996 Oct. 16, Guatemala City:at least 84 killed and 147 injured by stampeding soccer fans before a 1998 World Cup qualifying match between Guatemala and Costa Rica held at Mateo Flores National Stadium. 2001 May 9, Accra, Ghana:at least 120 people were killed in a stampede at a soccer match. It was Africa's worst soccer-related disaster. 2012 Feb. 1, Port Said, Egypt:at least 73 people were killed in a fight between fans of rival teams at a soccer match. Security at the gates was questioned as fans used knives, clubs, and other weapons in the brawl. 2013 April 15, Boston, Mass., United States:multiple bombs explode near the finish line of the Boston Marathon. The bombs explode at 2:50 in the afternoon as runners finish the race. At least three people are killed, including an eight year old boy. More than 170 people are injured. The first explosion happens on Boylston Street close to the finish line. The second blast comes about ten seconds later, 50 to 100 yards away. A third explosion happens an hour after the first two, but it is a controlled explosion because the police had found the device. Officials also report that two other devices are found around the marathon area, but they are dismantled. Officials confirm that the devices are bombs.

Tsunami in Japan 2011: Waves Stirred Up Tsunami in Japan Japanwas hit by a 9.0 magnitude earthquakeon March 11, 2011, that triggered a deadly 23-foot tsunami in the country's north. The giant waves deluged cities and rural areas alike, sweeping away cars, homes, buildings, a train, and boats, leaving a path of death and devastation in its wake. Video footage showed cars racing away from surging waves. The earthquake—the largest in Japan's history—struck about 230 miles northeast of Tokyo. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center issued warnings for Russia, Taiwan, Hawaii, Indonesia, the Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Australia, and the west coasts the U.S., Mexico, Central America, and South America. According to the official toll, the disasters left 15,839 dead, 5,950 injured, and 3,642 missing. Earthquake Causes Nuclear Disaster What's more, cooling systems in one of the reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station in the Fukushima prefecture on the east coast of Japan failed shortly after the earthquake, causing a nuclear crisis. This initial reactor failure was followed by an explosion and eventual partial meltdowns in two reactors, then by a fire in another reactor which released radioactivity directly into the atmosphere. The nuclear troubles were not limited to the Daiichi plant; three other nuclear facilities also reported problems. More than 200,000 residents were evacuated from affected areas. On April 12, Japan raised its assessment of the situation at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant to Level 7, the worst rating on the international scale, putting the disaster on par with the 1986 Chernobyl explosion. Developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) along with countries who use nuclear energy, the scale defines level 7 as a nuclear accident that involves "widespread health and environmental effects" and the "external release of a significant fraction of the reactor core inventory." Almost two months later, the IAEA called the status of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant "very serious." At a news conference on March 13, Prime Minister Naoto Kan, who later gave the disaster the name "Great East Japan Earthquake", emphasized the gravity of the situation: "I think that the earthquake, tsunami, and the situation at our nuclear reactors makes up the worst crisis in the 65 years since the war. If the nation works together, we will overcome." The government called in 100,000 troops to aid in the relief effort. The deployment was the largest since World War II. The tsunami in Japan recalled the 2004 disaster in the Indian Ocean. On Dec. 26, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake—the largest earthquakein 40 years—ruptured in the Indian Ocean, off the northwest coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The earthquake stirred up the deadliest tsunamiin world history, so powerful that the waves caused loss of life on the coast of Africa and were even detected on the East Coast of the United States. More than 225,000 people died from the disaster, a half a million were injured, and millions were left homeless. Seestatistics on Deadliest Tsunamisand Deadliest Earthquakes. The Science of Tsunami A tsunami(pronounced soo-NAHM-ee) is a series of huge waves that occur as the result of a violent underwater disturbance, such as an earthquakeor volcanic eruption. The waves travel in all directions from the epicenter of the disturbance. The waves may travel in the open sea as fast as 450 miles per hour. As they travel in the open ocean, tsunami waves are generally not particularly large—hence the difficulty in detecting the approach of a tsunami. But as these powerful waves approach shallow waters along the coast, their velocity is slowed and they consequently grow to a great height before smashing into the shore. They can grow as high as 100 feet; the Indian Ocean tsunami generated waves reaching 30 feet. Tsunamiis the Japanese word for "harbor wave." They are sometimes mistakenly referred to as tidal waves, but tsunamis have nothing to do with the tides. Tsunamis have been relatively rare in the Indian Ocean, and are most common in the Pacific Ocean.

Nuclear Disaster Glossary: Terms and Definitions Becquerel, Cesium, Hibakusha, Pressurized water reactor, and more by Catherine McNiff Below are terms and definitions frequently used in the aftermath of the nuclear disaster in Japan. A-M| N-Z Acute radiation syndrome (ARS) Also known as radiation sickness, this serious illness is caused by high doses of radiation. The first symptoms are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, and often include skin damage. Apocalypse A great disaster, usually equated with the end of the world. Becquerel A measurement of radioactivity; its symbol is Bq. Cesium Cesium is a naturally occurring element found combined with other elements in rocks, soil, and dust in low amounts. Nuclear explosions or the breakdown of uranium in fuel elements can produce two radioactive forms of cesium134Cs and137Cs. Both isotopes decay into non-radioactive elements. The half-life of134Cs is two years, and 30 years for137Cs. Boiling water nuclear reactor (BWR) In the boiling water reactor (BWR), the water that passes over the reactor core to slow down the neutrons and acts as a coolant is also the steam source for the turbine, which in turn powers the generator to produce energy. Chernobyl The Chernobyl nuclear power station was the site of the world's worst nuclear accident, in 1986. The result of a flawed reactor design that was operated with inadequately trained personnel, the accident released at least 5% of the radioactive reactor core into the atmosphere and claimed 30 lives within the first few weeks, and unconfirmed numbers over the ensuing years. Cold shutdown The term used to define a reactor coolant system at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature below 200 degrees Fahrenheit following a reactor cooldown. Containment vessels A gas-tight shell or other enclosure around a nuclear reactor to confine fission products that otherwise might be released into the atmosphere in the event of an accident. Such enclosures are usually dome-shaped and made of steel-reinforced concrete. Cooldown The gradual decrease in reactor fuel rod temperature caused by the removal of heat from the reactor coolant system after the reactor has been shutdown. Core The central portion of a nuclear reactor, which contains the fuel assemblies, moderator, neutron poisons, control rods, and support structures. The reactor core is where fission takes place. Exposure Absorption of ionizing radiation or ingestion of a radioisotope. Acute exposure is a large exposure received over a short period of time. Chronic exposure is exposure received over a long period of time, such as during a lifetime. Fission The splitting of an atom, which releases a considerable amount of energy (usually in the form of heat) that can be used to produce electricity. During fission, the heavy nucleus splits into roughly equal parts, producing the nuclei of at least two lighter elements. In addition to energy, this reaction usually releases gamma radiation and two or more daughter neutrons. Fuel rod A long, slender, zirconium metal tube containing pellets of fissionable material, which provide fuel for nuclear reactors. Fuel rods are assembled into bundles called fuel assemblies, which are loaded individually into the reactor core. Fukushima Daiichi Explosions, fire, and a failed cooling system caused by a magnitude 9.0 earthquake and a 23-foot tsunami in this Japanese nuclear power plant in March 2011 released radioactivity directly into the atmosphere and into the sea. Half-life The time required for half the amount of a substance (as a drug, radioactive tracer, or pesticide) in or introduced into a living system or ecosystem to be eliminated or disintegrated by natural processes. Hibakusha The surviving victims of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, meaning "explosion-affected people" International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) The International Atomic Energy Agency, the center of worldwide cooperation in the nuclear field, through which member countries and multiple international partners work together to promote the safe, secure, and peaceful use of nuclear technologies. The United Nations established the IAEA in 1957 as "Atoms for Peace." The IAEA and its then director, Mohamed ElBaradei, shared the 2005 Nobel Peace Prize. International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES) The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale is a tool for promptly communicating to the public in consistent terms the safety significance of reported nuclear and radiological incidents and accidents. A-M|N-Z Meltdown The melting of a significant portion of a nuclear-reactor core due to inadequate cooling of the fuel elements, a condition that could lead to the escape of radiation.

Oil Spill Glossary Berm, Dispersants, Static Kill, and more A-Q| R-W Annulus The space between the pipe and the wellbore. Biodegradation The breaking down of substances by microorganisms, such as oil-hungry Alcanivorax, which use the substances for food and generally release harmless byproducts such as carbon dioxide and water. Berm A wall or barrier of sand usually used to protect against flooding along coasts, used to stop oil from washing up on Gulf Coast beaches. Boom A temporary floating barrier used to contain an oil spill. Blowout An uncontrolled flow of reservoir fluids into the wellbore, and sometimes catastrophically to the surface. A blowout may consist of salt water, oil, gas or a mixture of these. Blind shear ram The part of the blowout preventer that can completely seal the well. Blowout preventer (BOP) A large valve at the top of a well that may be closed in the event of a problem. Bottom kill A procedure in which mud and cement are pumped from deep underground to seal the well permanently. Containment cap A collection device engineered to create a seal over an open pipe atop the blowout preventer to funnel leaking oil up to a tanker ship floating above. Crude oil Unrefined petroleum or liquid petroleum. Dispersants Chemicals, such as Corexit, used to break down spilled oil into small droplets. Fossil fuels Fuel, such as oil, formed in the earth from plant or animal remains. Junk shot One method of temporarily plugging an oil leak by shooting material such as shredded tires and golf balls into the broken wellhead. Loop current Flow of warm ocean water that steers Gulf waters toward Florida. Moratorium Suspension of activity. A-Q|R-W Relief well A secondary well drilled to intersect the leaking main well, allowing engineers to intercept the oil flow from the reservoir below and pump in cement and heavy fluids to stop the leak. Rig Machine used to drill a wellbore. Riser pipe The pipe that connects an underwater wellhead to the drilling rig floating on the surface of the ocean above. Skimmers Devices, such as boats, used to remove oil from the water's surface. Slick A thin film of oil on the water's surface. Static Kill A method of spill containment which involves pumping mud and cement into the damaged well to prevent more oil from leaking into the ocean. Tar balls Dense, black sticky spheres of hydrocarbons; formed from weathered oil. Top hat A containment device used to cap off the oil. Top kill A temporary method of sealing an oil well involving pumping dense mud into the blowout preventer under such high pressure that it forces the leaking oil back into the ground. Wellbore A hole drilled for the purpose of extracting oil. Wellhead A system of spools, valves and assorted adapters that provide pressure control of a production well. The wellhead is the component at the surface of the wellbore to which the apparatus for extracting the oil is attached. The blowout preventer is at the wellhead.

Oil Spills and Disasters The following list includes major oil spills since 1967. The circumstances surrounding the spill, amount of oil spilled, and the attendant environmental damage is also given. 1967 March 18, Cornwall, Eng.:Torrey Canyonran aground, spilling 38 million gallons of crude oil off the Scilly Islands. 1976 Dec. 15, Buzzards Bay, Mass.:Argo Merchantran aground and broke apart southeast of Nantucket Island, spilling its entire cargo of 7.7 million gallons of fuel oil. 1977 April, North Sea:blowout of well in Ekofisk oil field leaked 81 million gallons. 1978 March 16, off Portsall, France:wrecked supertankerAmoco Cadizspilled 68 million gallons, causing widespread environmental damage over 100 mi of Brittany coast. 1979 June 3, Gulf of Mexico:exploratory oil well Ixtoc 1 blew out, spilling an estimated 140 million gallons of crude oil into the open sea. Although it is one of the largest known oil spills, it had a low environmental impact. July 19, Tobago:theAtlantic Empressand theAegean Captaincollided, spilling 46 million gallons of crude. While being towed, theAtlantic Empressspilled an additional 41 million gallons off Barbados on Aug. 2. 1980 March 30, Stavanger, Norway:floating hotel in North Sea collapsed, killing 123 oil workers. 1983 Feb. 4, Persian Gulf, Iran:Nowruz Field platform spilled 80 million gallons of oil. Aug. 6, Cape Town, South Africa:the Spanish tankerCastillo de Bellvercaught fire, spilling 78 million gallons of oil off the coast. 1988 July 6, North Sea off Scotland:166 workers killed in explosion and fire on Occidental Petroleum'sPiper Alpharig in North Sea; 64 survivors. It is the world's worst offshore oil disaster. Nov. 10, Saint John's, Newfoundland:Odysseyspilled 43 million gallons of oil. 1989 March 24, Prince William Sound, Alaska:tankerExxon Valdezhit an undersea reef and spilled 10 million–plus gallons of oil into the water, causing the worst oil spill in U.S. history. Dec. 19, off Las Palmas, the Canary Islands:explosion in Iranian supertanker, theKharg-5,caused 19 million gallons of crude oil to spill into Atlantic Ocean about 400 mi north of Las Palmas, forming a 100-square-mile oil slick. 1990 June 8, off Galveston, Tex.:Mega Borgreleased 5.1 million gallons of oil some 60 nautical miles south-southeast of Galveston as a result of an explosion and subsequent fire in the pump room. 1991 Jan. 23–27, southern Kuwait:during the Persian Gulf War, Iraq deliberately released 240–460 million gallons of crude oil into the Persian Gulf from tankers 10 mi off Kuwait. Spill had little military significance. On Jan. 27, U.S. warplanes bombed pipe systems to stop the flow of oil. April 11, Genoa, Italy:Havenspilled 42 million gallons of oil in Genoa port. May 28, Angola:ABT Summerexploded and leaked 15–78 million gallons of oil off the coast of Angola. It's not clear how much sank or burned. 1992 March 2, Fergana Valley, Uzbekistan:88 million gallons of oil spilled from an oil well. 1993 Aug. 10, Tampa Bay, Fla.:three ships collided, the bargeBouchard B155,the freighterBalsa 37,and the bargeOcean 255.TheBouchardspilled an estimated 336,000 gallons of No. 6 fuel oil into Tampa Bay. 1994 Sept. 8, Russia:dam built to contain oil burst and spilled oil into Kolva River tributary. U.S. Energy Department estimated spill at 2 million barrels. Russian state-owned oil company claimed spill was only 102,000 barrels. 1996 Feb. 15, off Welsh coast:supertankerSea Empressran aground at port of Milford Haven, Wales, spewed out 70,000 tons of crude oil, and created a 25-mile slick. 1999 Dec. 12, French Atlantic coast:Maltese-registered tankerErikabroke apart and sank off Britanny, spilling 3 million gallons of heavy oil into the sea. 2000 Jan. 18, off Rio de Janeiro:ruptured pipeline owned by government oil company, Petrobras, spewed 343,200 gallons of heavy oil into Guanabara Bay. Nov. 28, Mississippi River south of New Orleans:oil tankerWestchesterlost power and ran aground near Port Sulphur, La., dumping 567,000 gallons of crude oil into lower Mississippi. Spill was largest in U.S. waters sinceExxon Valdezdisaster in March 1989. 2002 Nov. 13, Spain:Prestigesuffered a damaged hull and was towed to sea and sank. Much of the 20 million gallons of oil remains underwater. 2003 July 28, Pakistan:TheTasman Spirit,a tanker, ran aground near the Karachi port, and eventually cracked into two pieces. One of its four oil tanks burst open, leaking 28,000 tons of crude oil into the sea. 2004 Dec. 7, Unalaska, Aleutian Islands, Alaska:A major storm pushed the M/VSelendang Ayuup onto a rocky shore, breaking it in two. 337,000 gallons of oil were released, most of which was driven onto the shoreline of Makushin and Skan Bays.

Ten Largest Oil Spills in the U.S. The following table lists the largest oil spills in U.S. history. The date of the spill, circumstances surrounding the spill, and amount of oil spilled are also given. RankDateCauseSourceLocationSpill Volume 1.April 20, 2010explosiondrilling rigDeepwater HorizonGulf of Mexico, 50 miles off the coast of Louisianaan estimated 200,000 gallons a day 2.March 24, 1989reef collisiontankerExxon ValdezPrince William Sound, Alaska10+ million gallons 3.Dec. 15, 1976ran agroundtankerArgo MerchantNantucket Island7.7 million gallons 4.Aug.–Sept. 2005Hurricane Katrinavarious sourcesNew Orleans, La.7 million gallons 5.June 8, 1990explosiontankerMega Borg60 miles off Galveston, Texas5.1 million gallons 6.Nov. 28, 2000ran agroundtankerWestchesterPort Sulphur, La.567,000 gallons 7.Jan. 23, 2010collisiontankerEagle OtomePort Arthur, Texas462,000 gallons 8.July 25, 2008collisionunnamed bargeNew Orleans, La.419,000 gallons 9.Dec. 7, 2004ran agroundM/VSelendang AyuAleutian Islands, Alaska337,000 gallons 10.Aug. 10, 1993collisionbargeBouchard B155Tampa Bay, Fla.336,000 gallons

Ten Largest Oil Spills in the World The following table lists the largest oil spills in the world. The date of the spill, circumstances surrounding the spill, and amount of oil spilled are also given. RankDateCauseSourceLocationSpill Volume 1.April 20, 2010explosiondrilling rigDeepwater HorizonGulf of Mexico, 50 miles off the coast of Louisianaan estimated 200,000 gallons a day 2.Jan. 23–27, 1991deliberate act by Iraqtankers10 mi off Kuwait240–460 million gallons 3.June 3, 1979well blowoutoil well Ixtoc 1Gulf of Mexico140 million gallons 4.March 2, 1992leakoil wellFergana Valley, Uzbekistan88 million gallons 5.July 19, 1979collisiontankersAtlantic Empressand theAegean CaptainTrinidad & Tobago87 million gallons 6.Sept. 8, 1994dam burstoil reservoirRussia84 million gallons 7.April, 1977well blowoutEkofisk oil fieldNorth Sea81 million gallons 8.Feb. 4, 1983collisionNowruz field platformPersian Gulf, Iran80 million gallons 9.May 28, 1991explosiontanker ABT Summeroff Angola78 million gallons 10.Aug. 6, 1983firetankerCastillo de BellverCape Town, South Africa78 million gallons

2010 Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill Timeline (part 2 of 2): Saturday, May 29 40 days into the spill, the "top kill" method is abandoned because the mixture cannot overpower the pressure of the oil spilling from the leak. June Tuesday, June 1 Outrage ensues when Tony Hayward says, "I'd like my life back." BP shares plunge about 17%, losing $23 billion in market value; BP stock lost about $67 billion over the six weeks since the explosion. The U.S. Justice Department launches a criminal investigation into the initial explosion and the ensuing spill. Fishing restrictions increase to 37% of federal waters in the Gulf. Thursday, June 3 Technicians cut a riser pipe nearly one-mile under the surface and plan to then dome the leak and siphon the oil to a tank on the surface. As a result, the rate of flow increased by 20% beause the oil has less distance to travel to leak. Friday, June 4 President Obama cancels his trip to Australia, Indonesia, and Guam to make his third trip to the Gulf Coast. He voices his outrage at BP for spending millions of dollars on television advertisements. Saturday, June 12 President Obama speaks with British Prime Minister David Cameron about BP oil spill. The U.S. Coast Guard orders BP engineers to increase the rate of containment of the spewing oil; the consequences for failing to do so are not outlined, however. Sunday, June 13 BP officials state that the containment cap captured 15,000 barrels of oil on the previous day, bringing the total number of barrels captured by the device to 119,000. Monday, June 14 President Obama visits the Gulf for the fourth time in eight weeks. Congress and the Obama administration demand that BP halt paying dividends to its shareholders in order to ensure that the company will have money to pay for damages. BP says it will be able to siphon 40,000 to 53,000 barrels a day by the end of June. Tuesday, June 15 Oil executives are summoned to Congress to testify about the safety of offshore drilling and share their response plans for another such disaster. Leak estimates are increased to 60,000 barrels per day; this means 2.5 million barrels a day are spilling into the Gulf. At this rate, the amount of the ExxonValdezspill is reproduced every four days. That night, President Obama delivers a speech about the oil spill from the Oval Office. The speech, his first from the Oval Office, is watched by 32 million viewers. Wednesday, June 16 President Obama meets with top executives and lawyers of BP at the White House. He later announces that BP agreed to create a $20 billion fund to pay claims and damages. The fund will be run by Kenneth R. Feinberg, who oversaw the compensation for victims of Sept. 11. Thursday, June 17 Tony Hayward testifies before Congress. The U.S. Coast Guard reports that containment devices should be able to capture 53,000 barrels per day by the end of June. In the future, the collection of 60,000 to 80,000 barrels a day may take place with the successful implementation of a new, multi-hose well cap. BP recovers 25,290 barrels of oil, the most it has recovered in a single day. Rep. Joe Barton (R-Texas) apologizes to BP for being forced by the Obama administration to create a $20 billion fund, calling it a "shakedown." Under pressure, he later apologizes for his apology. Friday, June 18 Tony Hayward steps away from BP's response efforts and passes the responsibilities to Robert Dudley, the managing director of BP. Hayward still remains the CEO of BP. The Center for Biological Diversity files a lawsuit against BP, seeking monetary penalties for the disaster under the Clean Water Act. The Center calculates that BP's liability will be around $19 billion, assuming the spill continues into August. Saturday, June 19 Anadarko Petroleum, which owns a quarter of the well, denies any responsibility for the disaster. CEO Jim Hackett blames BP for "gross negligence." Sunday, June 20 Photos of Hayward with his son as a yacht race make their way into the US media and cause frenzy throughout the country. Tuesday, June 22 American Bob Dudley assumes control of the spill from Hayward at a major oil industry conference; Hayward is not present. Chief of staff Steve Westwell delivers a speech on Hayward's behalf and is disrupted as two Greenpeace protesters assume the stage. Wednesday, June 23 An underwater robot bumps into the wellhead cap which results in oil gushing unhindered for several hours. Friday, June 25 BP announces the cost of containing and cleaning the oil spill reaches $2.35 billion. Monday, June 28 The Guardian, a widely circulated British newspaper, publishes a protest letter signed by 171 critics, writers, and artists about BP's financial ties to the Tate Britain gallery. Later on, activists dump molasses over the gallery's steps during a party intended to celebrate ten years of BP sponsorship. Wednesday, June 30 Tall waves, created as a result of Hurricane Alex, halt clean-up efforts.

2010 Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill Timeline (part 2 of 2): Saturday, May 29 40 days into the spill, the "top kill" method is abandoned because the mixture cannot overpower the pressure of the oil spilling from the leak. June Tuesday, June 1 Outrage ensues when Tony Hayward says, "I'd like my life back." BP shares plunge about 17%, losing $23 billion in market value; BP stock lost about $67 billion over the six weeks since the explosion. The U.S. Justice Department launches a criminal investigation into the initial explosion and the ensuing spill. Fishing restrictions increase to 37% of federal waters in the Gulf. Thursday, June 3 Technicians cut a riser pipe nearly one-mile under the surface and plan to then dome the leak and siphon the oil to a tank on the surface. As a result, the rate of flow increased by 20% beause the oil has less distance to travel to leak. Friday, June 4 President Obama cancels his trip to Australia, Indonesia, and Guam to make his third trip to the Gulf Coast. He voices his outrage at BP for spending millions of dollars on television advertisements. Saturday, June 12 President Obama speaks with British Prime Minister David Cameron about BP oil spill. The U.S. Coast Guard orders BP engineers to increase the rate of containment of the spewing oil; the consequences for failing to do so are not outlined, however. Sunday, June 13 BP officials state that the containment cap captured 15,000 barrels of oil on the previous day, bringing the total number of barrels captured by the device to 119,000. Monday, June 14 President Obama visits the Gulf for the fourth time in eight weeks. Congress and the Obama administration demand that BP halt paying dividends to its shareholders in order to ensure that the company will have money to pay for damages. BP says it will be able to siphon 40,000 to 53,000 barrels a day by the end of June. Tuesday, June 15 Oil executives are summoned to Congress to testify about the safety of offshore drilling and share their response plans for another such disaster. Leak estimates are increased to 60,000 barrels per day; this means 2.5 million barrels a day are spilling into the Gulf. At this rate, the amount of the ExxonValdezspill is reproduced every four days. That night, President Obama delivers a speech about the oil spill from the Oval Office. The speech, his first from the Oval Office, is watched by 32 million viewers. Wednesday, June 16 President Obama meets with top executives and lawyers of BP at the White House. He later announces that BP agreed to create a $20 billion fund to pay claims and damages. The fund will be run by Kenneth R. Feinberg, who oversaw the compensation for victims of Sept. 11. Thursday, June 17 Tony Hayward testifies before Congress. The U.S. Coast Guard reports that containment devices should be able to capture 53,000 barrels per day by the end of June. In the future, the collection of 60,000 to 80,000 barrels a day may take place with the successful implementation of a new, multi-hose well cap. BP recovers 25,290 barrels of oil, the most it has recovered in a single day. Rep. Joe Barton (R-Texas) apologizes to BP for being forced by the Obama administration to create a $20 billion fund, calling it a "shakedown." Under pressure, he later apologizes for his apology. Friday, June 18 Tony Hayward steps away from BP's response efforts and passes the responsibilities to Robert Dudley, the managing director of BP. Hayward still remains the CEO of BP. The Center for Biological Diversity files a lawsuit against BP, seeking monetary penalties for the disaster under the Clean Water Act. The Center calculates that BP's liability will be around $19 billion, assuming the spill continues into August. Saturday, June 19 Anadarko Petroleum, which owns a quarter of the well, denies any responsibility for the disaster. CEO Jim Hackett blames BP for "gross negligence." Sunday, June 20 Photos of Hayward with his son as a yacht race make their way into the US media and cause frenzy throughout the country. Tuesday, June 22 American Bob Dudley assumes control of the spill from Hayward at a major oil industry conference; Hayward is not present. Chief of staff Steve Westwell delivers a speech on Hayward's behalf and is disrupted as two Greenpeace protesters assume the stage. Wednesday, June 23 An underwater robot bumps into the wellhead cap which results in oil gushing unhindered for several hours. Friday, June 25 BP announces the cost of containing and cleaning the oil spill reaches $2.35 billion. Monday, June 28 The Guardian, a widely circulated British newspaper, publishes a protest letter signed by 171 critics, writers, and artists about BP's financial ties to the Tate Britain gallery. Later on, activists dump molasses over the gallery's steps during a party intended to celebrate ten years of BP sponsorship. Wednesday, June 30 Tall waves, created as a result of Hurricane Alex, halt clean-up efforts.

2010 Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill Timeline (part 1 of 2): The following timeline includes the major developments related to the 2010 Gulf of Mexico oil spill. The circumstances surrounding the spill, the amount of oil spilled, and the attendant environmental damage are also given. April Tuesday, April 20 Located about 50 miles southeast of the Louisiana coast, British Petroleum's (BP)Deepwater Horizonoil rig explodes around 11 p.m. EST. As many as 15 crew members are reported missing; 98 workers escape without serious injury. Thursday, April 22 The search continues for 11 confirmed missing workers.Deepwater Horizoncontinues to burn. A 30-mile-long plume of smoke emanates from the rig. Effects of the explosion may have been worse if the rig had been in production rather than in exploration mode. The rig later sinks into the ocean. Sunday, April 25 The Coast Guard allows the use of remote underwater robots to activate a blowout preventer to stop the leak. Monday, April 26 Rescue efforts for missing crew members are suspended. Underwater robots discover two leaks that are dumping about 1,000 barrels of oil per day into the ocean. Speculation about the environmental, financial, and personal impact of the oil spill (or more accurately described, oil leak) raises wide concern. Wednesday, April 28 Experts are stumped about how to stop the leaks and effectively clean up the oil already in the ocean. The U.S. Coast Guard suggests a solution to set the oil slick on fire; a contained area is set on fire later in the day. Experts revised their leak rates from 1,000 barrels of oil per day to 5,000. It is confirmed that the oil slick has reached the Mississippi Delta. Thursday, April 29 President Obama pledges all available resources to contain the spill. He also says that BP will be held responsible for the cleanup. Friday, April 30 The Obama administration states that it will not authorize any new offshore drilling until the cause of the rig explosion is fully understood and measures to prevent another such disaster are put in place. BP CEO Tony Hayward says that BP takes full responsibility for the spill and will pay for the cleanup and all legitimate claims. May Saturday, May 1 The leak rate is revised further to 25,000 barrels per day from the previous estimate of 5,000. Sunday, May 2 President Obama visits the Gulf Coast to see the results of the cleanup. BP begins to dig a relief well alongside the failed well, but the project will take several weeks—perhaps months—to complete. A 10-day ban on fishing in affected areas is put into place. Monday, May 3 The oil slick appears to be drifting toward the Alabama and Florida coasts. BP tries to stop one of the leaks by installing a shutoff valve. Tuesday, May 4 News reports reveal that BP had a handful of options to prevent the disaster but did not implement all of them. Aside from a $500,000 acoustic cut-off switch, a deep-water valve could have been placed under the sea floor as another measure to seal any potential leaks. The relaxing of U.S. regulation in recent years allowed BP save money by not employing such preventative measures. Wednesday, May 5 BP succeeds in plugging one of three leaks in the oil line. It plans to lower a 100-ton containment dome over one of the remaining leaks to siphon the oil. Though the leak is plugged, it fails to affect the amount of oil spilling out. Friday, May 7 The containment dome fails. Later, it is speculated that BP may have been able to seal the leak rather than trying to siphon the oil from the leak into a nearby tank. The dome failed due to frozen materials clogging the device. The Fishing ban is extended and expanded. Sunday, May 9 BP reveals a "junk shot" plan that includes plugging the leak by pumping golf balls and shredded tires into the oil well. Tuesday, May 11—Wednesday, May 12 Executives from BP, Transocean, which owns the oil rig, and Halliburton, the company contracted to cement to well, appear at congressional hearings in Washington. Each executive blames the other companies for the disaster and concedes that many errors led to the explosion. Friday, May 14 BP attempts to intubate the bigger of the two oil leaks with a smaller pipe to siphon the oil. President Obama lambasts the involved companies for trying to dodge blame for the disaster. Sunday, May 16 The intubation of the leak succeeds, but it fails to capture a significant amount of oil. Tuesday, May 18 The no-fishing zone is extended to 19% of waters in the Gulf of Louisiana. Monday, May 24 BP further delays a method to clog the well and thus prevent further leaks. The method is called "top kill." Wednesday, May 26 "Top kill" is attempted and seems to succeed—a mixture of cement and mud is pumped into the leak 5,000 feet below the surface in order to clog the well. Friday, May 28 President Obama returns to the Louisiana Gulf for his second visit. Tony Hayward says that the disaster has cost BP $930 million.

Railroad Accidents (part 2 of 2): 1989 Jan. 15, Maizdi Khan, Bangladesh:train carrying Muslim pilgrims crashed head-on with a mail train, killing at least 110 people and injuring as many as 1,000. Many people were riding on the roof of the trains and between the cars. June 3, Ural Mountains:gas exploded beneath 2 trains, killing 575. Aug. 10, nr. Los Mochis, Mexico:a passenger train traveling from Mazatlán to Mexicali plunged off a bridge at Puente del Rio Bamoa, killing an estimated 85 people and injuring 107. 1990 Jan. 4, Sangi village, Sindh province, Pakistan:overcrowded 16-car passenger train rammed into a standing freight train. At least 210 people were killed and 700 were believed injured in what is said to be Pakistan's worst train disaster. 1993 Sept. 22, nr. Mobile, Ala.:Amtrak'sSunset Limited,en route to Miami, jumped rails on weakened bridge and plunged into Big Bayou Canot, killing 47 people. 1995 Aug. 20, Firozabad, northern India:a speeding passenger train rammed another train that was stalled, killing 358. 1997 March 3, Punjab province, Pakistan:passenger train crashed due to failed brakes, killing 119 and injuring at least 80 people. 1998 June 3, nr. Eschede, Germany:Inter City Express passenger train traveling at 125 mph crashed into support pier of overpass, killing 98. It is nation's worst train accident since WWII.Crash may have been caused by a defective wheel. 1999 Aug. 2, Calcutta, India:2 trains collided north of Calcutta, killing at least 285. Oct. 5, London:outbound Thames commuter train passed a red signal near Paddington Station and collided with London-bound Great Western express, killing 31 people and injuring 245. 2002 Feb. 20, nr. Ayyat, Egypt:361 killed in fire after gas cylinder used for cooking exploded aboard crowded passenger train. Egypt's worst train disaster. May 25, Muamba, Mozambique:192 died and dozens more injured when passenger cars rolled for several miles at top speed into freight cars from which they had been disconnected because of mechanical problems. June 24, nr. Msagali, central Tanzania:runaway passenger train collided with freight train on same track, leaving 200 dead. 2004 Feb. 18, Neishabour, Iran:runaway rail cars, loaded with fertilizer, petrol, and sulfur products, rolled 31 mi down the rails, caught fire, and exploded, killing more than 320 and devastating 5 villages. Mar, 11, Madrid, Spain:Spain's most horrific terrorist attack: 191 people were killed and 1,400 were injured in bombings at Madrid's railway station. A Moroccan affiliate of al-Qaeda claimed responsibility. April 22, Ryongchon, North Korea:2 trains carrying flammable liquids collided, causing a huge explosion near the Chinese border, killing at least 161 and injuring more than 1,300. 2005 April 25, Osaka, Japan:commuter train derailed and hit an apartment building near Osaka, killing at least 107 and injuring 460. It was the worst Japanese train accident since 1963. The accident was allegedly caused by the driver trying to get the train back on schedule. July 13, Ghotki, Pakistan:3 trains collided near Ghotki as the Karachi Express driver misread a signal and rammed the Quetta Express. Derailed carriages were then hit by a third train. At least 133 are killed. 2006 Jan. 23, Bioce, Montenegro:a train derailed and plunged into the Moraca canyon, killing 46 and injuring 19. July 11, Mumbai, India:a series of bombs exploded on commuter trains in Mumbai during the evening rush hour, killing at least 200 people. 2007 Aug. 1, Benaleka, Congo:a passenger train running between Ilebo and Kananga derailed after the brakes failed, killing about 100 people. Dec. 19, Mehrabpurp, Pakistan:a crowded passenger train derailed, killing at least 45 people and injuring over 100 more. 2008 April 28, China:a passenger train running from Beijing to Qingdao city derailed, killing 70 people and injuring more than 400 others. Aug. 8, Czech Republic:a passenger train running from Krakow to Prague crashed into a collapsed bridge, killing six people and injuring about 100 others. Sept. 12, California:a metrolink commuter train collided with a freight train northwest of Los Angeles, killing 25 passengers. 2009 June 22, Washington D.C.:nine people died and over 70 more were injured when a subway train crashed at rush hour. June 30, Italy:a freight train that was traveling from La Spezia to Pisa derailed and crashed into a small Italian town, killing 12 people and injuring at least 50 more. Nov. 27, Russia:26 people are killed when a bomb explodes on a luxury train that runs from Moscow to St. Petersburg. Chechen rebels claim responsibility for the attack.. 2010 March 29, Russia:thirty-eight people are killed after two female suicide bombers enter the Moscow Metro. May 28, India:a passenger train derails in West Bengal to avoid damage on the railway track, hits an oncoming train filled with goods and 148 people are killed.

Railroad Accidents (part 1 of 2): While trains are convenient for travel and for transporting goods, they have become a greater danger over the years as their speed has increased. Sometimes railroad accidents are caused by human error, but other causes include derailment, explosions on board, and bridge collapses. NOTE:Very few passengers were killed in a single U.S. train wreck up until 1853. The early trains ran slowly and made short trips, night travel was rare, and there were not many of them in operation. 1831 June 17, nr. Charleston, S.C.:boiler exploded on America's first passenger locomotive,The Best Friend of Charleston,injuring the fireman and the engineer. 1833 Nov. 8, nr. Heightstown, N.J.:world's first train wreck and first passenger fatalities recorded. A 24-passenger Camden & Amboy train derailed due to a broken axle, killing 2 passengers and injuring all others. Former president John Quincy Adams and Cornelius Vanderbilt, who later made a fortune in railroads, were aboard. 1853 May 6, Norwalk, Conn.:New Haven Railroad train ran through an open drawbridge and plunged into the Norwalk River. 46 passengers were crushed to death or drowned. This was the first major drawbridge accident. 1856 July 17, Camp Hill, nr. Ft. Washington, Pa.:2 Northern Penn trains crashed head-on. Approximately 50–60 people died, mostly children on their way to a Sunday school picnic. 1876 Dec. 29, Ashtabula, Ohio:Lake Shore train fell into the Ashtabula River when the bridge it was crossing collapsedduring a snowstorm; 92 people were killed. 1887 Aug. 10, nr. Chatsworth, Ill.:a burning railroad trestle collapsed while a Toledo, Peoria & Western train was crossing, killing 81 and injuring 372. 1904 Aug. 7, Eden, Colo.:train derailed on bridge during flash flood; 96 killed. 1910 March 1, Wellington, Wash.:2 trains swept into canyon by avalanche; 96 dead. 1915 May 22, Quintinshill, Scotland:2 passenger trains and troop train collided at Quintinshill near Gretna Green; 227 killed. 1917 Dec. 12, Modane, France:nearly 550 killed in derailment of troop train near mouth of Mt. Cenis tunnel. 1918 July 9, Nashville, Tenn.:101 killed in a 2-train collision near Nashville. Nov. 1, New York City:derailment of subway train in Malbone St. tunnel in Brooklyn left 92 dead. 1926 March 14, Virilla River Canyon, Costa Rica:an overcrowded train carrying pilgrims derailed while crossing the Colima Bridge, killing over 300 people and injuring hundreds more. 1939 Dec. 22, nr. Magdeburg, Germany:more than 125 killed in collision; 99 killed in another wreck near Friedrichshafen. 1943 Dec. 16, nr. Rennert, N.C.:72 killed in derailment and collision of 2 Atlantic Coast Line trains. 1944 March 2, nr. Salerno, Italy:521 suffocated when Italian train stalled in tunnel. 1949 Oct. 22, nr. Nowy Dwor, Poland:more than 200 reported killed in derailment of Danzig-Warsaw express. 1950 Nov. 22, Richmond Hill, N.Y.:79 died when one Long Island Railroad commuter train crashed into rear of another. 1951 Feb. 6, Woodbridge, N.J.:85 died when Pennsylvania Railroad commuter train plunged through temporary overpass. 1952 Oct. 8, Harrow-Wealdstone, England:2 express trains crashed into commuter train; 112 dead. 1957 Sept. 1, nr. Kendal, Jamaica:about 175 killed when train plunged into ravine. Sept. 29, nr. Montgomery, West Pakistan:express train crashed into standing oil train; nearly 300 killed. Dec. 4, St. John's, England:92 killed and 187 injured as one commuter train crashed into another in fog. 1960 Nov. 14, Pardubice, Czechoslovakia:2 trains collided; 110 dead, 106 injured. 1962 May 3, nr. Tokyo:163 killed and 400 injured when train crashed into wreckage of collision between inbound freight train and outbound commuter train. 1963 Nov. 9, nr. Yokohama, Japan:2 passenger trains crashed into derailed freight train, killing 162. 1964 July 26, Custoias, Portugal:passenger train derailed; 94 dead. 1970 Feb. 4, nr. Buenos Aires:236 killed when express train crashed into standing commuter train. 1972 July 21, Seville, Spain:head-on crash of two passenger trains killed 76. 1972 Oct. 6, nr. Saltillo, Mexico:train carrying religious pilgrims derailed and caught fire, killing 204 and injuring over 1,000. Oct. 30, Chicago:2 Illinois Central commuter trains collided during morning rush hour; 45 dead and over 200 injured. 1974 Aug. 30, Zagreb, Yugoslavia:train entering station derailed, killing 153 and injuring over 60. 1981 June 6, nr. Mansi, India:driver of train carrying over 500 passengers braked to avoid hitting a cow, causing train to plunge off a bridge into the Baghmati River; 268 passengers were reported killed, but at least 300 more were missing. 1982 July 11, Tepic, Mexico:Nogales-Guadalajara train plunged down mountain gorge, killing 120.

Space Accidents 1967 Jan. 27,Apollo 1:a fire aboard the space capsule on the ground at Cape Kennedy, Fla., killed astronauts Virgil I. Grissom, Edward H. White, and Roger Chaffee. April 23–24,Soyuz 1:Vladimir M. Komarov was killed when his craft crashed after its parachute lines, released at 23,000 ft for reentry, became snarled. 1971 June 6–30,Soyuz 11:3 cosmonauts, Georgi T. Dolrovolsky, Vladislav N. Volkov, and Viktor I. Patsayev, found dead in the craft after its automatic landing. Apparent cause of death was loss of pressurization in the space craft during reentry into Earth's atmosphere. 1980 March 18, USSR:a Vostok rocket exploded on its launch pad while being refueled, killing 50 at the Plesetsk Space Center. 1986 Jan. 28,ChallengerSpace Shuttle:exploded 73 seconds after liftoff, killing all 7 crew members. They were: Francis R. Scobee, Michael J. Smith, Judith A. Resnik, Ronald E. McNair, Ellison S. Onizuka, Gregory B. Jarvis, and schoolteacher Christa McAuliffe. A booster leak ignited the fuel, causing the explosion. 2003 Feb. 1,ColumbiaSpace Shuttle:broke up on reentering Earth's atmosphere on its way to Kennedy Space Center, killing all 7 crew members. They were: Rick D. Husband, William C. McCool, Michael P. Anderson, David M. Brown, Kalpana Chawla, Laurel Clark, and the first Israeli astronaut, Ilan Ramon. Foam insulation fell from the shuttle during launch, damaging the left wing. On reentry, hot gases entered the wing, leading to the disintegration of the shuttle. See also Space Shuttle Timelineand Profiles of the Columbia Astronauts

Aircraft Crashes (part 2 of 2): 1976 Sept. 10, Zagreb, Yugoslavia:midair collision between British Airways Trident and Yugoslav charter DC-9 fatal to all 176 people aboard. Sept. 19, Karatepe, Turkey:Turkish Airlines 727 crashes into mountainous terrain killing 154 people. 1977 March 27, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands:Pan American and KLM Boeing 747s collided on runway. All 249 on KLM plane and 333 of 394 aboard Pan Am jet killed. Total of 582 is highest for any type of aviation disaster. 1978 Jan. 1, Bombay:Air India 747 with 213 aboard exploded and plunged into sea minutes after takeoff. Sept. 25, San Diego, Calif.:Pacific Southwest plane collided in midair with Cessna. All 135 on airliner, 2 in Cessna, and 7 on ground killed for total of 144. Nov. 15, Colombo, Sri Lanka:chartered Icelandic Airlines DC-8, carrying 249 Muslim pilgrims from Mecca, crashed in thunderstorm during landing approach; 183 killed. 1979 May 25, Chicago:American Airlines DC-10 lost left engine upon takeoff and crashed seconds later, killing all 272 people aboard and 3 on the ground in worst U.S. air disaster. Nov. 26, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia:Pakistan International Airlines 707 carrying pilgrims returning from Mecca crashed on takeoff; all 156 aboard killed. Nov. 28, Mt. Erebus, Antarctica:Air New Zealand DC-10 crashed on sightseeing flight; 257 killed. 1980 Aug. 19, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia:all 301 aboard Saudi Arabian jet killed when burning plane made safe landing but passengers were unable to escape. 1981 Dec. 1, Ajaccio, Corsica:Yugoslav DC-9 Super 80 carrying tourists crashed into mountain on landing approach, killing all 178 aboard. 1983 June 28, near Cuenca, Ecuador:Ecuadorian jetliner crashed in mountains, killing 119. Aug. 30, nr. island of Sakhalin off Siberia:Korean Air Lines Boeing 747 shot down by Soviet fighter after it strayed off course into Soviet airspace. All 269 aboard killed. Secret Soviet documents released in Oct. 1992 reveal that the plane was flying a straight course for two hours with its navigational lights on and did not take evasive action. Crew was unaware of its location and never saw the Soviet fighter that downed them. The Soviet fighter did not give a warning by firing tracer bullets as originally claimed. Nov. 27, Madrid:Colombian Avianca Boeing 747 crashed near Mejorada del Campó Airport, killing 181 people aboard. Eleven people survived. 1985 June 23, Atlantic Ocean:Air India 747 exploded over the ocean killing 329. The probable cause was a Sikh terrorist bomb. Aug. 12, Japan:Japan Air Lines Boeing 747 crashed into a mountain, killing 520 of the 524 aboard. Highest death toll in a single-plane crash in aviation history. Dec. 12, Gander, Newfoundland:a chartered Arrow Air DC-8 bringing American soldiers home for Christmas crashed on takeoff. All 256 aboard died. 1987 May 9, Poland:Polish airliner Ilyushin 62M, on charter flight to N.Y., crashed after takeoff from Warsaw, killing 183. Aug. 16, Romulus, Mich.:Northwest Airlines McDonnell Douglas MD-80 crashed into a highway shortly after takeoff from Detroit Metropolitan Airport, killing 156 (including 2 on the ground). Girl, 4, only survivor. Nov. 26, south of Mauritius:South African Airways Boeing 747 went down in rough seas; 160 died. Nov. 29, Burma:Korean Air Boeing 747 jetliner exploded from bomb planted by North Korean agents and crashed into sea, killing all 115 aboard. 1988 July 3, Persian Gulf:U.S. Navy cruiserVincennesshot down Iran Air Airbus A-300 after mistaking it for an attacking jet fighter; 290 killed. Aug. 28, Ramstein Air Force Base, West Germany:3 jets from Italian Air Force acrobatic team collided in midair during air show and crashed, killing 70 people, including the pilots and spectators on the ground. Dec. 21, Lockerbie, Scotland:N.Y.-bound Pan-Am Boeing 747 exploded in flight from a terrorist bomb and crashed into Scottish village, killing all 259 aboard and 11 on the ground.See Terrorist Attacks. 1989 June 7, Paramaribo, Suriname:a Surinam Airways DC-8 carrying 174 passengers crashed into the jungle while making a third attempt to land in a thick fog, killing 168 aboard. July 19, Sioux City, Iowa:United Airlines DC-10 crashed during an emergency landing. Out of a total of 296 aboard, 111 were killed, 172 were injured, and 13 escaped unharmed. 1991 May 26, nr. Bangkok, Thailand:Austrian Lauda Air Boeing 767, en route to Vienna, crashed into jungle hilltop shortly after takeoff from Bangkok airport, killing all 223 aboard. Thailand's worst air disaster. July 11, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia:Canadian-chartered DC-8 carrying pilgrims returning to Nigeria crashed after takeoff, killing 261 people. 1994 Jan. 3, Irkutsk, Russia:Russian Tupolev-154 crashes after taking off, killing all 124 people. April 14, northern Iraq:two American F-15C fighter aircraft mistook two U.S. Army blackhawk helicopters for Russian-made Iraqi MI-24 helicopters and shot them down over no-fly zone, killing all 26 on board.

Aircraft Crashes (part 1 of 2): Find a list of the worst aircraft crashes in the world, including theHindenburgdisaster and the Sept 11, 2001, attacks. (See also Terrorist Attacks.) 1921 Aug. 24, England:British dirigibleAR-2broke in two on trial trip near Hull; 62 died. 1925 Sept. 3, Caldwell, Ohio:U.S. dirigibleShenandoahbroke apart; 14 dead. 1930 Oct. 5, Beauvais, France:British dirigibleR 101crashed, killing 47. 1933 April 4, N.J.:U.S. dirigibleAkroncrashed; 73 died. 1937 May 6, Lakehurst, N.J.:German zeppelin Hindenburgdestroyed by fire at tower mooring; 36 killed. 1945 July 28, New York City:U.S. Army bomber B-25 crashed into Empire State Building; 13 dead. 1953 June 18, near Tokyo:Crash of U.S. Air Force C-124 Globemaster killed 129 servicemen. 1956 June 30, Grand Canyon, Ariz.:TWA Super Constellation and United Airlines DC-7 collided over the Painted Desert, killing a total of 128 passengers and crew from both aircraft. 1960 Dec. 16, New York City:United DC-8 and Trans World Super Constellation collided and crashed, killing 134 in air and on ground. 1961 Feb. 15, nr. Brussels, Belgium:72 on board and farmer on ground killed in crash of Sabena plane; U.S. figure skating team wiped out. 1962 March 4, Douala, Cameroon:Trans-African DC-7 crashed on takeoff, killing all 111 people aboard. June 3, Paris:Chartered Air France Boeing 707 crashed after takeoff at Orly Airport, killing 130. June 22, Grande-Teree Island, Guadeloupe:Air France Boeing 707 crashed, killing all 113 aboard. 1963 Nov. 29, Montreal:Trans-Canada Airlines DC-8F crashed after taking off. All 118 aboard died. 1965 May 20, Cairo:Pakistan International Airways 707 crashed on landing at airport; 124 killed. 1966 Jan. 24, Mont Blanc:Air India Boeing 707 crashed into a mountain in a fog; 117 dead. Feb. 4, Tokyo:All-Nippon 727 jet crashed into Tokyo Bay as it approached airport, killing all 133 aboard. March 5, near Gotemba City, Japan:BOAC Boeing 707 broke apart in flight and crashed into Mount Fuji; 124 dead. Dec. 24, Binh Thai, South Vietnam:crash of military-chartered CL-44 into village killed 129. 1967 April 20, Nicosia, Cyprus:Chartered Swiss Globe Britannia Turboprop crashed while landing, killing 126. 1970 Feb. 15, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic:Dominican DC-9 plunged into Caribbean on takeoff; 102 dead. July 3, near Barcelona, Spain:British charter Dan-Air Comet jet crashed into the sea while coming in for a landing at Barcelona; 112 dead. July 5, Toronto:Air Canada DC-8 crashed on landing approach; 109 dead. Nov. 14, Huntington, W.Va.:Chartered Southern Airways DC-9 crashed and burned on approach to Tri-State Airport; 75 dead, including entire Marshall University football team. 1971 July 30, Morioka, Japan:Japanese Boeing 727 and F-86 fighter collided in midair; 162 died. Sept. 4, near Juneau, Alaska:Alaskan Airlines Boeing 727 crashed into Chilkoot Mountains; 109 killed. 1972 May 5, Palermo, Sicily:Alitalia DC-8 hit mountain, killing 115. June 18, London:BEA Trident jetliner crashed after takeoff from Heathrow Airport. All 118 aboard were killed. Aug. 14, East Berlin, East Germany:Soviet-built East German Ilyushin Il-62 plane crashed, killing 156. Oct. 13, Moscow, Russia:Aeroflot Ilyushin IL-14 crashed during landing due to pilot fatigue and 176 people perish. Dec. 3, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands:Spanish charter jet Convair 990-A jet carrying West German tourists crashed on takeoff; all 155 aboard killed. Dec. 30, Miami, Fla.:Eastern Airlines Lockheed 1011 TriStar jumbo jet, Flight 401, crashed into Everglades; 101 killed, 75 survived. 1973 Jan. 22, Kano, Nigeria:171 Nigerian Muslims returning from Mecca and 5 crewmen died in crash. Feb. 21, Sinai:civilian Libyan Arab Airlines Boeing 727 shot down by Israeli fighters after it had strayed off course; 108 died, 5 survived. Officials claimed that the pilot had ignored fighters' warnings to land. April 10, Hochwald, Switzerland:British airliner carrying tourists to Swiss fair crashed in blizzard; 106 dead. July 11, Paris:Boeing 707 of Varig Airlines, en route to Rio de Janeiro, crashed near airport, killing 122 of 134 passengers. 1974 March 3, Paris:Turkish DC-10 jumbo jet crashed in forest shortly after takeoff; all 346 killed. Dec. 4, Colombo, Sri Lanka:Dutch DC-8 carrying Muslims to Meccakilled all 191 when it crashed on landing approach. 1975 April 4, nr. Saigon, Vietnam:Air Force Galaxy C-5A crashed after takeoff, killing 172, mostly Vietnamese children. Aug. 3, Agadir, Morocco:chartered Boeing 707, returning Moroccan workers home after vacation in France, plunged into mountainside; all 188 killed.

Fires and Explosions Worst U.S. Forest Fires Whether you're talking about forest fires or kitchen fires, factory explosions or arson, when fires get out of control, the damage can be devastating. 1666 Sept. 2, England:“Great Fire of London” destroyed much of the city, including St. Paul's Cathedral. Damage £10 million. 1835 Dec. 16, New York City:530 buildings destroyed by fire. 1871 Oct. 8, Chicago:the “Chicago Fire” burned 17,450 buildings and killed 250 people; $196 million in damage. 1872 Nov. 9, Boston:fire destroyed 800 buildings; $75 million in damage. 1876 Dec. 5, New York City:fire in Brooklyn Theater killed more than 300. 1881 Dec. 8, Vienna:at least 620 died in fire at Ring Theatre. 1900 May 1, Scofield, Utah:explosion of blasting powder in coal mine killed 200. 1900 June 30, Hoboken, N.J.:piers of North German Lloyd Steamship line burned; 326 dead. 1903 Dec. 30, Chicago:Iroquois Theatre fire killed 602. 1904 Feb. 7, Baltimore, Md.:blaze spread through downtown Baltimore. More than 1,500 buildings were destroyed. Damages $150 million, but no lives lost June 15, New York City, NY:the steamship ferryGeneral Slocumignited on a voyage to Long Island; over 1,000 dead. 1906 March 10, France:explosion in coal mine in Courrières killed 1,060. 1907 Dec. 6, Monongah, W. Va.:coal mine explosion killed 362. Dec. 19, Jacobs Creek, Pa.:explosion in coal mine left 239 dead. 1908 Jan. 13, Boyertown, Pa.:fire in Rhoads Opera House killed 170 people who were attending church-sponsored stage performance. March 4, Collinwood, Ohio:fire in Collinwood school killed 176. Led to revision of fire codes for schools. 1909 Nov. 13, Cherry, Ill.:explosion in coal mine killed 259. 1911 March 25, New York City:fire in Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fatal to 145. 1913 Oct. 22, Dawson, N.M.:coal mine explosion left 263 dead. 1917 April 10, Eddystone, Pa.:explosion in munitions plant killed 133. 1917 Dec. 6, Halifax Harbor, Nova Scotia:Belgian steamer collided with ammunition shipMont Blanc, which was carrying over 2,500 tons of explosives. Explosion leveled part of Halifaxand left about 1,600 people dead. 1921 Sept. 21, Oppau, Germany:ammonium nitrate exploded destroying the BASF plant and nearby houses, killing 430 people. 1923 May 17, Beulah, S.C.:fire started by a candle during a Cleveland school play killed 77. 1928 May 19, Mather, Pa.:coal mine explosion left 195 dead. 1930 April 21, Columbus, Ohio:fire in Ohio State Penitentiary killed 320 convicts. 1937 March 18, New London, Tex.:explosion de-stroyed schoolhouse; 294 killed. 1940 April 23, Natchez, Mississippi:209 die when a packed dance hall erupts in flames during a performance by Walter Barnes and His Royal Creolians Orchestra. The blaze is fueled by decorative Spanish moss covering the building's rafters, which generated flammable methane gas once burned. Among those to perish were Barnes and nine members of his band. 1942 April 26, Manchuria:explosion in Honkeiko Colliery killed 1,549. Nov. 28, Boston, Mass.:Coconut Grove nightclub fire killed 491. 1944 July 6, Hartford, Conn.:fire and ensuing stampede in main tent of Ringling Brothers Circus killed 168 and injured 487. July 17, Port Chicago, Calif.:322 killed when ammunition ships exploded. Oct. 20, Cleveland:spilled liquid natural gas exploded, killing 130. 1946 Dec. 7, Atlanta:fire in Winecoff Hotel killed 119. 1947 April 16–18, Texas City, Tex.:most of the city destroyed by a fire and subsequent explosion on the French freighterGrandcamp, which was carrying a cargo of ammonium nitrate. At least 516 were killed and over 3,000 injured. 1949 Sept. 2, China:fire on Chongqing(Chungking) waterfront killed 1,700. 1954 May 26, off Quonset Point, R.I.:explosion and fire on aircraft carrierBenningtonkilled 103. 1956 Aug. 7, Colombia:seven army ammunition trucks exploded at Cali, killing about 1,100. Aug. 8, Belgium:262 died in coal mine fire at Marcinelle. 1958 Dec. 1, Chicago:fire at Our Lady of Angels, a Roman Catholic grade school, resulted in deaths of 90 students and 3 nuns. 1960 Jan. 21, Coalbrook, South Africa:coal mine explosion killed 437. Nov. 13, Syria:152 children killed in moviehouse fire. 1961 Dec. 17, Niteroi, Brazil:circus fire fatal to 323. 1962 Feb. 7, Saarland, West Germany:coal mine gas explosion killed 298. 1963 Nov. 9, Japan:explosion in coal mine at Omuta killed 447. 1965 May 28, India:coal mine fire in state of Biharkilled 375. June 1, nr. Fukuoka, Japan:coal mine explosion killed 236. 1967 May 22, Brussels, Belgium:fire in L'Innovation department store left 322 dead. July 29, off North Vietnam:fire on U.S. carrierForrestalkilled 134. 1969 Jan. 14, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii:nuclear aircraft carrierEnterpriseripped by explosions; 27 dead, 82 injured. 1970 Nov. 1, Saint-Laurent-du-Pont, France:fire in dance hall killed 146 young people. 1972 May 13, Osaka, Japan:118 people died in fire in nightclub on top floor of Sennichi department store.

Nuclear and Chemical Accidents Though nuclear power is a good source of energy and is generally not a threat, there have been instances when security measures have failed. Nuclear meltdowns can cause dangerous radiation to escape into the surrounding environment. 1952 Dec. 12, Chalk River, nr. Ottawa, Canada:a partial meltdown of the reactor's uranium fuel core resulted after the accidental removal of four control rods. Although millions of gallons of radioactive water accumulated inside the reactor, there were no injuries. 1953 Love Canal, nr. Niagara Falls, N.Y.:was destroyed by waste from chemical plants. By the 1990s, the town had been cleaned up enough for families to begin moving back to the area. 1957 Oct. 7, Windscale Pile No. 1, north of Liverpool, England:fire in a graphite-cooled reactor spewed radiation over the countryside, contaminating a 200-square-mile area. South Ural Mountains:explosion of radioactive wastes at Soviet nuclear weapons factory 12 mi from city of Kyshtym forced the evacuation of over 10,000 people from a contaminated area. No casualties were reported by Soviet officials. 1976 nr. Greifswald, East Germany:radioactive core of reactor in the Lubmin nuclear power plant nearly melted down due to the failure of safety systems during a fire. 1979 March 28, Three Mile Island, nr. Harrisburg, Pa.:one of two reactors lost its coolant, which caused overheating and partial meltdown of its uranium core. Some radioactive water and gases were released. This was the worst accident in U.S. nuclear-reactor history. 1984 Dec. 3, Bhopal, India:toxic gas, methyl isocyanate, seeped from Union Carbide insecticide plant, killing more than 2,000 and injuring about 150,000. 1986 April 26, Chernobyl, nr. Kiev, Ukraine:explosion and fire in the graphite core of one of four reactors released radioactive material that spread over part of the Soviet Union, eastern Europe, Scandinavia, and later western Europe. 31 claimed dead. Total casualties are unknown. Worst such accident to date. 1987 Sept. 18, Goiânia, Brazil:244 people contaminated with cesium-137 from a cancer-therapy machine that had been sold as scrap. Four people died in worst radiation disaster in Western Hemisphere. 1999 Sept. 30, Tokaimura, Japan:uncontrolled chain reaction in a uranium-processing nuclear fuel plant spewed high levels of radioactive gas into the air, killing two workers and seriously injuring one other. 2004 Aug. 9, Mihama, Japan:nonradioactive steam leaked from a nuclear power plant, killing four workers and severely burning seven others. 2007 July 17, Kashiwazaki, Japan:radiation leaks, burst pipes, and fires at a major nuclear power plant followed a 6.8 magnitude earthquake near Niigata. Japanese officials, frustrated at the plant operators' delay in reporting the damage, closed the plant a week later until its safety could be confirmed. Further investigation revealed that the plant had unknowingly been built directly on top of an active seismic fault. 2008 February 7, Port Wentworth, Georgia:an explosion fueled by combustible sugar dust killed 13 people and injured several others at the Imperial Sugar plant near Savannah. 2011 March 12, Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station, Japan:an explosion in reactor No. 1 caused one of the buildings to crumble to the ground. The cooling system at the reactor failed shortly after the earthquake and tsunami hit Japan. By Tuesday, March 15, two more explosions and a fire had officials and workers at the plant struggling to regain control of four reactors. The fire, which happened at reactor No. 4, was contained by noon on Tuesday, but not before the incident released radioactivity directly into the atmosphere.

Droughts and Heat Waves 1930s Many states:longest drought of the 20th century. Peak periods were 1930, 1934, 1936, 1939, and 1940. During 1934, dry regions stretched solidly from N.Y. and Pa. across the Great Plains to the Calif. coast. A great “dust bowl” covered some 50 million acres in the south-central plains during the winter of 1935–1936. 1955 Aug. 31–Sept. 7, Los Angeles:8-day run of 100°-plus heat left 946 people dead. 1972 July 14–26, New York City:891 people died in 14-day heat wave. 1980 June–Sept., central and eastern U.S.:an estimated 10,000 people were killed during the summer in a long heat wave and drought. Damages totaled about $20 billion. 1982–1983 worldwide:El Niño caused wildly unusual weather in the U.S. and elsewhere throughout 1983. Drought in the western Pacific region led to disastrous forest fires in Indonesia and Australia. Overall loss to world economy was over $8 billion. Similar event in 1997–1998 resulted in estimated loss of $25–$33 billion. 1988 Summer, central and eastern U.S.:a severe drought and heat wave killed an estimated 5,000–10,000 people, including heat stress-related deaths. Damages reached $40 billion. 1995 July 12–17, Chicago:739 people died in record heat wave. 1996 Fall 1995–summer 1996, Tex. and Okla.:severe drought in southern plains region caused $4 billion in agricultural losses; no deaths. 1998 Summer, southern U.S.:severe heat and drought spread across Tex. and Okla., all the way to N.C. and S.C, killing at least 200. Estimated damages of $6–$9 billion. 1999 Summer, eastern U.S.:rainfall shortages resulted in worst drought on record for Md., Del., N.J., and R.I. The state of W.Va. was declared a disaster area. 3.81 million acres were consumed by fire as of mid-Aug. Record heat throughout the country resulted in 502 deaths nationwide. 2000 Spring–summer, southern U.S.:severe drought and heat killed an estimated 140 people. Damages were estimated at $4 billion. 2003 May–June, southern India:a monthlong intense heat wave claimed more than 1,500 lives. Aug., Europe:drought conditions and a heat wave, one of the worst in 150 years, broke temperature records from London to Portugal, fueled forest fires, ruined crops, and caused thousands of deaths. (French fatalities estimated at more than 14,000.) 2006 July 16–25, California:a two-week heat wave killed at least 140 people. 2007 August, southeastern U.S.:more than 50 deaths and innumerable cases of heat-related illneses have been attributed to the excessive heat. Drinking water sources, such as Atlanta's Lake Lanier, have also been severely depleted. 2008 June 4, California:With reservoir levels well below average and the state experiencing its driest spring in 88 years, Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger officially declares that California is in a drought and warns of potential rationing. It is the first such declaration in 17 years. 2012 Spring, several states:A national drought begins in the spring of 2012 due to the lack of snow the U.S. received during the previous winter. The drought causes 123 deaths and over $40 billion in damages.

U.S. Tornadoes Find a list of the most deadly and intense tornadoes in the U.S. with casualty information. 1840 May 6, Natchez, Miss.:tornado struck heart of the city, killing 317 and injuring over 1,000. 1880 April 18, Marshfield, Mo.:series of 24 tornadoes demolished city, killing 99 people. 1884 Feb. 19, Miss., Ala., N.C., S.C., Tenn., Ky., Ind.:series of 60 tornadoes caused estimated 800 deaths. 1890 March 27, Louisville, Ky.:twister hit community and caused 76 deaths. 1896 May 27, eastern Mo. and southern Ill.:series of 18 tornadoes; 1 tornado destroyed large section of St. Louis, Mo., killing 255. 1899 June 12, New Richmond, Wis.:tornado struck while circus was in town, causing 117 deaths. 1902 May 18, Goliad, Tex.:tornado killed 114. 1903 June 1, Gainesville, Holland, Ga.:twister caused 98 deaths. 1905 May 10, Snyder, Okla.:tornado killed 97. 1908 April 24–25, La., Miss., Ala., Ga.:18 tornadoes resulted in 310 deaths (143 of these caused by 1 tornado that moved from Amite, La. to Purvis, Miss.). April 24, Natchez, Miss.:twister struck, causing 91 deaths. 1913 March 23, eastern Nebr. and western Iowa:Easter Sunday: 8 tornadoes resulted in 181 deaths (103 in Omaha, Nebr.). 1917 May 26, Mattoon, Ill.:tornado smashed area, causing 101 deaths. 1920 April 20, Starkville, Miss.; Waco, Ala.:tornado killed 88. 1924 June 28, Lorain, Sandusky, Ohio:tornado swept through cities, causing 85 deaths. 1925 March 18, Mo., Ill., Ind.:the “Tri-State Tornado” was the most violent single twister in U.S. history. It caused the deaths of 695 people and injured over 2,000. Property damage was estimated at $16.5 million. 1927 May 9, Poplar Bluff, Mo.:twister killed 98. Sept. 29, St. Louis, Mo.:a five-minute tornado ripped through the city and caused 79 deaths. 1932 March 21–22, Ala., Miss., Ga., Tenn.:outbreak of 33 tornadoes killed 334 (268 in Ala.). 1936 April 5–6, Deep South:series of 17 tornadoes; 216 killed in Tupelo, Miss., and 203 killed in Gainesville, Ga. 1944 June 23, W. Va., Pa., Md.:4 tornadoes caused 153 deaths. 1947 April 9, Woodward, Okla.:tornado demolished town, killing 181. 1952 March 21–22, Ark. and Tenn.:28 tornadoes caused 204 deaths. 1953 May 11, Waco, Tex.:a single tornado killed 114. June 8, Flint, Mich.:tornado killed 115. June 9, Worcester, Mass.:tornado hit town, killing 90. 1955 May 25, Udall, Kans.:tornado killed 80. 1965 April 11–12, Midwest–Great Lakes region:tornadoes in Iowa, Ill., Ind., Ohio, Mich., and Wis. caused 256 deaths. 1967 April 21, northern Ill., also Mo., Iowa, lower Mich.:series of 52 tornadoes caused 58 deaths. 1971 Feb. 21, Miss., La., Ark., Tenn.:series of 10 tornadoes resulted in 121 deaths. 1974 April 3–4:a series of 148 twisters within 16 hours comprised the deadly “Super Tornado Outbreak” that struck 13 states in the East, South, and Midwest. Before it was over, 330 died and 5,484 were injured in a damage path covering more than 2,500 mi. 1979 April 10, northern Tex. and southern Okla.:11 tornadoes caused 59 deaths. 1984 March 28, N.C. and S.C.:22 tornadoes caused 57 deaths. 1985 May 31, Pa. and Ohio:27 tornadoes resulted in 75 deaths. Estimated damages were $450 million. 1990 Aug. 28, northern Ill.:fast-moving tornado struck the southwest suburbs of Chicago, killing 29 and injuring more than 300. 1992 Nov. 21–23, southeast Tex. to Mid-Atlantic and Ohio Valley:total of 94 tornadoes caused 26 deaths and $291 million in damage. 1994 March 27, Ala., Ga., and N.C.:Palm Sunday tornado outbreak resulted in 42 deaths and 320 injuries. Property damages reached $107 million. Twenty people died and 90 were injured when a tornado caused the roof of a church near Piedmont, Ala., to collapse. 1997 May 27, central Tex.:multiple tornadoes, including one particularly strong twister that devastated the town of Jarrell, caused 29 deaths and an estimated $20 million in damage. 1999 Jan. 17–22, Tenn. and Ark.:a series of tornadoes left 17 dead. Damages were estimated at $1.3 billion. May 3, Okla. and Kans.:unusually large twister, thought to have been a mile wide at times, killed 44 people and injured at least 748. A separate tornado killed another 5 and injured about 150 in Kans. Damages totaled at least $1 billion. 2000 Feb. 14, southwest Ga.:at least 5 tornadoes struck southwest Ga., killing 19 people and injuring over 100. 2002 Nov. 9–11, central and southeast U.S.:series of more than 70 tornadoes across 9 states from Miss. to Pa. killed 36 people. 2003 May 1–10, southern and midwestern U.S.:more than 400 tornadoes in 10 days killed 42. 2006 March–April, plains, Tenn, and Ohio valley, U.S.:more than 500 tornadoes killed 47 people in the 2–month period. 2007 March 1, Ala., Minn., Miss., and Ga.:a series of tornados killed about 20 people, including eight high school students. May 7, Kans.:ten people died in a Category F-5 tornado that completely wiped out a small Kansas farming town.

Typhoons 1906 Sept. 18, Hong Kong:typhoon with tsunami killed an estimated 10,000 people. 1934 Sept. 21, Japan:typhoon killed more than 4,000 on Honshu. 1949 Dec. 5, off Korea:typhoon struck fishing fleet; several thousand men reported dead. 1958 Sept. 27, Honshu, Japan:“Vera” left nearly 5,000 dead and 1.5 million homeless. 1959 Aug. 20, Fukien province, China:“Iris” killed 2,334. 1960 June 9, Fukien province, China:“Mary” caused at least 1,600 deaths. 1984 Sept. 2–3, Philippines:“Ike” hit seven major islands, leaving 1,300 dead. 1991 Nov. 5, central Philippines:flash floods from tropical storm “Thelma” killed about 3,000 people. City of Ormoc on Leytewas worst hit. 2003 Sept. 12, South Korea:With winds up to 130 mph, Typhoon Maemi, one of the most powerful typhoons to hit South Korea in a century, kills at least 110 people, disrupts electrical power and communications systems, knocks over ships in the port, and forces the evacuation of thousands from their homes. 2004 Oct. 20, Japan:Typhoon Tokage, the deadliest typhoon to hit Japan in more than two decades, kills at least 80 people as heavy rains flood tens of thousands of houses and trigger numerous landslides. The typhoon produces a record (since 1970) 80 ft (24 m) high wave, eight-stories high. 2007 Aug.18, Taiwan:Typhoon Sepat, hit Taiwan with winds over 120 mph, cutting power supplies to nearly 57,000 homes, killing over 40 people, injuring 12 more, and forcing more than a thousand others to evacuate. 2008 June 21, the Philippines:a ferry, thePrincess of the Stars, is struck by Typhoon Fengshen, killing most of the 865 passengers and crew. There are 59 known survivors. Almost 500 other people die during the storm. July 28, Taiwan:Typhoon Fung Wong, hit the east central coast of Taiwan with winds over 105 mph, only a week after a tropical storm killed 19 people.

Major Blizzards in the U.S. 1888 Jan. 12, Dakota and Montana territories, Minn., Nebr., Kans., and Tex.:“Schoolchildren's Blizzard” resulted in 235 deaths, many of which were children on their way home from school. March 11–14, East Coast:“ Blizzard of 1888” resulted in 400 deaths and as much as 5 ft of snow. Damage was estimated at $20 million. 1949 Jan. 2–4, Nebr., Wyo., S.D., Utah, Colo., and Nev.:Actually one of a series of winter storms between Jan. 1 and Feb. 22. Although only 1 ft to 30 in. of snow fell, fierce winds of up to 72 mph created drifts as high as 30 ft. Tens of thousands of cattle and sheep perished. 1950 Nov. 25–27, eastern U.S.:“Storm of the Century” generated heavy snow and hurricane-force winds across 22 states and claimed 383 lives. Damages estimated at $70 million. 1977 Jan. 28–29, Buffalo, N.Y.:“Blizzard of 1977” dumped about 7 in. of new snow on top of 30–35 in. already on the ground. With winds gusting to 70 mph, drifts were as high as 30 ft. Death toll reached 29, and seven western N.Y. counties were declared a national disaster area. 1978 Feb. 6–8, eastern U.S.:“Blizzard of 1978” battered the East Coast, particularly the Northeast; claimed 54 lives and caused $1 billion in damage. Snowfall ranged from 2–4 ft in New England, plus nearly 2 ft of snow already on the ground from an earlier storm. 1993 March 12–14, eastern U.S.:“Superstorm” paralyzed the eastern seaboard, causing the deaths of some 270 people. Record snowfalls (with rates of 2–3 in. per hour) and high winds caused $3 billion to $6 billion in damage. 1996 Jan. 6–8, eastern U.S.:heavy snow paralyzed the Appalachians, the mid-Atlantic, and the Northeast; 187 were killed in the blizzard and in the floods that resulted after a sudden warm-up. Damages reached $3 billion. 1999 Jan. 1–3, Midwest U.S.:major blizzard and sub-zero temperatures wreak havoc in Illinois, Wisconsin, Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio; 73 were killed in the blizzard and transportation systems in the region were paralyzed. Damages reached about $500 million.

Other Hurricanes 1780 Oct. 10–16, Barbados, West Indies:“The Great Hurricane of 1780” killed 20,000–22,000 people and completely flattened the islands of Barbados, Martinique, and St. Eustatius;it is the deadliest Western Hemisphere hurricane on record. 1926 Oct. 20, Cuba:powerful hurricane killed 650. 1930 Sept. 3, Dominican Republic:hurricane killed about 8,000 people. 1955 Sept. 19, Mexico:“Hilda” took 200 lives. Sept. 22–28, Caribbean:“Janet” killed 200 in Honduras and 300 in Mexico. 1961 Oct. 31, British Honduras:“Hattie” devastated capital of Belize, killing at least 400. 1963 Oct. 2–7, Caribbean:“Flora” killed about 7,200 in Haiti and Cuba. 1966 Sept. 24–30, Caribbean area:“Inez” killed 293. 1974 Sept. 14–19, Honduras:“Fifi” struck northern part of country, leaving 8,000 dead and 100,000 homeless. 1988 Sept. 12–17, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico:“Gilbert” took at least 260 lives and caused some 39 tornadoes in Tex. 1997 Oct. 8–10, southern Mexico:“Pauline” devastated resort city of Acapulco and villages along the coast in states of Oaxacaand Guerrero,leaving 217 dead and 20,000 homeless. 1998 Sept. 20–29, Caribbean, Fla. Keys, and Gulf Coast:“George” killed about 600 people, mostly in Dominican Republic. Damage estimated to be $5 billion, including $2 billion in Puerto Rico. Oct. 26–Nov. 4, Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala:“Mitch” killed more than 14,500 people, becoming the deadliest Atlantic storm in 200 years. Two to three million people were left homeless; damages were more than $5 billion. 2004 Sept. 18, Haiti:Floods from tropical storm “Jeanne” killed more than 2,400 in Haiti and left 300,000 homeless. 2007 Aug. 13–23, Caribbean and Mexico:“Dean,” a category 5 hurricane with winds reaching 150 mph, took 32 lives and caused more than $200 million in damage. Aug. 31–Sept. 5, Caribbean, Nicaragua, and Honduras:“Felix,” a category 5 hurricane with winds reaching 150 mph, took at least 130 lives and left 70 others missing. 2008 Aug. 28–Sept. 2, Caribbean and Gulf Coast:"Gustav" killed at least 137 people and injured many more when it made landfall in Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Thousands were left homeless and without food and water. In the U.S., "Gustav" forced the entire city of New Orleans to evacuate and left 26 people dead in three states. Sept. 7–8, Haiti, Cuba, Turks and Caicos islands:“Ike,” a category 2 hurricane with winds reaching 120 mph, took at least 61 lives in Haiti, left more than 80% of homes destroyed on Turks and Caicos islands, and caused four deaths and 800,000 people to evacuate their homes in Cuba. Nov. 8, Cuba:“Paloma,” a category 3 hurricane with winds reaching 120 mph, forced more than 300,000 people in Cuba to evacuate their homes and caused about $9.4 billion in damages.

U.S. Hurricanes Find data about the most intense and deadliest hurricanes to strike the U.S. Figures include U.S. deaths only, except where noted. Damages are actual cost in U.S. dollars, followed in parentheses by dollar figures adjusted to the year 2000.) 1776 Sept. 2–9, N.C. to Nova Scotia:called the “Hurricane of Independence,” it is believed that 4,170 in the U.S. and Canada died in the storm. 1856 Aug. 11, Last Island, La.:400 died. 1893 Aug. 28, Savannah, Ga., Charleston, S.C., Sea Islands, S.C.:at least 1,000 died. 1900 Sept. 8, Galveston, Tex.:an estimated 6,000–8,000 died in hurricane and tidal surge. The “Galveston Hurricane” is considered the deadliest in U.S. history. 1909 Sept. 10–21, La. and Miss.:350 deaths. 1915 Aug. 5–23, Galveston, Tex., and New Orleans, La.:275 killed. 1919 Sept. 2–15, Fla. Keys, La., and southern Tex.:more than 600 killed, mostly lost on ships at sea. 1926 Sept. 11–22, southeast Fla. and Ala.:243 deaths. 1928 Sept. 6–20, Lake Okeechobee, southeast Fla.:1,836 deaths. Second-deadliest U.S. hurricane on record. 1935 Aug. 29–Sept. 10, Fla. Keys:“Labor Day Hurricane”; 408 deaths. 1938 Sept. 10–22, Long Island, N.Y., and southern New England:“New England Hurricane”; 600 deaths. 1944 Sept. 9–16, N.C. to New England:390 deaths, 344 of which were at sea. 1947 Sept. 4–21, southeast Fla., La., Miss., Ala.:51 killed. 1954 Aug. 25–31, N.C. to New England:“Carol” killed 60 in Long Island–New England area. Oct. 5–18, S.C. to N.Y.:“Hazel” killed 95 in U.S.; about 400–1,000 in Haiti; 78 in Canada. 1955 Aug. 7–21, N.C. to New England:“Diane” took 184 lives and cost $8.3 million ($5.5 billion). 1957 June 25–28, southwest La. and northern Tex.:“Audrey” wiped out Cameron, La., causing 390 deaths. 1960 Aug. 29–Sept. 13, Fla. to New England:“Donna” killed 50 in the U.S.; 115 deaths in Antilles. 1961 Sept. 3–15, Tex. coast:“Carla” devastated Tex. gulf cities, taking 46 lives. 1965 Aug. 27–Sept. 12, southern Fla. and La.:“Betsy” killed 75 and cost more than $1.4 ($8.5) billion. 1969 Aug. 14–22, Miss., La., Ala., Va., and W. Va.:256 killed as a result of “Camille.” Damages estimated at $1.4 ($6.9) billion. 1972 June 14–23, northwest Fla. to N.Y.:“Agnes” caused widespread flash floods killing 117 (50 in Pa). Damages estimated at over $2.1 ($8.6) billion. Still the worst natural disaster ever in Pa. 1979 Aug. 25–Sept. 7, Caribbean to New England:“David” caused five U.S. deaths; 1,200 in the Dominican Republic. Aug. 29–Sept. 15, Ala. and Miss.:“Frederic” devastated Mobile, Ala., and caused $2.3 ($4.9) billion in damage overall. 1980 Aug. 3–10, Caribbean to Tex. Gulf:“Allen” killed 28 in U.S.; over 200 in Caribbean. 1983 Aug. 15–21, Galveston and Houston, Tex.:“Alicia” caused 21 deaths and $2 ($3.4) billion in damages. 1985 Oct. 6–Nov. 1, La. southeast U.S.:“Juan,” a Category 1 hurricane, caused severe flooding and $1.5 ($2.4) billion in damages; 63 people died. 1989 Sept. 10–22, Caribbean Sea, S.C., and N.C.:“Hugo” claimed 86 lives (57 U.S. mainland) and damages estimated over $7 ($9.7) billion. 1991 Oct. 30–Nov. 1, Eastern Atlantic seaboard:an unnamed hurricane labeled the “perfect storm” caused extensive erosion and flooding along the Atlantic seaboard and created 39-foot waves. 1992 Aug. 22–26, Bahamas, southern Fla., and La.:Hurricane “Andrew” left 26 dead and more than 100,000 homes destroyed or damaged. Total U.S. damages estimated at $26.5 ($34.9) billion. 1994 Nov. 8–21, Caribbean and southern Fla.:“Gordon” led to an estimated 1,122 deaths in Haiti. Eight died in Fla. 1995 Nov. 29, Fla. Panhandle and Ala.:storm surge during “Opal” caused extensive damage to coastal areas; nine U.S. deaths and damages of $3 ($3.5) billion. 1996 Sept. 5, N.C. and Va.:“Fran” took 37 lives and caused more than $3.2 ($3.6) billion in damage. 1999 Sept. 14–18, Bahamas to New England:“Floyd” and associated flooding caused at least 57 deaths. Damage estimated at $4.5 ($4.6) billion. 2001 June 8–15, Gulf Coast to southern New England:tropical storm “Allison” caused severe flooding, damage estimated at $5 billion (actual cost); 41 deaths. 2003 Sept. 18, N.C. and Va.:“Isabel” took 50 lives and caused more than $3.7 billion in damage. 2004 Aug. 13–Sept. 26, Fla., Ala., and southern U.S.:Four major hurricanes hit Fla. in 6 weeks. “Charley,” on Aug. 13, a Category 4 hurricane, killed 34; “Frances,” on Sept. 5, killed 48. “Ivan” swept from Grenada to Ala. and Fla. on Sept. 16, killing 57 in the U.S. and 66 in the Caribbean. “Jeanne,” on Sept. 26, flooded Fla. again, killing 28. Total U.S. damages from the 4 hurricanes estimated to exceed $35 billion.

Cyclones 1864 Oct. 5, Calcutta, India:70,000 killed. 1942 Oct. 16, Bengal, India:about 40,000 lives lost. 1960 Oct. 10, East Pakistan:cyclone and tidal wave killed about 6,000. 1963 May 28–29, East Pakistan:cyclone killed about 22,000 along coast. 1965 May 11–12 and June 1–2, East Pakistan:cyclones killed about 47,000. Dec. 15, Karachi, Pakistan:about 10,000 killed. 1970 Nov. 12–13, East Pakistan:cyclone and tidal waves killed 200,000 and another 100,000 were reported missing. 1971 Sept. 29, Orissa state, India:cyclone and tidal wave killed as many as 10,000 off the Bay of Bengal. 1974 Dec. 25, Darwin, Australia:cyclone destroyed nearly the entire city; 50 reported dead. 1977 Nov. 19, Andhra Pradesh, India:cyclone and tidal wave claimed lives of 20,000. 1991 April 30, southeast Bangladesh:cyclone killed over 131,000 and left up to 9 million homeless. Thousands of survivors died from hunger and water-borne disease. 1999 Oct. 29, Orissa state, India:supercyclone swept in from Bay of Bengal, killing at least 9,573 and leaving over 10 million homeless. 2004 March 8, Antalaha, Madagascar:Cyclone Gafilo, with winds of 160 mph and heavy rains, leaves hundreds of thousands homeless and killed 295 people. More than 100 were on a ferry that sank off the island of Comoros. 2007 November 15, southern Bangladesh:Cyclone Sidr, with winds over 100 miles per hour, kills nearly 3,500 people in southern Bangladesh. The United Nations reports that a million people are left homeless. 2008 May 3, Myanmar:Cyclone Nargis hits the Irrawaddy Delta and the city of Yangon, killing at least 22,500 people— 41,000 more are still missing. Most of the deaths and destruction were caused by a 12-foot high tidal wave that formed during the storm.

Floods, Avalanches, and Tidal Waves 1228 Holland:100,000 people reputedly drowned by sea flood in Friesland. 1642 China:rebels destroyed Kaifengseawall; 300,000 drowned. 1889 May 31, Johnstown, Pa.:more than 2,200 died in flood after South Fork Dam collapsed. 1910 March 1, Wellington, Wash.:avalanche in Cascade Range swept 2 trains into canyon, killing 96. Worst U.S. avalanche. 1903 June 14, Willow Creek, Ore.:Flash floods swept away town of Heppner, killing more than 240. 1913 March–April, Ohio:Statewide flooding of rivers killed at least 428. 1928 March 12, Santa Paula, Calif.:collapse of St. Francis Dam left 450 dead. 1931 July–Aug., China:flood along Yangtze River left 3.7 million people dead from disease, starvation, or drowning. 1953 Jan. 31–Feb. 5, northwest Europe:storm followed by floods devastated North Seacoastal areas. Netherlands hit hardest; 1,794 dead. 1954 Aug., Teheran, Iran:flood rains resulted in some 10,000 deaths. 1959 Dec. 2, Fréjus, France:flood caused by collapse of Malpasset Dam left 412 dead. 1962 Jan. 10, Peru:avalanche down extinct Huascaranvolcano killed more than 3,000. 1963 Oct. 9, Italy:landslide into the Vaiont Dam;flood killed about 2,000. 1966 Oct. 21, Aberfan, Wales:avalanche of coal, waste, mud, and rocks killed 144 people, including 116 children in school. 1969 Jan. 18–26, southern Calif.:floods and mudslides from heavy rains caused widespread property damage; at least 100 dead. Another downpour (Feb. 23–26) caused further floods and mudslides; at least 18 dead. 1970 Nov. 13, East Pakistan:200,000 killed by cyclone-driven tidal wave from Bay of Bengal.Over 100,000 missing. 1971 Aug., Hanoi, North Vietnam:heavy rains flooded the Red River Delta, killing 100,000. 1972 Feb. 26, Man, W. Va.:a slag-pile dam collapsed under pressure of torrential rains, flooding 17-mi valley, killing more than 118. June 9–10, Rapid City, S.D.:flash flood caused 237 deaths and $160 million in damage. 1975 Aug. 5, Yangtze River, China:63 dams failed, killing an estimated 80,000 to 200,000 people from floods and subsequent famine. The Chinese government never acknowledged the event. 1976 Aug. 1, Loveland, Colo.:flash flood along Route 34 in Big Thompson Canyon left 139 dead. 1988 Aug.–Sept., Bangladesh:heaviest monsoon in 70 years killed more than 1,300. Floods inundated three-fourths of country, leaving 30 million homeless and damages estimated over $1 billion. 1993 June–Aug., Ill., Iowa, Kan., Ky., Minn., Mo., Neb., N.D., S.D., Wis.:flooding of the Mississippi River and tributaries caused 50 deaths and about $12 billion in damage. Almost 70,000 left homeless. 1997 Dec. 1996–Jan. 1997, U.S. West Coast:torrential rains and snowmelt produced severe floods in parts of Calif., Ore., Wash., Idaho, Nev., and Mont., causing 36 deaths and about $2–3 billion in damage. March, Ohio and Mississippi Valleys:flooding and tornadoes plagued Ark., Mo., Miss., Tenn., Ill., Ind., Ky., Ohio, and W.Va. 67 were killed and damage totaled approximately $1 billion. April, N.D., S.D., and Minn.:Grand Forks, N.D., and surrounding area devastated as the Red River swelled 13 ft above flood level. Eleven deaths were recorded. Summer, central and northeast China:heavy flooding of Yangtze Riverkilled more than 3,000 and left 14 million homeless. Estimated damages exceeded $20 billion. 1999 Summer, Asia:torrential downpours and flooding left more than 950 dead and millions homeless in S. Korea, China, Japan, the Philippines, and Thailand. Oct., southwest Mexico:heavy rains killed at least 360 people in mudslides and flood waters. Nov. and Dec., Vietnam:devastating floods caused $285 million in damage and killed more than 700 people. Dec. 15–16, northern Venezuela:heavy rains caused catastrophic flooding and mudslides, killing an estimated 5,000 to 20,000 people. Country's worst modern-day natural disaster. 2000 Feb., southeast Africa:weeks of rain resulted in deadly floods in Mozambique and Zimbabwe, killing more than 700 people and leaving 280,000 homeless. mid-September, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam:rising flood waters from the Mekong Riverand its tributaries destroyed crops and livestock and left at least 235 people dead and 4.5 million homeless. Damages were estimated at $50 million in Cambodia and $24 million in Thailand. 2002 Sept. 20, Karmadon Gorge, North Ossetia, Russia:an avalanche caused by a 500-ft chunk of glacier left 150 people dead. June–Aug., Asia:annual monsoons caused record floods and more than 2,000 deaths in China, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh.t5 Aug., Europe:record flooding across central and eastern Europe killed 108 people and caused billions of dollars of extensive infrastructure damage and deforestation.

Major U.S. Epidemics 1793 Philadelphia:more than 4,000 residents died from yellow fever. 1832 July–Aug., New York City:over 3,000 people killed in a choleraepidemic. Oct., New Orleans:cholera took the lives of 4,340 people. 1848 New York City:more than 5,000 deaths caused by cholera. 1853 New Orleans:yellow fever killed 7,790. 1867 New Orleans:3,093 perished from yellow fever. 1878 Southern states:over 13,000 people died from yellow fever in lower Mississippi Valley. 1916 Nationwide:over 7,000 deaths occurred and 27,363 cases were reported of polio(infantile paralysis) in America's worst polio epidemic. 1918 March–Nov., nationwide:outbreak of Spanish influenza killed over 500,000 people in the worst single U.S. epidemic. 1949 Nationwide:2,720 deaths occurred from polio, and 42,173 cases were reported. 1952 Nationwide:polio killed 3,300; 57,628 cases reported. 1981–Dec. 2005: Total estimated U.S. AIDS cases: 988,376; total estimated AIDS deaths: 550,394 (Centers for Disease Control). 2009 In April, H1N1, also known as Swine Flu, breaks out and quickly spreads to more than 70 countries. The Centers for Disease Control reports that between April and October, 22 million Americans had contracted the virus, 98,000 required hospitalization, and about 3,900 people died from H1N1-related causes.

Worst Industrial Accidents in History The following table includes information about the worst industrial disasters in history. YearDayIncidentLocationFatalities 201304/24Rana Plaza, a building containing several factories, collapsesSavar, Bangladeshmore than 1,100 198412/0242 tons of lethal methyl isocyanate leak from the Union Carbide pesticide plantBhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India2,259 (immediately) An estimated 25,000 are believed to have died since from the exposure 194204/26A coal dust and gas explosion in a mineBenxihu Colliery, Benxi Liaoning, China1,549 198604/26Explosion during an unauthorized test at the Chernobyl nuclear power plantPrypiat, Ukraine50 due to radiation 3,940 due to radiation induced cancer and leukemia 194704/16Fire near 2,300 tons of ammonium nitrate on S.S. Grandcamp causes explosionPort of Texas City, Texas, USA581 198411/19Explosions at a Liquid Petroleum Gas tank farmSan Juanico, Mexico500 190603/10Coal dust explosionCourrieres, France1,099 197607/10ICMESA, a chemical manufacturing plant, releases dioxins (TCDD)Seveso, Italy3,300 farm animals 80,000 animals are later slaughtered 198903/24Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker, spills 260,000 to 750,000 barrels of crude oil into the seaPrince William Sounds, Alaska, USA100,000 to 250,000 seabirds 200005/13Explosion at a fireworks storage depotEnschede, Netherlands23

Fatal Mining Accidents in the U.S. The following table includes information about the most fatal mining accidents in the United States. Only accidents with ten or more fatalities are listed. YearDayMineLocationTypeFatalities 201004/05Upper Big Branch Mine-South, Performance Coal CompanyRaleigh County, Montcoal, West VirginiaExplosion of Gas or Dust29 200601/02Sago Mine, Anker West Virginia Mining Company Inc.Upshur County, Buckhannon, West VirginiaExplosion12 200109/23No. 5 Mine, Jim Walter Resources, Inc.Tuscaloosa County, Brookwood, AlabamaExplosion13 198909/13William Station No. 9 Mine, Pyro Mining Co.Union Co., Wheatcroft, KentuckyExplosion10 198412/19Wilberg Mine, Emery Mining Corp.Emery Co., Orangeville, UtahFire27 198112/08No. 21 Mine, Grundy Mining Co.Marion Co., Whitwell, TennesseeExplosion13 198103/15Dutch Creek No. 1, Mid-Continent Resources, Inc.Pitkin Co., Redstone, ColoradoExplosion15 197603/9-11Scotia Mine, Blue Diamond Coal Co.Letcher Co., Oven Fork, KentuckyExplosion26 197012/30Nos. 15 and 16 Mines, Finley Coal Co.Leslie Co., Hyden, KentuckyExplosion38 196811/20Consol No. 9Farmington, West VirginiaExplosion78 195112/21Orient No. 2West Frankfort, IllinoisExplosion119 194703/25Centralia No. 5Centralia, IllinoisExplosion111 194003/16Willow Grove No. 10St. Clairsville, OhioExplosion72 194001/10Pond Creek No. 1Bartley, West VirginiaExplosion91 191310/22Stag Canon No. 2Dawson, New MexicoExplosion263 190911/13Cherry MineCherry, IllinoisFire259 190712/06Monongah Nos. 6 and 8Monongah, West VirginiaExplosion362 Source:Mine Safety and Health Administration,Historical Data on Mine Disasters in the United StatesWeb: www.msha.gov/.

Major Earthquakes around the World, 2012 The following table lists the date, location, and magnitude of major earthquakes around the world during 2012. DateLocationMagnitude1 Jan. 11Sumatra, Indonesia7.2 Feb. 2Vanuatu7.1 March 20Ometepec, Mexico7.4 March 25Talca, Chile7.1 April 11Aceh Province, Indonesia8.6 April 11Aceh Province, Indonesia8.2 April 12Baja California, Mexico7.0 May 21Northern Italy6.0 Source:various NOTE: A major earthquake is defined here as having a magnitude of 6.0 or more. 1. Unless otherwise indicated, magnitudes listed are moment magnitudes, the newest, most uniformly applicable magnitude scale.

Major Earthquakes around the World, 2011 The following table lists the date, location, and magnitude of major earthquakes around the world during 2011. DateLocationMagnitude1 Jan. 1Santiago del Estero, Argentina7.0 Jan. 13Loyalty Islands7.0 Jan. 18Pakistan7.2 March 9Honshu, Japan7.2 March 11Tohoku, Japan9.0 March 11Honshu, Japan7.9 March 11Honshu, Japan7.7 April 7Honshu, Japan7.1 June 23Aleutian Islands, Alaska, United States7.2 July 6Kermadec Islands, New Zealand7.6 July 10Honshu, Japan7.0 Aug. 20Port Vila, Vanuatu7.1 Sept. 3Isangel, Vanuatu7.0 Sept. 15Ndoi Islands, Fiji7.3 Oct. 21Kermadec Islands, New Zealand7.4 Oct. 23Van, Turkey7.2 Dec. 14Lae, Papua New Guinea7.1 Source:various NOTE: A major earthquake is defined here as having a magnitude of 6.0 or more. 1. Unless otherwise indicated, magnitudes listed are moment magnitudes, the newest, most uniformly applicable magnitude scale.

Major Earthquakes around the World, 2010 The following table lists the date, location, and magnitude of major earthquakes around the world during 2010. DateLocationMagnitude1 Jan. 12Haiti7.0 Feb. 27Maule region, Chile8.8 March 15Biobío Region, Chile7.2 April 4Baja California, Mexico7.2 April 6Sumatra, Indonesia7.7 May 9Sumatra, Indonesia7.2 June 13Nicobar Islands, India7.5 July 24Mindanao, Philippines7.6 August 10Port Vila, Vanuatu7.5 Dec. 21Bonin Islands, Japan7.4 Dec. 25Coast of Vanuatu7.3 Source:various NOTE: A major earthquake is defined here as having a magnitude of 6.0 or more. 1. Unless otherwise indicated, magnitudes listed are moment magnitudes, the newest, most uniformly applicable magnitude scale.

Major Earthquakes around the World, 2009 The following table lists the date, location, and magnitude of major earthquakes around the world during 2009. DateLocationMagnitude1 Jan. 3North Coast of Papua, Indonesia7.6 Jan. 15East of Kuril Islands7.4 Feb. 11Kepulauan Talud, Indonesia7.2 March 19Tonga Region7.6 April 6Central Italy6.3 May 18Greater Los Angeles area, California4.7 May 25North Korea4.7 May 28Offshore Honduras7.3 July 15New Zealand7.6 Aug. 3Gulf of California6.9 Aug. 9Izu Islands, Japan Region7.1 Aug. 10Andaman Islands, India Region7.6 Sept. 2Java, Indonesia7.0 Sept. 21Bhutan6.1 Sept. 29Samoa Islands Region8.0 Sept. 30Southern Sumatra, Indonesia7.6 Source:Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology: Earthquake Events 2009: IRIS NOTE: A major earthquake is defined here as having a magnitude of 6.0 or more. 1. Unless otherwise indicated, magnitudes listed are moment magnitudes, the newest, most uniformly applicable magnitude scale.

Estimated Deaths from Earthquakes, 2009 The following table gives the number of people who died in earthquakes in 2009. The magnitude of each earthquake is also shown. Magnitudes listed are moment magnitudes, the newest, most uniformly applicable magnitude scale. DateRegionMagnitudeNumber killed April 6Central Italy6.3287 May 28Offshore Honduras7.37 Sept. 2Java, Indonesia7.072 Sept. 29Samoa Islands Region8.0110 Sept. 30Southern Sumatra, Indonesia7.61100 Source:Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology: Earthquake Events 2009: IRIS

Major Earthquakes around the World, 2008 The following table lists the date, location, and magnitude of major earthquakes around the world during 2008. DateLocationMagnitude1 Jan. 5Queen Charlotte Islands Region6.6 Jan. 10Off the coast of Oregon6.4 Feb. 20Simeulue, Indonesia7.4 Feb. 24Neveda6.0 Feb. 25Kepulauan Mentawai Region, Indonesia7.0 March 21Xinjiang-Xizang Border Region7.2 April 9Loyalty Islands7.3 April 18Illinois5.2 May 12China7.9 June 13Eastern Honshu, Japan6.9 July 19Honshu, Japan7.0 Oct. 6Kyrgyzstan6.6 Oct. 11Russia6.3 Oct. 29Pakistan6.4 Nov. 16Indonesia7.3 Dec. 20Japan6.3 Source:Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology: Earthquake Events 2008: IRIS NOTE: A major earthquake is defined here as having a magnitude of 6.0 or more. 1. Unless otherwise indicated, magnitudes listed are moment magnitudes, the newest, most uniformly applicable magnitude scale.

Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions Here is information on significant earthquakes and volcanic eruptions going back as early asA.D.79 and through the present. A.D. 79 Aug. 24, Italy: eruption of Mt. Vesuvius buried cities of Pompeiiand Herculaneum, killing thousands. 856 Dec. 22, Damghan, Iran:earthquake killed 200,000. 893 March 23, Ardabil, Iran:earthquake killed about 150,000 people. 1138 Aug. 9, Aleppo, Syria:deadly earthquake claimed lives of 230,000 people. 1290 Sept., Chihli, China:earthquake killed about 100,000 people. 1556 Jan. 23, Shaanxi (Shensi) province, China:most deadly earthquake in history; 830,000 killed. 1667 Nov., Shemakha, Caucasia:earthquake killed about 80,000 people. 1693 Jan. 11, Sicily, Italy:earthquake killed about 60,000 people. 1707 Oct. 28, Japan:tsunami caused by an earthquake drowned 30,000. 1727 Nov. 18, Tabriz, Iran:about 77,000 victims killed in deadly earthquake. 1755 Nov. 1, Portugal:earthquake, fires, and Atlantic tsunami leveled Lisbon and was felt as far away as southern France and North Africa; 70,000 killed. 1782 South Sea, China:tsunami killed 40,000. 1783 Feb. 4, Calabria, Italy:series of 6 earthquakes over two-month period caused massive destruction, killing 50,000. One of first scientifically investigated earthquakes. June 8, Iceland:eruption of Laki volcano lasted until Feb. 1784. Haze from eruption resulted in loss of island's livestock and widespread crop failure; 9,350 deaths, mostly due to starvation. 1792 May 21, Kyushu Island, Japan:collapse of old lava dome during eruption of Unzen volcano caused avalanche and tsunami that killed an estimated 14,300 people. (Most were killed by the tsunami.) Japan's greatest volcano disaster. 1811 Dec. 16, Mississippi Valley, nr. New Madrid, Mo.:earthquake reversed the course of the Mississippi River. Fatalities unknown due to sparse population in area. Aftershocks and tremors continued into 1812. It has been estimated that three of the series of earthquakes had surface-wave magnitudes of 8.6, 8.4, and 8.8 on the Richter scale.It is the largest series of earthquakes known to have occurred in North America. 1815 April 5, 10–11, Netherlands Indies (Sumbawa, Indonesia):eruption of Tambora largest in historic times. An estimated 92,000 people were killed, about 10,000 directly as a result of explosions and ash fall and about 82,000 indirectly by starvation and disease. 1877 June 26, north-central Ecuador:eruption of Mt. Cotopaxi caused severe mudflows that wiped out surrounding cities and valleys; 1,000 deaths. 1883 Aug. 26–28, Netherlands Indies (Krakatau, Indonesia):eruption of Krakatau;violent explosions destroyed two-thirds of island and caused a tsunami on Java and Sumatra, killing more than 36,000. It was felt as far away as Cape Hornand possibly England. 1886 Aug. 31, Charleston, S.C.:magnitude 7.3 quake, killed 60 people and caused extensive damage. 1896 June 15, Sanriku, Japan:earthquake and tidal wave killed 27,000. 1902 May 7, St. Vincent, West Indies:Soufrière volcano erupted, devastating one-third of the island and killing some 1,680 people. May 8, Martinique, West Indies: Mt. Peléeerupted and wiped out city of St. Pierre; 40,000 dead. 1906 April 18, San Francisco:earthquake accompanied by fire razed more than 4 sq mi; estimates range from 700 to 3,000 dead or missing.For more, see The Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake. 1908 Dec. 28, Messina, Sicily:city totally destroyed by earthquake. Estimated death toll, from quake and tsunami, 70,000–100,000 in Sicilyand southern Italy. 1915 Jan. 13, Avezzano, Italy:magnitude 7.5 earthquake left 29,980 dead. 1920 Dec. 16, Gansu province, China:magnitude 7.8 earthquake killed 200,000 in northwest China. 1923 Sept. 1, Japan:magnitude 7.9 earthquake destroyed one-third of Tokyo and most of Yokohama. More than 140,000 killed. 1927 May 22, nr. Xining, China:magnitude 7.9 earthquake claimed approximately 200,000 victims. 1932 Dec. 25, Gansu, China:magnitude 7.6 earthquake killed approximately 70,000. 1933 March 10, Long Beach, Calif.:117 left dead by earthquake. 1935 May 30, Pakistan:earthquake at Quettakilled 30,000–60,000. 1939 Jan. 24, Chile:earthquake razed 50,000 sq mi; about 30,000 killed. Dec. 27, northern Turkey:severe quakes destroyed city of Erzingan; about 30,000 casualties. 1948 Oct. 5, Ashgabat, Turkmenistan:magnitude 7.3 earthquake destroyed the city, killing 110,000. 1950 Aug. 15, India:earthquake affected 30,000 sq mi in Assam;1500 killed. 1960 Feb. 29, Agadir, Morocco:10,000–12,000 dead as earthquake set off tidal wave and fire, destroying most of city. May 22, Chile:strongest earthquake ever recorded (9.5 magnitude) struck near the coast, causing a tsunami that traveled as far as Hawaii, Japan, and New Zealand, killing 4,000–5,000.

Frequency of Earthquakes Worldwide The following table lists the frequency of earthquakes worldwide, according to magnitude and annual average. DescriptorMagnitudeAnnual average Great8 or higher11 Major7–7.9172 Strong6–6.91342 Moderate5–5.91,3192 Light4–4.9c. 13,000 Minor3–3.9c. 130,000 Very minor2–2.9c. 1,300,000 1. Based on observations since 1900. 2. Based on observations since 1990. NOTE: The NEIC estimates that several million earthquakes occur in the world each year. Many go undetected because they hit remote areas or have very small magnitudes. Source:National Earthquake Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey.

The Severity of an Earthquake Source:National Earthquake Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Earthquakes are the result of forces deep within Earth's interior that continuously affect its surface. The energy from these forces is stored in a variety of ways within the rocks. When this energy is released suddenly—by shearing movements along faults in the crust of Earth, for example—an earthquake results. The area of the fault where the sudden rupture takes place is called the focus or hypocenter of the earthquake. The point on Earth's surface directly above the focus is called the epicenter of the earthquake. The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in terms of both intensity and magnitude. The two terms are quite different, however, and they are often confused. Intensity is based on the observed effects of ground shaking on people, buildings, and natural features. It varies from place to place within the disturbed region depending on the location of the observer with respect to the earthquake epicenter. Magnitude is related to the amount of seismic energy released at the hypocenter of the earthquake. It is based on the amplitude of the earthquake waves recorded on instruments, which have a common calibration. Magnitude is thus represented by a single, instrumentally determined value. The Richter Magnitude Scale Seismic waves are the vibrations from earthquakes that travel through Earth; they are recorded on instruments called seismographs. Seismographs record a zigzag trace that shows the varying amplitude of ground oscillations beneath the instrument. Sensitive seismographs, which greatly magnify these ground motions, can detect strong earthquakes from sources anywhere in the world. The time, location, and magnitude of an earthquake can be determined from the data recorded by seismograph stations. The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the California Institute of Technology as a mathematical device to compare the size of earthquakes. The magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs. Adjustments are included in the magnitude formula to compensate for the variation in the distance between the various seismographs and the epicenter of the earthquakes. On the Richter Scale, magnitude is expressed in whole numbers and decimal fractions. For example, a magnitude of 5.3 might be computed for a moderate earthquake, and a strong earthquake might be rated as magnitude 6.3. Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude; as an estimate of energy, each whole number step in the magnitude scale corresponds to the release of about 31 times more energy than the amount associated with the preceding whole number value. Although the Richter Scale has no upper limit, the largest known shocks have had magnitudes in the 8.8 to 8.9 range. Why Are There So Many Earthquake Magnitude Scales? Earthquake size, as measured by the Richter Scale, is a well-known, but not well understood, concept. What is even less well understood is the proliferation of magnitude scales and their relation to Richter's original magnitude scale. Richter's magnitude scale was first created for measuring the size of earthquakes occurring in southern California, using relatively high-frequency data from nearby seismograph stations. This magnitude scale was referred to as ML, with the L standing for local. As more seismograph stations were installed around the world, it became apparent that the method developed by Richter was strictly valid only for certain frequency and distance ranges. In order to take advantage of the growing number of globally distributed seismograph stations, new magnitude scales that are an extension of Richter's original idea were developed. These include body-wave magnitude, “mb,” and surface-wave magnitude, “MS.” Each is valid for a particular frequency range and type of seismic signal. In its range of validity each is equivalent to the Richter magnitude. Because of the limitations of all three magnitude scales—ML, mb, and MS—a new, more uniformly applicable extension of the magnitude scale, known as moment magnitude, or “MW,” was developed. In particular, for very large earthquakes moment magnitude gives the most reliable estimate of earthquake size. New techniques that take advantage of modern telecommunications have recently been implemented, allowing reporting agencies to obtain rapid estimates of moment magnitude for significant earthquakes. So nowadays, when most seismologists announce a magnitude number, they are rarely referring to the Richter Scale. The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale The effect of an earthquake on Earth's surface is called the intensity.

Tsunami in Japan 2011: Waves Stirred Up by Earthquake Cause Wide Destruction Learn about the science behind tsunamis and earthquakes Source: U.S. Geological Survey Tsunami. Relief Effort in Japan Tsunami in Japan Japanwas hit by a 9.0 magnitude earthquakeon March 11, 2011, that triggered a deadly 23-foot tsunami in the country's north. The giant waves deluged cities and rural areas alike, sweeping away cars, homes, buildings, a train, and boats, leaving a path of death and devastation in its wake. Video footage showed cars racing away from surging waves. The earthquake—the largest in Japan's history—struck about 230 miles northeast of Tokyo. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center issued warnings for Russia, Taiwan, Hawaii, Indonesia, the Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Australia, and the west coasts the U.S., Mexico, Central America, and South America. According to the official toll, the disasters left 15,839 dead, 5,950 injured, and 3,642 missing. Earthquake Causes Nuclear Disaster What's more, cooling systems in one of the reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station in the Fukushima prefecture on the east coast of Japan failed shortly after the earthquake, causing a nuclear crisis. This initial reactor failure was followed by an explosion and eventual partial meltdowns in two reactors, then by a fire in another reactor which released radioactivity directly into the atmosphere. The nuclear troubles were not limited to the Daiichi plant; three other nuclear facilities also reported problems. More than 200,000 residents were evacuated from affected areas. On April 12, Japan raised its assessment of the situation at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant to Level 7, the worst rating on the international scale, putting the disaster on par with the 1986 Chernobyl explosion. Developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) along with countries who use nuclear energy, the scale defines level 7 as a nuclear accident that involves "widespread health and environmental effects" and the "external release of a significant fraction of the reactor core inventory." Almost two months later, the IAEA called the status of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant "very serious." At a news conference on March 13, Prime Minister Naoto Kan, who later gave the disaster the name "Great East Japan Earthquake", emphasized the gravity of the situation: "I think that the earthquake, tsunami, and the situation at our nuclear reactors makes up the worst crisis in the 65 years since the war. If the nation works together, we will overcome." The government called in 100,000 troops to aid in the relief effort. The deployment was the largest since World War II. The tsunami in Japan recalled the 2004 disaster in the Indian Ocean. On Dec. 26, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake—the largest earthquakein 40 years—ruptured in the Indian Ocean, off the northwest coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The earthquake stirred up the deadliest tsunamiin world history, so powerful that the waves caused loss of life on the coast of Africa and were even detected on the East Coast of the United States. More than 225,000 people died from the disaster, a half a million were injured, and millions were left homeless. Seestatistics on Deadliest Tsunamisand Deadliest Earthquakes. The Science of Tsunami A tsunami(pronounced soo-NAHM-ee) is a series of huge waves that occur as the result of a violent underwater disturbance, such as an earthquakeor volcanic eruption. The waves travel in all directions from the epicenter of the disturbance. The waves may travel in the open sea as fast as 450 miles per hour. As they travel in the open ocean, tsunami waves are generally not particularly large—hence the difficulty in detecting the approach of a tsunami. But as these powerful waves approach shallow waters along the coast, their velocity is slowed and they consequently grow to a great height before smashing into the shore. They can grow as high as 100 feet; the Indian Ocean tsunami generated waves reaching 30 feet. Tsunamiis the Japanese word for "harbor wave." They are sometimes mistakenly referred to as tidal waves, but tsunamis have nothing to do with the tides. Tsunamis have been relatively rare in the Indian Ocean, and are most common in the Pacific Ocean.

Spain: Kings, Queens, Prime Ministers Kings and queens Carlos II(1665–1700) Felipe V(1700–1724, 1724–1746) Luis I (1724) Fernando VI(1746–1759) Carlos III(1759–1788) Carlos IV(1788–1808) Joaquín Murat, gran duque de Berg (1808) Fernando VII(1808–1833) Isabel II(1833–1868) María Cristina, regent (1833–1840) Baldomero Espartero, duque de la Victoria, regent (1840–1843) Carlos VI (1860) Amadeo I(1871–1873) Carlos VII (1872–1876) Alfonso XII(1874–1885) María Cristina, regent (1885–1886, 1886–1902) Alfonso XIII(1886–1931) Juan Carlos I(1975– ) Prime Ministers Francisco Franco(1938–1973), also head of state (1936–1975) Luis Carrero Blanco(1973) Torcuato Fernández Miranda, acting (1973–1974) Carlos Arias Navarro (1974–1976) Adolfo Suárez González (1976–1981) Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo y Bustelo (1981–1982) Felipe González Márquez(1981–1996) José María Aznar(1996–2004) José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (2004– )

Sweden: Kings and Queens Kings and Queens Karl XII(1697–1718) Ulrica Eleonora (1719–1720) Fredrik I (1720–1751) Adolf Fredrik (1751–1771) Gustaf III(1771–1792) Gustaf IV Adolf(1792–1809) Karl XIII(1809–1818) Karl XIV Johan(1818–1844) Oscar I(1844–1859) Karl XV(1859–1872) Oscar II(1872–1907) Gustaf V(1907–1950) Gustaf VI Adolf(1950–1973) Carl XVI Gustaf(1973– )

Turkey: Rulers Sultans Mustafa II(1695–1703) Ahmed III(1703–1730) Mahmud I(1730–1754) Osman III (1754–1757) Mustafa III(1757–1774) Abdülhamit I(1774–1789) Selim III(1789–1807) Mustafa IV(1807–1808) Mahmut II(1808–1839) Abdülmecit I(1839–1861) Abdülaziz I(1861–1876) Murad V(1876) Abdülhamit II (1876–1909) Mehmet V(1909–1918) Mehmet VI(1918–1923) Presidents Mustafa Kemal(Kemal Atatürk), chairman of the presidium of the Grand National Assembly (1922–1923), president (1923–1938) Mustafa Abdülhalik Renda (1938) Ismet Inönü(1938–1950) Mahmud Celal Bayar(1950–1960) Cemal Gürsel(1960–1966) Cevdet Sunay(1966–1973) Fahri Korutürk (1973–1980) Kenan Evren (1980–1989) Turgut Özal (1989–1993) Süleyman Demirel(1993–2000) Ahmet Necdet Sezer (2000– )

Vietnam: Rulers North Vietnam Presidents Ho Chi Minh(1945–1969) Ton Duc Thang (1969–1976) South Vietnam Presidents Ngo Dinh Diem(1955–1963) Duong Van Minh(1963–1964, 1975) Nguyen Khanh (!964) Phan Khac Suu (1964–1965) Nguyen Van Thieu(1965–1975) Tran Van Huong (1975) Huynh Tan Phat (1975–1976) Vietnam *.Ton Duc Thang, president (1976–1980) *.Nguyen Huu Tho, acting president (1980–1981) *.Truong Chinh, chairman of the state council (1981–1987) *.Vo Chi Cong, chairman of the state council (1987–1992) *.Le Duc Anh, president (1992–1997) *.Tran Duc Luong, president (1997– )

Biography South America: Venezuela Presidents Francisco Antonio Zea, acting (1819) Simón Bolívar(1819) José Antonio Páez(1830–1835, 1839–1843, 1861–1863) Andrés Narvarte, acting (1835, 1836–1837) José María Vargas (1835, 1935–1936) Pedro Briceño, provisional (1835) Santiago Mariño, Superior Chief of State (1835) José María Carreño, acting (1835, 1937) Carlos Soublette, acting (1837–1839, 1843–1847) Santos Michelena, acting (1843) Diego Bautista Urbaneja, acting (1847) José Tadeo Monagas(1847–1851) Antonio Leocadio Guzmán, acting (1851) José Gregorio Monaga (1851–1855, 1855–1858) Joaquín Herrera, acting (1855) Pedro Gual, president of provisional government (1858), acting president (1859, 1861) Julián Castro (1858–1859) Juan Crisóstomo Falcón (1859, 1865–1868), provisional (1863–1865) Manuel Felipe de Tovar, acting (1859–1861) Antonio Guzmán Blanco(1863, 1865, 1870–1877, 1879–1874, 1886–1888), supreme director (1879) Guillermo Tell Villegas (1868–1869, 1892) José Ruperto Monagas, acting (1869–1870) Juan Vicente González, acting (1870) Esteban Palacios, acting (1870) Jacinto Gutiérrez Martínez, acting (1877, 1878–1879) Francisco Linares Alcántara (!877–1878) José Gregorio Valera, acting (1879) Gregorio Cedeño (1879) José Rafael Pacheco (1879) Joaquín Crespo(1884–1886, 1892–1894, 1894–1898) Manuel Antonio Diez, acting (1886) Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl (1880–1890) Raimundo Andueza Palacio (1990–1892) Manuel Guzmán Álvarez, acting (1894, 1898) Ignacio Andrade (1898–1899) Víctor Rodríguez Párraga, acting (1899) Cipriano Castro(1899–1909) Juan Vicente Gómez(1909–1910, 1910–1914, 1922–1929, 1931–1935) Emilio Constantino Guerrero, acting (1910) Jesús Ramón Ayala, acting (1910) Victorino Márquez Bustillos, provisional (1914–1922) Juan Bautista Pérez (1929–1931) Pedro Itriago Chacín, acting (1931) Eleazar López Contreras (1935–1936, 1936–1941) Arminio Borjas, acting (1936) Isaías Medina Angarita (1941–1945) Rómulo Betancourt, chairman revolutionary junta (1945–1948), president (1959–1964) Rómulo Gallegos(1948) Carlos Delgado Chalbaud, chairman, military junta (1948–1950) German Suárez Flamerich, chairman, military junta (1950–1952) Marcos Pérez Jiménez(1952–1958) Wolfgang Larrazábal, chairman, government junta (1958) Edgar Sanabria Arcia, chairman, government junta (1958–1959) Raúl Leoni(1964–1969) Rafael Caldera(1969–1974, 1994–1999) Carlos Andrés Pérez(1974–1979, 1989–1993) Luis Herrera Campins (1979–1984) Jaime Lusinchi (1984–1989) Octavio Lepage, acting (1993) Ramón José Velásquez, interim (1993–1994) Hugo Chávez (1999– )

Biography South America: Peru *.Eduardo López de Romaña, president of Peru (1899–03) *.Manuel Candamo, president of Peru (1903–04) *.Serapio Calderón, acting president of Peru (1904) *.José Pardo y Barreda, president of Peru (1904–08) *. Augusto B. Leguía y Salcedo, president of Peru (1908–12; 1919–30) *.Guillermo E. Billinghurst, president of Peru (1912–14) *.Óscar Raymundo Benavides Larrea, president of Peru (1914–15) *.José Pardo y Barreda, president of Peru (1915–19) *.Manuel María Ponce Brousset, Peruvian chairman military junta (1930) *.Luis M. Sánchez Cerro, president of Preu (1930–31) *.Mariano Holguín Maldonado, Peruvian chairman Transitional Junta (1931) *.Ricardo Leoncio Elías Arias, Peruvian chairman Transitional Junta (1931) *.Gustavo A. Jiménez, Peruvian chairman Transitional Junta (1931) *.David Samanez Ocampo y Sobrino, Peruvian chairman National Junta (1931) *.Luis M. Sánchez Cerro, president of Peru (1931–33) *.Óscar Raymundo Benavides Larrea, president of Peru (1933–39) *.Manuel Prado y Ugarteche, president of Peru (1939–45, 1956–62) *.José Luis Bustamante y Rivero, president of Peru (1945–48) *. Manuel Apolinario Odría Amoretti, president of Peru (1948–50; 1950–56) *.Zenón Noriega Agüero, Peruvian chairman military junta (1950) *.Ricardo Pío Pérez Godoy, Peruvian junta chairman (1962–63) *.Nicolás Lindley López, Peruvian junta chairman (1963) *. Fernando Belaúnde Terry, president of Peru (1963–68, 1980–85) *. Juan Velasco Alvarado, president of Peru (1968–75) *.Francisco Morales Bermúdez, president of Peru (1975–80) *.Alan García Pérez , president of Peru (1985–90) *. Alberto Fujimori, president of Peru (1990–2000) *.Valentín Paniagua, president of Peru (2000–2001) *. Alejandro Toledo, president of Peru (2001– Uruguay *.Juan Lindolfo Cuestas, president of Uruguay (1897–99, 1899–1903) *. José Batlle y Ordóñez, president of Uruguay (1903–07, 1911–15) *.Claudio Wílliman, president of Uruguay (1907–11) *.Feliciano Viera, president of Uruguay (1915–19) *.Baltasar Brum, president of Uruguay (1919–23) *.José Serrato, president of Uruguay (1923–27) *.Juan Campisteguy, president of Uruguay (1927–31) *. Gabriel Terra, president of Uruguay (1931–38) *.Alfredo Baldomir, president of Uruguay (1938–43) *.Juan José de Amézaga, president of Uruguay (1943–47) *.Tomás Berreta, president of Uruguay (1947) *.Luis Batlle Berres, president of Uruguay (1947–51) *.Andrés Martínez Trueba, president of Uruguay (1951–52) *.Andrés Martínez Trueba, president of the National Council (1952–55) *.Luis Batlle Berres, president of the National Council (1955–56) *.Alberto Fermín Zubiría, president of the National Council (1957–57) *.Arturo Lezama, president of the National Council (1957–58) *.Carlos L. Fischer, president of the National Council (1958–59) *.Martín R. Echegoyen, president of the National Council (1959–60) *.Benito Nardone, president of the National Council (1960–61) *.Eduardo Víctor Haedo, president of the National Council (1961–62) *.Faustino Harrison, president of the National Council (1962–63) *.Daniel Fernández Crespo, president of the National Council (1963–64) *.Luis Giannattasio, president of the National Council (1964–65) *.Wáshington Beltrán, president of the National Council (1965–66) *.Alberto Héber Usher, president of the National Council (1966–67) *.Óscar Diego Gestido, president of Uruguay (1967) *.Jorge Pacheco Areco, president of Uruguay (1967–72) *.Juan María Bordaberry Arocena, president of Uruguay (1972–76) *.Alberto Demicheli, acting president of Uruguay (1976) *.Aparicio Méndez, president of Uruguay (1976–81) *.Gregorio Conrado Álvarez Armelino, president of Uruguay (1981–85) *.Rafael Addiego Bruno, acting president of Uruguay (1985) *.Julio María Sanguinetti Cairolo, president of Uruguay (1985–90) *.Luis Alberto Lacalle, president of Uruguay (1990–95) *.Julio María Sanguinetti Cairolo, president of Uruguay (1995–2000) *.Jorge Batlle, president of Uruguay (2000–)

Biography South America: Brazil *. Pedro I, Emperor of Brazil, Bragança dynasty (1822–31) *. Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil, Bragança dynasty (1831–89) *. Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca, president of Brazil (1889–91) *. Floriano Peixoto, acting president of Brazil (1891–94) *.Manuel Ferraz de Campos Sales, president of Brazil (1898–1902) *.Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves, president of Brazil (1902–06) *.Afonso Augusto Moreira Pena, president of Brazil (1906–09) *.Nilo Peçanha, president of Brazil (1909–10) *.Venceslau Brás Pereira Gomes, president of Brazil (1914–18) *.Delfim Moreira, acting president of Brazil (1918–19) *.Epitâcio da Silva Pessoa, president of Brazil (1919–22) *.Artur da Silva Bernardes, president of Brazil (1922–26) *.Washington Luís Pereira de Sousa, president of Brazil (1926–30) *.Augusto Tasso Fragoso, chairman Government Junta (1930) *. Getúlio Vargas, pesident of Brazil (1930–45, 1951–54) *.José Linhares, president of Brazil (1945–46) *.Eurico Gaspar Dutra, president of Brazil (1946–51) *.João Café Filho, president of Brazil (1954–56) *.Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira, president of Brazil (1956–61) *. Jânio da Silva Quadros, president of Brazil (1961) *. João Belchior Marques Goulart, president of Brazil (1961–64) *. Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco, president of Brazil (1964–67) *. Artur da Costa e Silva, president of Brazil (1967–69) *.Military junta: Augusto Hamann Rademaker Grünewald, Aurélio de Lyra Tavares, Márcio de Souza e Mello (1969) *. Emílio Garrastazú Médici, president of Brazil (1969–74) *.Ernesto Geisel, president of Brazil (1974–79) *. João Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo, president of Brazil (1979–85) *. José Sarney, president of Brazil (1985–90) *. Fernando Collor de Mello, president of Brazil (1990–92) *.Itamar Franco, acting for Collor (1992–95) *. Fernando Henrique Cardoso, president of Brazil (1995–) Chile *. Bernardo O'Higgins, supreme director of Chile (1818–23) *. Manuel Bulnes, president of Chile (1841–51) *. Manuel Montt, president of Chile (1851–61) *. Domingo Santa María, president of Chile (1881–86) *. José Manuel Balmaceda, president of Chile (1886–91) *. Jorge Montt, president of Chile (1891–96) *.Federico Errázuriz Echaurren, president of Chile (1896–01) *.Aníbal Zañartu Zañartu, acting president of Chile (1901) *.Germán Riesco, president of Chile (1901–06) *. Pedro Montt, president of Chile (1906–10) *.Elías Fernández Albano, acting president of Chile (1910) *.Emiliano Figueroa Larraín, president of Chile (1910) *.Ramón Barros Luco, president of Chile (1910–15) *.Juan Luis Sanfuentes, president of Chile (1915–20) *.Arturo Alessandri Palma, president of Chile (1920–24) *.Luis Altamirano Talavera, Chilean junta chairman (1924–25) *.Pedro Pablo Dartnell Encina, Chilean junta chairman (1925) *.Arturo Alessandri Palma, president of Chile (1925) *.Luis Barros Borgoño, acting, president of Chile (1925) *.Emiliano Figueroa Larraín, president of Chile (1925–27) *. Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, president of Chile (1927–31, 1952–58) *.Juan Esteban Montero Rodríguez, president of Chile (1931–32) *.Arturo Puga Osorio, chairman Junta of the Socialist Republic of Chile (1932) *.Carlos Gregorio Dávila Espinosa, chairman Junta of the Socialist Republic of Chile, provisional president of the Socialist Republic of Chile (1932) *.Bartolomé Blanche Espejo, provisional president of Chile (1932) *.Abraham Oyanedel Urrutia, acting president of Chile (1932) *.Arturo Alessandri Palma, president of Chile (1932–38) *.Pedro Aguirre Cerda, president of Chile (1938–41) *.Jerónimo Méndez Arancibia, acting president of Chile (1941–42) *.Juan Antonio Ríos Morales, president of Chile (1942–46) *.Alfredo Duhalde Vásquez, acting president of Chile (1946) *.Vicente Merino Bielich, acting president of Chile (1946) *.Juan Antonio Iribarren Cabezas, acting president of Chile (1946) *.Gabriel González Videla, president of Chile (1946–52) *.Jorge Alessandri Rodríguez, president of Chile (1958–64) *. Eduardo Frei Montalva, president of Chile (1964–70) *. Salvador Allende, president of Chile (1970–73) *. Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, Junta leader (1973–74), president of Chile (1974–90) *. José Toribio Merino Castro, Junta leader (1973–74) *. César Mendoza Durán, Junta leader (1973–74) *. Gustavo Leigh Guzmán, Junta leader (1973–74) *. Patricio Aylwin Azócar, president of Chile (1990–94) *.Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, president of Chile (1994–2000) *.Ricardo Lagos Escobar, president of Chile (2000–)

Biography South America: Argentina *. Juan Facundo Quiroga, Argentine caudillo(1790–1835) *. Juan Martín de Pueyrredón,Argentine general, supreme director of the United Provinces of La Plata (1816–19) *. Bernardino Rivadavia, Argentine statesman and diplomat, first president of the United Provinces of La Plata (1826–27) *. Juan Manuel de Rosas, Argentine dictator, governor of Buenos Aires province (1829–32, 1835–52) *. Justo José de Urquiza, Argentine general and politician, president of the confederation (1854–60) *. Bartolomé MitreArgentine statesman, general, and author, president of the republic (1862–68) *. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, Argentine statesman, educator, and author, president of the republic (1868–74) *. Nicolás Avellaneda, Argentine statesman, president of the republic (1874–80) *. Julio Argentino Roca, general, president of Argentina (1880–86, 1898–1904) *. Miguel Juárez Celman, president of Argentina (1886–90) *.Manuel A. Quintana, president of Argentina (1904–06) *.José Figueroa Alcorta, president of Argentina (1906–10) *. Roque Sáenz Peña, Argentine statesman, president of the republic (1910–14) *.Victorino de la Plaza, president of Argentina (1914–16) *. Hipólito Irigoyen, Argentine political leader, president of the republic (1916–22, 1928–30) *. Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear, Argentine statesman and diplomat, president of the republic (1922–28) *.José Félix Uriburu, president of Argentina (1930–32) *. Agustín Pedro Justo, president of Argentina (1932–38) *.Roberto M. Ortiz, president of Argentina (1938–42) *.Ramón S. Castillo, president of Argentina (1940–43) *.Arturo Rawson Corvalán, president of the Provisional Government (1943) *.Pedro Pablo Ramírez Machuca, president of the Provisional Government (1943–44) *.Edelmiro J. Farrell, president of Argentina (1944–46) *. Juan Domingo Perón,president of Argentina (1946–55, 1973–74) *.José Domingo Molina Gómez, Argentine chairman of military junta (1955) *.Eduardo A. Lonardi, provisional president of Argentina (1955) *. Pedro Eugenio Aramburu, president of Argentina (1955–58) *. Arturo Frondizi, president of Argentina (1958–62) *.José María Guido, acting president of Argentina (1962–63) *. Arturo Illia, president of Argentina (1963–66) *.Revolutionary Junta: Pascual Ángel Pistarini Ludena, Benigno Ignacio Marcelino Varela Barnadou, Adolfo Teodoro Álvarez Melendi (1966) *. Juan Carlos Onganía, president of Argentina (1966–70) *.Pedro Alberto José Gnavi, Argentine chairman Junta of Commanders (1970) *.Roberto Marcelo Levingston, president of Argentina (1970–71) *.Alejandro Agustín Lanusse, president of Argentina (1971–73) *.Héctor José Cámpora, president of Argentina (1973) *.Isabel Perón, president of Argentina (1974–76) *.Military junta: Jorge Rafael Videla, Emilio Eduardo Massera, Orlando Ramón Agosti (1976) *.Jorge Rafael Videla, president of Argentina (1976–81) *.Roberto Eduardo Viola, president of Argentina (1981) *.Carlos Alberto Lacoste, acting president of Argentina (1981) *. Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri, Argentine general, president of Argentina (1981–82) *.Alfredo Óscar Saint Jean, acting president of Argentina (1982) *.Reynaldo Bignone, president of Argentina (1982–83) *. Raúl Alfonsín, president of Argentina (1983–89) *. Carlos Saul Menem, president of Argentina (1989–1999) *.Fernando de la Rúa, president of Argentina (1999–)

Poland: Rulers Polish Royalty *. Mieszko I, duke of Poland (962–92), the first important member of the Piastdynasty *. Boleslaus I, Polish ruler (992–1025) *. Mieszko II, king of Poland (1025–34) *. Casimir I, duke of Poland (c.1040–18) *. Boleslaus II, duke (1058–76), and later king (1076–79) of Poland *. Ladislaus Herman, duke of Poland (1079–1102) *. Boleslaus III, duke of Poland (1102–38) *. Casimir II, duke of Poland (1177–94) *. Ladislaus I, duke (1306–20) and later king (1320–33) of Poland *. Casimir III, king of Poland (1333–70) *. Ladislaus II, king of Poland (1386–1434), grand duke of Lithuania (1378–1401), founder of the Jagiellodynasty *. Jadwiga, Polish queen (1384–99) *. Ladislaus III, king of Poland (1434–44) and, as Uladislaus I, king of Hungary (1440–44) *. Casimir IV, king of Poland (1447–92) *. Sigismund I, king of Poland (1506–48) *. Sigismund II, king of Poland (1548–72). *. Sigismund III, king of Poland (1587–1632) and Sweden (1592–99) *. Ladislaus IV, king of Poland (1632–48) *. John II, king of Poland (1648–68) *. John III (John Sobieski), king of Poland (1674–96), champion of Christian Europe against the Ottomans *. Augustus II, king of Poland (1697–1733) and, as Frederick Augustus I, elector of Saxony (1694–1733) *. Stanislaus I, king of Poland (1704–09, 1733–35) and duke of Lorraine (1735–66) *. Augustus III, king of Poland (1735–63) and, as Frederick Augustus II, elector of Saxony (1733–63) *. Stanislaus II, last king of Poland (1764–95) Polish Republic and Polish People's Republic Prime MinistersJedrzej Moraczewski (1918–1919) Ignace Paderewski(1919) Leopold Skulski (1919–1920) Wladislaw Grabski (!920, 1923–1925) Wincenty Witos(1920–1921, 1923, 1926)) Antonin Ponikowski (1921–1922) Artur Sliwinski (!922) Wojciech Korfanty (!922) Julian Ignacy Nowak (!922) Wladyslaw Sikorski(!922–1923) Aleksander hrabia Skrzynski (1925–1926) Kazimierz Bartel (1926, 1928–1929, 1929–1930) Józef Pilsudski(1926–1928, 1930) Kazimierz Switalski (1929) Walery Slawek (1930, 1930–1931, 1935) Aleksander Prystor (1931–1933) Janusz Jedrzejewicz (1933–1934) Leon Kozlowski (1934–1935) Marian Koscialkowski-Zyndram (1935–1936) Felicjan Slawoj-Skladkowski (1936–1939) PremiersEdward Osóbka-Morawski (1945–1947, 1954–1970) Józef Cyrankiewic(1947–1952) Boleslaw Bierut (1952–1954) Piotr Jaroszewicz(1970–1980) Edward Babiuch (1980) Józef Pinkowski (1980–1981) Wojciech Jaruzelski(1981–1985) Zbigniew Messner (1985–1988) Mieczyslaw Rakowski (1888–1989) Czeslaw Kiszczak (1989) Tadeusz Mazowiecki (1989–1991) Jan Krzysztof Bielecki (1991) Jan Olszewski (1991–1992) Waldemar Pawlak (1992, 1993–1995) Hanna Suchocka (1992–1993) Józef Oleksy (1995–1996) Wlodzimierz Cimoszewicz (1996–1997) Marek Belka (acting) (1997) Jerzy Buzek (1997–2001) Leszek Miller (2001– ) Presidents Wojciech Jaruzelski(1989–1990) Lech Walesa(1990–1995) Aleksander Kwasniewski(1995– )

Portugal: Kings, Queens, Presidents Kings and Queens AIfonso I(1128-1185) Sancho I(1185–1211) AIfonso II(1211–1223) Sancho II (1223-1245) AIfonso III(1248-1279) Diniz(1279-1325) AIfonso IV(1325-1357) Pedro I(1357-1367) Ferdinand I(1367-1383) João I(1385–1433) Duarte(1433-1438) AIfonso V(1438-1481) João II(1481-1495) Manuel I(1495–1521) João III(1521-1527) Sebastian(1557–1578) Henry, cardinal (1557-1580) Phillip I(1580–1598) Phillip II(1598–1621) Phillip III(1621–1640) João IV(1640-1656) Alfonso VI(1656–1683) Pedro II(1683–1706) João V(1706–1750) José I (1750–1777) Maria I(1777–1816) João VI o Clemente(1816–1826) Isabel Maria, president of council of regency (1826–1828) Pedro IV de Alcântara, regent (1826–1828) Maria II da Glória(1828, 1834–1853) Miguel I(1828–1834) Pedro V de Alcântara(1853–1861) Ferdinand II, regent (1853–1855) Luís I(1861–1889) Carlos I(1889–1908) Manuel II(1908–1910) Presidents Joaquim Teófilo Fernandes Braga(1910–1911, 1915) Manuel José de Arriaga Brum da Silveira e Peyrelongue (1911–1915) Bernardino Luís Machado Guimarães (1915–1917, 1925–1926) Sidónio Bernardino Cardoso da Silva Pais (1917–1918) João do Canto e Castro Silva Antunes (1918–1919) António José de Almeida(1919–1923) Manuel Teixeira Gomes (1923–1925) José Mendes Cabeçadas Júnior, acting (1926) Manuel de Oliveira Gomes da Costa , acting (1926) António Óscar de Fragoso Carmona(1926–1951) António de Oliveira Salazar, acting (1951) Francisco Higino Craveiro Lopes (1951–1958) Américo de Deus Rodrigues Tomás (1958–1974) António de Spínola(1974) Francisco da Costa Gomes (1974–1976) António dos Santos Ramalho Eanes(1976–1986) Mário Soares(1986–1996) Jorge Sampaio(1996–2006 ) Aníbal Cavaco Silva (2006- )

Philippines: Presidents Presidents Manuel L. Quezon(1935–1944) Jorge B. Vargas, president of the Executive Commission of the Philippine Council of State (1943) José P. Laurel (1943–1945) Sergio Osmeña(1944–1946) Manuel Roxas y Acuña (1946–1948) Elpidio Quirino(1948–1953) Ramon Magsaysay(1953–1957) Carlos Polestico Garcia (1957–1961) Diosdado Macapagal(1961–1965) Ferdinand E. MarcosA0831745 (1965–1986) Corazon Aquino(1986–1992) Fidel V. Ramos(1992–1998) Joseph Estrada (1998–2001) Gloria Macapagal- Arroyo(2001– )

Iraq: Rulers Kings Faisal I(1921–1933) Ghazi I (1933–1939) Faisal II(1939–1958) Abd al-Ilah, regent (1939–1941, 1941–1953) Sharaf ibn Rajih al-Fawwaz, regent (1941) Chairman of the Sovereignty CouncilMuhammad Najib ar-Ruba`i PresidentsAbd as-Salam `Arif (1963–1966) Abd ar-Rahman al-Bazzaz (!966) Abd ar-Rahman `Arif (1966–1968) Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr (1968–1979) Saddam Hussein(1979–2003

Ireland: Presidents PresidentsTimothy Sullivan, Frank Fahy, and Conor Alexander Maguire, presidential commission (1937–1938) Douglas Hyde(1938–1945) Sean T. O'Kelly (1945–1959) Eamon de Valera(1959–1973) Erskine H. Childers(1973–1974) Sean Treacy, James Clement Dooge, Thomas O'Higgin, presidential commission (1974, 1976) Cearbhall O Dalaigh (1974–1976) Patrick J. Hillery (1976–1990) Mary Robinson (1990–1997) Liam Hamilton, Seamus Pattison, Liam Cosgrave, and Brian Mullooly, presidential commission (1997) Mary McAleese (1997– ) Prime Ministers William Thomas Cosgrave(1922–1932) Eamon de Valera(1932–1948, 1951–1954, 1957–1959) John A. Costello (1948–1951, 1954–1957) Sean F. Lemass (1959–1966) John Lynch(1966–1973, 1977–1979) Liam Cosgrave(1973–1977) Charles Haughey(1979–1981, 1982, 1987–1992) Garrett FitzGerald(1981–1982, 1982–1987) Albert Reynolds(1992–1994) John Bruton(1994–1997)

Israel: Prime Ministers Prime Ministers David Ben-Gurion(1948–1953, 1955–1963) Moshe Sharett(1953–1955) Levi Eshkol(1963–1969) Yigal Allon, acting (1969) Golda Meir(1969–1974) Yitzhak Rabin(1974–1977, 1992–1995) Shimon Peres(1977, 1984–1986, 1995–1996) Menachem Begin(1977–1983) Yitzhak Shamir(1983–1984, 1986–1992) Benjamin Netanyahu(1996–1999) Ehud Barak(1999–2001) Ariel Sharon(2001–2006) Ehud Olmert(2006–2009) Benjamin Netanyahu(2009–)

Jordan: Kings Kings Abdullah I, emir (1921–1946), king (1946–1951) Naif, regent (1951) Talal (1951–1952) Hussein(1952–1999) Hassan, regent (1998–1999) Abdullah II(1999– )

Mexico: Presidents Presidents *. Guadalupe Victoria(1824–1829) *. Vicente Ramón Guerrero(1829) *.Pedro Velez, Lucas Alamán Luis de Quintana, acting presidents (!829–1830) *. Anastasio Bustamante(1830–1832, 1837–1841) *.Manuel Gómez Pedraza (1832–1833) *.Valentín Gómez Farías (1833, 1846–1847) *. Antonio López de Santa Anna(1833–1837, 1841–1844, 1844–1845, 1847, 1853–1855) *.Valentín Canalizo (1844) *.José Joaquín de Herrera (1845,. 1848–1851) *.Gabriel Valencia (1846–1846) *. Mariano Paredes(1846) *.José Mariano de Salas (1846, 1859) *.José Manuel de la Peña y Peña (1847, 1848) *.Pedro María de Anaya (1847–1848) *. Mariano Arista(1851–1853) *. Rómulo Díaz de la Vega(1855) *.Juan Álvarez (1856) *. Ignacio Comonfort(1856–1858) *. Félix María Zuloaga(1858, 1859–1860) *.Manuel Robles Pezuela (1858–1859) *.Miguel Miramón (1859) *.Juan Nepomuceno Almonte (1862–1863) *.Teodosio Lares (1863) *.Supreme Provisional Executive Power (1863–1864) *. Maximiliano I, emperor of Mexican Empire (1864–1867) *. Benito Juárez., president (1867–1872) *.Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada (1872–1876) *.José María Iglesias (1876) *. Porfirio Díaz(1876–1880, 1884–1911) *.Manuel González (1880–1884) *.Francisco León de la Barra (1911) *. Francisco Indalécio Madero(1911–1913) *. Victoriano Huerta(1913–1914) *.Francisco S. Carvajal (1914) *. Venustiano Carranza(1914, 1915–1920) *.Antonio I. Villarreal González (1914) *.Eulalio Martín Gutiérrez Ortiz (1914–1915) *.Roque González Garza (1915) *.Francisco Lagos Cházaro (1915) *. Adolfo de la Huerta(1920) *. Álvaro Obregón(1920–1924) *.Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–1928) *.Emilio Portes Gil (1928–1930) *.Pascual Ortiz Rubio (1930–1932) *.Abelardo L. Rodríguez (1932–1934) *. Lázaro Cárdenas(1934–1940) *. Manuel Ávila Camacho(1940–1946) *. Miguel Alemán(1946–1952) *.Adolfo Ruíz Cortines (1952–1958) *. Adolfo López Mateos(1958–1964) *. Gustavo Díaz Ordaz(1964–1970) *. Luis Echeverría Álvarez(1970–1976) *. José López Portillo(1976–1982) *. Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado(1982–1988) *. Carlos Salinas de Gortari(1988–1994) *. Ernesto Zedillo(1994–2000) *. Vicente Fox Quesada(2000– )

Pakistan: Prime Ministers Prime Ministers Liaquat Ali Khan(1947–1951) Khwaja Nazimuddin (1951–1953) Mohammad Ali Bogra (1953–1955) Chaudhri Mohammad Ali (1955–1956) Husayn Sahid Suhrawardi (1956–1957) Ismail Ibrahim Chundrigar (1957) Malik Firoz Khan Nun (1957–1958) Muhammad Ayub Khan(1958) Nurul Amin (1971) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto(1973–1977), president (1971–1973) Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq(1977–1985, 1988) Mohammad Khan Junejo (1985–1988) Benazir Bhutto(1988–1990, 1993–1996) Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi (1990) Nawaz Sharif(1990–1993, 1997–1999) Balakh Sher Mazari (1993) Moeen Qureshi (1993) Miraj Khalid (1996–1997) Pervez Musharraf(1999– )

Modern Egypt: Rulers *. Baybars I, Mamluk sultan (1260–77) of Egypt and Syria *. Muhammad Ali, pasha of Egypt after 1805 *. Ismail Pasha, ruler of Egypt (1863–79) *. Tewfik Pasha (Muhammad Tewfik), khedive of Egypt (1879–92) *. Abbas II, last khedive of Egypt (1892–1914) *. Fuad I (Ahmed Fuad Pasha), first king of modern Egypt (1922–36) *. Farouk, king of Egypt (1936–52) *. Gamal Abdal Nasser, Egyptian army officer and political leader, first president of the republic of Egypt (1956–70) *. Anwar al-Sadat, Egyptian political leader and president (1970–81) *. Muhammad Hosni Mubarak, president of Egypt (1981–)

India: Rulers *. Maurya, ancient Indian dynasty (c.325–c.183B.C.) *. Asoka, Indian emperor (c.273–c.232B.C.) of the Mauryadynasty *. Harsha, Indian emperor (606–47) *. Prithvi Raj, ruler of the Chauan dynasty of N. India (d. 1192) *. Mughal, Muslim empire in India (1526–1857) *. Babur, founder of the Mughalempire of India (1494–1530) *. Humayun, second Mughal emperor of India (1530–56) *. Sher Khan, Afghan ruler in N. India (1540–45) *. Akbar, Mughalemperor of India (1556–1605) *. Jahangir, Mughalemperor of India (1605–27) *. Shah Jahan, Mughalemperor of India (1628–58) *. Aurangzeb, Mughalemperor of India (1658–1707) *. Sivaji, Indian ruler, leader of the Marathas(1674–80) *. Shah Alam, Mughalemperor of India (1759–1806) *. Haidar Ali, Indian ruler (1761–82) *. Tippoo Sahib, Indian ruler, sultan of Mysore (1782–99) *. Warren Hastings, first governor general of British India (1774–84) *. Ranjit Singh, Indian maharaja, ruler of the Sikhs (1799–1839) *. Bahadur Shah II, last Mughalemperor of India (1837–57) *. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Indian political and spiritual leader (1869–1948) *. Rajendra Prasad, first president of India (1950–62) *. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Indian philosopher, president of India (1962–67) *. Varahagiri Venkata Giri, president of India (1969–74) *. Indira Gandhi, Indian political leader, prime minister (1966–77, 1980–84) *. Rajiv Gandhi, prime minister of India (1984–89) *. H. D. Deve Gowda, prime minister of India (1996–1997) *. Atal Bihari Vajpayee, prime minister of India (1996, 1998–)

Indonesia: Presidents Presidents Sukarno(1945–1967) Sjafruddin Prawiranegara (1948–1949, 1958–1961) Suharto(1967–1998) B. J. Habibie(1998–1999) Abdurrahman Wahid (1999–2001) Megawati Sukarnoputri, daughter of Sukarno(2001– )

Modern Persia and Iran: Rulers *. Samanid, Muslim Persian dynasty that ruled (819–1005) in Khorasan and Transoxiana *. Ismail, shah of Persia (1502–24), founder of the Safavid dynasty *. Tahmasp, shah of Persia (1524–76) *. Abbas I, shah of Persia (1587–1628), of the Safavid dynasty *. Sultan Husayn, Safavid shah of Persia (1694–1722) *. Nadir Shah, shah of Iran (1736–47) *. Karim Khan, ruler of Persia (1750–79), founder of the Zand dynasty *. Aga Muhammad Khan, shah of Persia, founder of the Qajar dynasty (1796–97) *. Fath Ali Shah, shah of Persia (1797–1834) *. Nasir ad-Din, shah of Persia (1848–96) *. Muzaffar ad-Din, shah of Persia (1896–1907) *. Muhammad Ali, shah of Persia (1906–09) *. Ahmad Mirza, shah of Persia (1909–25) *. Reza Shah Pahlevi, shah of Iran (1925–41) *. Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi, shah of Iran (1941–79) *. Muhammad Mussadegh, Iranian political leader, prime minister of Iran (1951–53) *. Amir Abbas Hoveida, Iranian political leader, prime minister of Iran (1965–77) *. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Iranian Shiitereligious leader (1979–89) *.Mohammad Khatami, president of Iran (1997–)

Canadian Prime Ministers Since 1867 This page lists the term in office, political party, and the name of each prime minister of Canada from 1867 to the present. TermPrime MinisterParty 1867–1873 Sir John A. MacdonaldConservative 1873–1878 Alexander MackenzieLiberal 1878–1891 Sir John A. MacdonaldConservative 1891–1892 Sir John J. C. AbbottConservative 1892–1894 Sir John S. D. ThompsonConservative 1894–1896 Sir Mackenzie BowellConservative 1896 Sir Charles TupperConservative 1896–1911 Sir Wilfrid LaurierLiberal 1911–1917 Sir Robert L. BordenConservative 1917–1920 Sir Robert L. BordenUnionist 1920–1921 Arthur MeighenUnionist 1921–1926 W. L. Mackenzie KingLiberal 1926 Arthur MeighenConservative 1926–1930 W. L. Mackenzie KingLiberal 1930–1935 Richard B. BennettConservative 1935–1948 W. L. Mackenzie KingLiberal 1948–1957 Louis S. St. LaurentLiberal 1957–1963 John G. DiefenbakerConservative 1963–1968 Lester B. PearsonLiberal 1968–1979 Pierre Elliott TrudeauLiberal 1979–1980 Charles Joseph ClarkConservative 1980–1984 Pierre Elliott TrudeauLiberal 1984 John TurnerLiberal 1984–1993 Brian MulroneyConservative 1993Kim CampbellConservative 1993–2003Jean ChrétienLiberal 2003–2006Paul MartinLiberal 2006–Stephen HarperConservative

China: Rulers See this list of Chinese Dynasties. *. Liu Pang, founder of the Handynasty (206–195B.C.) *. Wu-ti, posthumous temple name of the fifth emperor (140–87B.C.) of the Handynasty *. Wang Mang, Chinese Handynasty regent (45B.C.–A.D.23) *. Sui, dynasty of China that ruled from 581 to 618 *. Hsüan-tsung, Chinese emperor (712–56), ninth of the T'ang dynasty *. Sung, dynasty of China that ruled 960–1279 *. Chao K'uang-yin, founder of the Sungdynasty (960–79) *. Hui-tsung, Chinese emperor of the Northern Sung dynasty, painter, and a great patron of art (1082–1135) *. Kublai Khan, Mongol emperor, founder of the Yüan dynasty of China (1215–94) *. Ming, dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644 *. Yung-lo, reign title of the third emperor (1403–24) of the Chinese Mingdynasty *. Nurhaci, Manchu national founder (1559–1626) *. Manchu, people who lived in Manchuria for many centuries and who ruled China from 1644 until 1912 *. K'ang-hsi, second emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty of China (1661–1722) *. Ch'ien-lung, reign title of the fourth emperor (1735–96) of the Ch'ing dynasty *. Tz'u Hsi, Tsu Hsi, dowager empress of China (1861–1908) and regent (1861–73, 1874–89, 1898–1908) *. Kuang-hsu, emperor of China (1875–1908) *. Henry Pu Yi, last emperor (1908–12) of China *. Yüan Shih-kai, president of China (1912–16) *. Li Yüan-hung, president of China (1916–17, 1922–23) *. Chiang Kai-shek, Chinese Nationalist leader (1928–48) *. Lin Sen, president of China (1932–43) *. Mao Zedong, founder of the People's Republic of China (1943–76) *. Deng Xiaoping, Chinese revolutionary and government leader (1945–89) *. Li Peng, Chinese premier (1987–98) *. Jiang Zemin, president of China (1993–2003) *. Hu Jintao, president of China (2003– )

Denmark: Kings and Queens *. Harold Bluetooth, king of Denmark (935–c. 985) *. Sweyn, king of Denmark (986–1014) *. Harthacanute, king of Denmark (1035–42) and of the English (1040–42) *. Canute the Saint, king (1080–86) and patron saint of Denmark *. Waldemar I (Waldemar the Great), king of Denmark (1157–82) *. Waldemar II, king of Denmark (1202–41) *. Waldemar IV, king of Denmark (1340–75) *. Margaret I, queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (1353–1412) *. Christian III, king of Denmark and Norway (1534–59) *. Christian IV, king of Denmark and Norway (1588–1648) *. Frederick III, king of Denmark and Norway (1648–70) *. Christian V, king of Denmark and Norway (1670–99) *. Frederick IV, king of Denmark and Norway (1699–1730) *. Frederick V, king of Denmark and Norway (1746–66) *. Christian VII, king of Denmark and Norway (1766–1808) *. Frederick VI, king of Denmark (1808–39) and Norway (1808–14) *. Christian VIII, king of Denmark (1839–48) *. Frederick VII, king of Denmark, duke of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg (1848–63) *. Christian IX, king of Denmark (1863–1906) *. Frederick VIII, king of Denmark (1906–12) *. Christian X, king of Denmark (1912–47) and Iceland (1912–44) *. Frederick IX, king of Denmark (1947–72) *. Margaret II, queen of Denmark (1972–)

Rulers of Scotland *. Kenneth I, traditional founder of the kingdom of Scotland (c. 843–858) *. Kenneth II, Scottish king (971–995) *. Macbeth, king of Scotland (1040–57) *. Malcolm III, king of Scotland (1057–93) *. Alexander I, king of Scotland (1107–24) *. David I, king of Scotland (1124–53) *. Malcolm IV, king of Scotland (1153–65) *. William the Lion, king of Scotland (1165–1214) *. Alexander II, king of Scotland (1214–49) *. Alexander III, king of Scotland (1249–86) *. Margaret Maid of Norway, queen of Scotland (1286–90) *. John de Baliol, king of Scotland (1292–96) *. Robert I, king of Scotland (1306–29) *. David II, king of Scotland (1329–34, 1341–71) *. Edward de Baliol, English-supported king of Scotland (1332–41) *. Robert II, king of Scotland (1371–90) *. Robert Stuart, regent of Scotland (1389–1399) *. Robert III, king of Scotland (1390–1406) *. David Stuart, regent of Scotland (1399–1402) *. James I, king of Scotland (1406–37) *. James II, king of Scotland (1437–60) *. James III, king of Scotland (1460–88) *. James IV, king of Scotland (1488–1513) *. James V, king of Scotland (1513–42) *. John Stuart, regent of Scotland (1515–1524) *. Mary Queen of Scots(1542–67) *.James VI, king of Scotland (1567–1625), and as James I, king of England (1603–25) *. John Erskine Mar, regent of Scotland. (1571–72)

British Prime Ministers Since 1770 Find the name, term dates, and political party affiliation of every British Prime Minister from 1770 to the present. NameTerm Lord North(Tory)1770–1782 Marquis of Rockingham(Whig)1782–1782 Earl of Shelburne(Whig)1782–1783 Duke of Portland(Coalition)1783–1783 William Pitt, the Younger(Tory)1783–1801 Henry Addington(Tory)1801–1804 William Pitt, the Younger(Tory)1804–1806 Baron Grenville(Whig)1806–1807 Duke of Portland(Tory)1807–1809 Spencer Perceval(Tory)1809–1812 Earl of Liverpool(Tory)1812–1827 George Canning(Tory)1827–1827 Viscount Goderich(Tory)1827–1828 Duke of Wellington(Tory)1828–1830 Earl Grey(Whig)1830–1834 Viscount Melbourne(Whig)1834–1834 Sir Robert Peel(Tory)1834–1835 Viscount Melbourne(Whig)1835–1841 Sir Robert Peel(Tory)1841–1846 Earl Russell(Whig)1846–1852 Earl of Derby(Tory)1852–1852 Earl of Aberdeen(Coalition)1852–1855 Viscount Palmerston(Liberal)1855–1858 Earl of Derby(Conservative)1858–1859 Viscount Palmerston(Liberal)1859–1865 Earl Russell(Liberal)1865–1866 Earl of Derby(Conservative)1866–1868 Benjamin Disraeli(Conservative)1868–1868 William E. Gladstone(Liberal)1868–1874 Benjamin Disraeli(Conservative)1874–1880 William E. Gladstone(Liberal)1880–1885 Marquis of Salisbury(Conservative)1885–1886 William E. Gladstone(Liberal)1886–1886 Marquis of Salisbury(Conservative)1886–1892 William E. Gladstone(Liberal)1892–1894 Earl of Rosebery(Liberal)1894–1895 Marquis of Salisbury(Conservative)1895–1902 Arthur James Balfour(Conservative)1902–1905 Sir H. Campbell- Bannerman(Liberal)1905–1908 Herbert H. Asquith(Liberal)1908–1915 Herbert H. Asquith(Coalition)1915–1916 David Lloyd George(Coalition)1916–1922 Andrew Bonar Law(Conservative)1922–1923 Stanley Baldwin(Conservative)1923–1924 James Ramsay MacDonald(Labour)1924–1924 Stanley Baldwin(Conservative)1924–1929 James Ramsay MacDonald(Labour)1929–1931 James Ramsay MacDonald(Coalition)1931–1935 Stanley Baldwin(Coalition)1935–1937 Neville Chamberlain(Coalition)1937–1940 Winston Churchill(Coalition)1940–1945 Clement R. Attlee(Labour)1945–1951 Sir Winston Churchill(Conservative)1951–1955 Sir Anthony Eden(Conservative)1955–1957 Harold Macmillan(Conservative)1957–1963 Sir Alec Frederick Douglas-Home (Conservative) 1963–1964 Harold Wilson(Labour)1964–1970 Edward Heath(Conservative)1970–1974 Harold Wilson(Labour)1974–1976 James Callaghan(Labour)1976–1979 Margaret Thatcher(Conservative)1979–1990 John Major(Conservative)1990–1997 Tony Blair(Labour)1997–2007 Gordon Brown(Labour)2007–2010 David Cameron(Coalition)2010–

Austria: Rulers Emperors Franz I, last Holy Roman Emperor, first Emperor of Austria (1804–1835) Ferdinand I(1835–1848) Franz Joseph I(1848–1916) Karl I, last emperor of Austria (1916–1918) PresidentsFranz Dinghofer, Johann Nepomuk Hauser, and Karl Seitz, directory of the Council of State (1918–1919) Karl Seitz, president of the Constituent National Assembly (1919–1920) Michael Hainisch(1920–1928) Wilhelm Miklas (1928–1938) Karl Renner(1945–1950) Leopold Figl (1950–1951) Theodor Körner (1951–1957) Julius Raab, acting (1957) Adolf Schärf (1957–1965) Josef Klaus, acting (1965) Franz Jonas(1965–1974) Bruno Kreisky, acting (1974) Rudolf Kirchschläger (1974–1986) Kurt Waldheim(1986–1992) Thomas Klestil (1992–2004) Heinz Fischer (2004–

Rulers of England and Great Britain Find the name, birth date, and the number of years each monarch ruled England and Great Britain. NameBornRuled1 SAXONS2 Egbert3c. 775802–839 Ethelwulf?839–858 Ethelbald?858–860 Ethelbert?860–865 Ethelred I?865–871 Alfred the Great849871–899 Edward the Elderc. 870899–924 Athelstan895924–939 Edmund I the Deed-doer921939–946 Edredc. 925946–955 Edwy the Fairc. 943955–959 Edgar the Peaceful943959–975 Edward the Martyrc. 962975–978 Ethelred II the Unready968978–1016 Edmund II Ironsidec. 9931016 DANES Canute9951016–1035 Harold I Harefootc.10161035–1040 Hardecanutec.10181040–1042 SAXONS Edward the Confessorc.10041042–1066 Harold IIc.10201066 HOUSE OF NORMANDY William I the Conqueror10271066–1087 William II Rufusc.10561087–1100 Henry I Beauclerc10681100–1135 Stephen of Boulognec.11001135–1154 HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET Henry II11331154–1189 Richard I Coeur de Lion11571189–1199 John Lackland11671199–1216 Henry III12071216–1272 Edward I Longshanks12391272–1307 Edward II12841307–1327 Edward III13121327–1377 Richard II13671377–13994 HOUSE OF LANCASTER Henry IV Bolingbroke13671399–1413 Henry V13871413–1422 Henry VI14211422–14615 HOUSE OF YORK Edward IV14421461–14835 Edward V14701483–1483 Richard III14521483–1485 HOUSE OF TUDOR Henry VII14571485–1509 Henry VIII14911509–1547 Edward VI15371547–1553 Jane (Lady Jane Grey)615371553–1553 Mary I(“Bloody Mary”)15161553–1558 Elizabeth I15331558–1603 HOUSE OF STUART James I715661603–1625 Charles I16001625–1649 COMMONWEALTH Council of State—1649–1653 Oliver Cromwell815991653–1658 Richard Cromwell816261658–16599 RESTORATION OF HOUSE OF STUART Charles II16301660–1685 James II16331685–168810 William III1116501689–1702 Mary II1116621689–1694 Anne16651702–1714 HOUSE OF HANOVERGeorge I 1660 ... HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG12 Edward VII18411901–1910 HOUSE OF WINDSOR12 George V18651910–1936 Edward VIII1894193613 George VI18951936–1952 Elizabeth II19261952– 1. Year of end of rule is also that of death, unless otherwise indicated. 2. Dates for Saxon kings are still controversial. 3. Became king of West Saxons in 802; considered (from 828) first king of all England. 4. Died 1400. 5. Henry VI reigned again briefly 1470–1471. 6. Nominal queen for 9 days; not counted as queen by some authorities. She was beheaded in 1554. 7. Ruled in Scotland as James VI (1567–1625). 8. Lord Protector. 9. Died 1712. 10. Died 1701. 11. Joint rulers (1689–1694). 12. Name changed from Saxe-Coburg to Windsor in 1917. 13. Was known after his abdication as the Duke of Windsor, died 1972.

Australia: Prime Ministers Prime Ministers Edmund Barton(1901–1903) Alfred Deakin(1903–1904, 1905–1908, 1909–1910) John Christian Watson (1904) George Huston Reid (1904–1905) Andrew Fisher(1908–1909, 1910–1913, 1914–1915) Joseph Cook(1913–1914) William Morris Hughes(1915–1923) Stanley Melbourne Bruce(1923–1929) James Henry Scullin (1929–1932) Joseph Aloysius Lyons(1932–1939) Sir Earle Page, acting (1939) Robert Gordon Menzies(1939–1941, 1949–1966) Arthur William Fadden (1941) John Curtin(1941–1945) Francis Michael Forde (1945) Joseph Benedict Chifley (1945–1949) Harold Holt(1966–1967) John McEwen (1967–1968) John Grey Gorton (1968–1971) William McMahon (1971–1972) Gough Whitlam(1972–1975) Malcolm Fraser (1975–1983) Robert J. Hawke(1983–1991) Paul Keating(1991–1996) John Howard(1996– )

Africa: Rulers (part 2 of 2): Selected Rulers from Other African Nations (alphabetical by last name) *. Ahmadou Ahidjo, president of the United Republic of Cameroon (1960–82) *. Pietro Badoglio, governor of Tripolitania (Libya) (1929–33) *. Italo Balbo, governor-general of Libya (1933–40) *. Hastings Kamuzu Banda, African political leader, president of Malawi (1966–94) *. Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali, president of Tunisia (1987–) *. Ahmed Ben Bella, Algerian Prime Minister (1962–63), president (1962–65) *. Jean Bedel Bokassa, president of Central African Republic (1966–79) *. Houari Boumedienne, president and prime minister of Algeria (1965–78) *. Ketchwayo Cetshwayo, king of the Zulus (1872–79) *. David Dacko, president of the Central African Republic (1960–66, 1979–81) *. Moktar Ould Daddah, president of Mauritania (1961–78) *. José Eduardo Dos Santos, Angolan president (1979–) *. Félix Éboué, commissioner-General of French Congo and French Equatorial Africa (1941–44) *. Gnassingbé Eyadéma, president of Togo (1967–) *. Yakubu Gowon, Nigerian head of state (1966–75) *. Rodolfo Graziani, Marchese Di Neghelli, governor of Cyrenaica, Libya (1930–34), Governor-General (1940–41) *. Teshafi Teezaz Aklilu Habte-Wold, prime minister of Ethiopia (1961–74) *. Félix Houphouët- Boigny, African political leader, president (1960–93) of Côte d'Ivoire. *. Idris I, king of Libya (1951–69) *. Joseph Leabua Jonathan, prime minister of Lesotho (1965–86) *. Jugurtha, king of Numidia (118–106B.C.) *. Kenneth David Kaunda, African political leader, president of Zambia (1964–91) *. Jomo Kenyatta, African political leader, first president of Kenya (1964–78) *. Khama, chief of the Bamangwato people of Bechuanaland (now Botswana) (1875–1923?) *. Sir Seretse Khama, president of Botswana (1966–80) *. Seyni Kountché, president of Niger(1974–87) *. Hilla Limann, president of Ghana (1979–81) *. Lobengula, king of Matabeleland (now in Zimbabwe) (1870–93) *. Samora Machel, president of Mozambique (1975–86) *. Sir Milton Margai, prime minister of Sierra Leone (1961–64) *. Mengistu Haile Mariam, president of Ethiopia (1987–91) *. Masinissa, king of Numidia (c. 238 – 148?B.C.) *. Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia after 1889 *. Pierre Messmer, high commissioner of French Congo and French Equatorial Africa (1958) *. Daniel T. arap Moi, president of Kenya (1978–) *. Robert Gabriel Mugabe, president of Zimbabwe (1987–) *. Mutesa I, kabaka, or king, of Buganda (now in Uganda), c.1857–84 *. Agostinho Neto, first president of independent Angola (1975–79) *. Francisco Macias Nguema, first president of Equatorial Guinea (1968–79) *. Kwame Nkrumah, African political leader, prime minister (1957–60) and president (1960–66) of Ghana *. Julius Kambarage Nyerere, African political leader, first president (1964–85) of Tanzania *. Apollo Milton Obote, president of Uganda (1966–71, 1980–85) *. Sylvanus Olympio, African political leader, president of Togo (1961–63) *. Muammar Al-Qaddafi, de facto Libyan Head of State (1969–) *. Radama I, founder of the kingdom of Madagascar *. Denis Sassou- Nguesso, Congolese army officer and president of the Congo (Brazzaville) (1979–92, 1997–) *. Haile Selassie, emperor of Ethiopia (1930–74) *. Léopold Sédar Senghor, African statesman and poet, president (1960–80) of the republic of Senegal *. Alhaji Shehu Shagari, president of Nigeria (1979–83) *. Shaka, paramount chief (1818–28) of the Zulus *. Ian D. Smith, prime minister of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) (1964–65), prime minister of Rhodesia (1965–79) *. Sobhuza II, king of Swaziland (1921–82) *. Siaka Probyn Stevens, president of Sierra Leone (1971–85) *. Tewodros II, emperor of Ethiopia (1855–68) *. William Richard Tolbert, Jr., president of Liberia (1971–80) *. Ahmed Sékou Touré, African political leader, president (1958–84) of the republic of Guinea *. Philibert Tsiranana, president of the Malagasy Republic (now Madagascar) (1960–72) *. William Vacanarat Shadrach Tubman, president of Liberia (1944–71) *. Maxime Weygand, Algerian Governor-General (1941) *. Fulbert Youlou, first president of the Congo (Brazzaville) (1960–63)

Africa: Rulers (part 1 of 2): Congo: Rulers *.Theophile Theodore Joseph Antoine Baron Wahis, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1900–12) *.Felix Alexandre Fuch, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1912–16) *.Eugene Joseph Marie Henry, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1916–21) *.Maurice Eugene Auguste Lippens, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1921–23) *.Martin Joseph Marie René Rutten, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1923–27) *.Auguste Constant Tilkens, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1927–34) *.Pierre Marie Joseph Ryckmans, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1934–46) *.Eugène Jacques Pierre Louis Jungers, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1946–51) *.Léon Antoine Marie Petillon, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1951–58) *.Henri Arthur Adolf Marie Christopher Cornelis, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1958–60) *. Patrice Emergy Lumumba, prime minister of the Republic of the Congo (1960) *. Moise Tshombe, president of Katanga (1960–61), prime minister of the Republic of the Congo (1964–65) *. Joseph Kasavubu, president of the Republic of the Congo (1960–65) *. Mobutu Sese Seko, president of Zaïre (1965–97) *. Laurent Kabila, president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (1997–2001) *. Joseph Kabila, son of Laurent, president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (2001–) Morocco: Rulers *. Yakub I, ruler of Morocco (1184–99) and Moorish Spain. *. Ismail, sultan of Morocco (1672–1727) *. Abd ar-Rahman, sultan of Morocco (1822–59) *. Hassan, sultan of Morocco (1873–94) *. Abd al-Aziz IV, sultan of Morocco (1894–1908) *. Abd al-Hafiz, sultan of Morocco (1908–12) *.Yusuf, sultan of Morocco (1912–27) *. Muhammad V, sultan of Morocco (1927–53, 1955–57), king of Morocco (1957–61) *.Muhammad VI, sultan of Morocco (1953–55) *.Council of Throne Guardians (1955) *. Hassan II, king of Morocco (1961–1999) *.Muhammad VI, king of Morocco (1999–) South Africa: Rulers *. Sir John Henry Brand, South African politician, president of the Orange Free State (1864–71) *. Stephanus Johannes Paulus Krüger, president of Transvaal (1883–1902) *. Martinus Theunis Steyn, last president (1896–1900) of the Orange Free State *.Hamilton John Goold-Adams, governor of the Orange Free State (1901–02, 1907–10) *. Sir Alfred Milner, governor of Cape Colony (1897–1901), governor of Orange River Colony, Orange Free State (1902–05), governor of Transvaal (1902) *.Sir John Gordon Sprigg, premier of Cape Colony (1900–04) *.Sir Walter Francis Hely-Hutchinson, governor of Natal (1893–1901), governor of Cape Colony (1901–09) *.Sir Henry Edward McCallum, governor of Natal (1901–07) *. Leander Starr Jameson, premier of Cape Colony (1904–08) *.William Waldegrave Palmer, Earl of Selborne, governor of the Orange Free State (1905–07), governor of Transvaal (1906–10) *.Sir Matthew Nathan, governor of Natal (1907–10) *.John Xavier Merriman, premier of Cape Colony (1908–10) *.Paul Sandford, Baron Methuen of Corsham, governor of Natal (1910) *. Herbert John Gladstone, Viscount Gladstone, governor-general of South Africa (1910–14) *. Louis Botha, prime minister of South Africa (1910–19) *.Sydney Charles Buxton, Viscount Buxton, governor-general of South Africa (1914–20) *. Jan Christian Smuts, prime minister of South Africa (1919–24, 1939–48 *.Arthur Frederick Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught, governor-general of South Africa (1920–24) *.Alexander, Earl of Athlone, governor-general of South Africa (1924–31) *. James Hertzog, prime minister of South Africa (1924–39) *.George Herbert Hyde Villiers, Earl of Clarendon, governor-general of South Africa (1931–37) *.Sir Patrick Duncan, governor-general of South Africa (1937–43) *.Nicolaas Jacobus de Wet, acting governor-general of South Africa (1943–46) *.Gideon Brand van Zyl, governor-general of South Africa (1946–51) *. Daniel F. Malan, prime minister of South Africa, (1948–54) *.Ernest George Jansen, governor-general of South Africa (1951–59) *.Johannes G. Strijdom, prime minister of South Africa (1954–58) *.Charles Robberts Swart, governor-general of South Africa (1959–61), president of South Africa (1961–67) *. Hendrik F. Verwoerd, prime minister of South Africa (1958–66) *.Jozua François Naudé, acting president of South Africa (1967–68) *.Jacobus Johannes Fouché, president of South Africa (1968–75) *.Nicolaas J. Diederichs, president of South Africa (1975–78) *.Marais Viljoen, president of South Africa (1978, 1979–84) *. B. J. Vorster, prime minister of South Africa (1966–78), governor-general of South Africa (1978–79) *. Pieter Willem Botha, prime minister of South Africa (1978–84), governor-general of South Africa (1984–89) *.J. Christian Heunis, acting president of South Africa (1989) *. Frederik Willem de Klerk, South African president (1989–94) *. Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela, South African president (1994–1999) *. Thabo Mbeki, South African president (1999–)

Africa: Rulers Congo: Rulers *.Theophile Theodore Joseph Antoine Baron Wahis, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1900–12) *.Felix Alexandre Fuch, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1912–16) *.Eugene Joseph Marie Henry, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1916–21) *.Maurice Eugene Auguste Lippens, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1921–23) *.Martin Joseph Marie René Rutten, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1923–27) *.Auguste Constant Tilkens, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1927–34) *.Pierre Marie Joseph Ryckmans, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1934–46) *.Eugène Jacques Pierre Louis Jungers, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1946–51) *.Léon Antoine Marie Petillon, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1951–58) *.Henri Arthur Adolf Marie Christopher Cornelis, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1958–60) *. Patrice Emergy Lumumba, prime minister of the Republic of the Congo (1960) *. Moise Tshombe, president of Katanga (1960–61), prime minister of the Republic of the Congo (1964–65) *. Joseph Kasavubu, president of the Republic of the Congo (1960–65) *. Mobutu Sese Seko, president of Zaïre (1965–97) *. Laurent Kabila, president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (1997–2001) *. Joseph Kabila, son of Laurent, president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (2001–) Morocco: Rulers *. Yakub I, ruler of Morocco (1184–99) and Moorish Spain. *. Ismail, sultan of Morocco (1672–1727) *. Abd ar-Rahman, sultan of Morocco (1822–59) *. Hassan, sultan of Morocco (1873–94) *. Abd al-Aziz IV, sultan of Morocco (1894–1908) *. Abd al-Hafiz, sultan of Morocco (1908–12) *.Yusuf, sultan of Morocco (1912–27) *. Muhammad V, sultan of Morocco (1927–53, 1955–57), king of Morocco (1957–61) *.Muhammad VI, sultan of Morocco (1953–55) *.Council of Throne Guardians (1955) *. Hassan II, king of Morocco (1961–1999) *.Muhammad VI, king of Morocco (1999–) South Africa: Rulers *. Sir John Henry Brand, South African politician, president of the Orange Free State (1864–71) *. Stephanus Johannes Paulus Krüger, president of Transvaal (1883–1902) *. Martinus Theunis Steyn, last president (1896–1900) of the Orange Free State *.Hamilton John Goold-Adams, governor of the Orange Free State (1901–02, 1907–10) *. Sir Alfred Milner, governor of Cape Colony (1897–1901), governor of Orange River Colony, Orange Free State (1902–05), governor of Transvaal (1902) *.Sir John Gordon Sprigg, premier of Cape Colony (1900–04) *.Sir Walter Francis Hely-Hutchinson, governor of Natal (1893–1901), governor of Cape Colony (1901–09) *.Sir Henry Edward McCallum, governor of Natal (1901–07) *. Leander Starr Jameson, premier of Cape Colony (1904–08) *.William Waldegrave Palmer, Earl of Selborne, governor of the Orange Free State (1905–07), governor of Transvaal (1906–10) *.Sir Matthew Nathan, governor of Natal (1907–10) *.John Xavier Merriman, premier of Cape Colony (1908–10) *.Paul Sandford, Baron Methuen of Corsham, governor of Natal (1910) *. Herbert John Gladstone, Viscount Gladstone, governor-general of South Africa (1910–14) *. Louis Botha, prime minister of South Africa (1910–19) *.Sydney Charles Buxton, Viscount Buxton, governor-general of South Africa (1914–20) *. Jan Christian Smuts, prime minister of South Africa (1919–24, 1939–48 *.Arthur Frederick Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught, governor-general of South Africa (1920–24) *.Alexander, Earl of Athlone, governor-general of South Africa (1924–31) *. James Hertzog, prime minister of South Africa (1924–39) *.George Herbert Hyde Villiers, Earl of Clarendon, governor-general of South Africa (1931–37) *.Sir Patrick Duncan, governor-general of South Africa (1937–43) *.Nicolaas Jacobus de Wet, acting governor-general of South Africa (1943–46) *.Gideon Brand van Zyl, governor-general of South Africa (1946–51) *. Daniel F. Malan, prime minister of South Africa, (1948–54) *.Ernest George Jansen, governor-general of South Africa (1951–59) *.Johannes G. Strijdom, prime minister of South Africa (1954–58) *.Charles Robberts Swart, governor-general of South Africa (1959–61), president of South Africa (1961–67) *. Hendrik F. Verwoerd, prime minister of South Africa (1958–66) *.Jozua François Naudé, acting president of South Africa (1967–68) *.Jacobus Johannes Fouché, president of South Africa (1968–75) *.Nicolaas J. Diederichs, president of South Africa (1975–78) *.Marais Viljoen, president of South Africa (1978, 1979–84) *. B. J. Vorster, prime minister of South Africa (1966–78), governor-general of South Africa (1978–79) *. Pieter Willem Botha, prime minister of South Africa (1978–84), governor-general of South Africa (1984–89) *.J. Christian Heunis, acting president of South Africa (1989) *. Frederik Willem de Klerk, South African president (1989–94) *. Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela, South African president (1994–1999) *. Thabo Mbeki, South African president (1999–)

Holy Roman Empire: Emperors *. Charlemagne(Charles I), emperor of the West (800–814), Carolingian king of the Franks (768–814) *. Charles II, emperor of the West (875–77) and king of the West Franks (843–77) *. Otto I, Holy Roman emperor (962–73) and German king (936–73) *. Otto II, Holy Roman emperor (973–83) and German king (961–83) *. Otto III, Holy Roman emperor (996–1002) and German king (983–1002) *. Henry II, Holy Roman emperor (1014–24) and German king (1002–24), last of the Saxon line *. Conrad II, Holy Roman emperor (1027–39) and German king (1024–39), first of the Salian dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire *. Henry III, Holy Roman emperor (1046–56) and German king (1039–56) *. Henry IV, Holy Roman emperor (1084–1105) and German king (1056–1105) *. Henry V, Holy Roman emperor (1111–25) and German king (1105–25) *. Lothair II, also called Lothair III, Holy Roman emperor (1133–37) and German king (1125–37) *. Frederick I, Holy Roman emperor (1155–90) and German king (1152–90) *. Henry VI, Holy Roman emperor (1191–97) and German king (1190–97) *. Constance, Holy Roman empress, wife of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI *. Otto IV, Holy Roman emperor (1209–15) and German king (1208–15) *. Frederick II, Holy Roman emperor (1220–50) and German king (1212–20), king of Sicily (1197–1250), and king of Jerusalem (1229–50) *. Henry VII, Holy Roman emperor (1312–13) and German king (1308–13) *. Louis IV, Holy Roman emperor (1328–47) and German king (1314–47), duke of Upper Bavaria *. Charles IV, Holy Roman emperor (1355–78), German king (1347–78), and king of Bohemia (1346–78) *. Wenceslaus, Holy Roman emperor (uncrowned) and German king (1378–1400), king of Bohemia (1378–1419) as Wenceslaus IV, elector of Brandenburg (1373–76) *. Sigismund, Holy Roman emperor (1433–37), German king (1410–37), king of Hungary (1387–1437) and of Bohemia (1419–37), elector of Brandenburg (1376–1415) *. Frederick III, Holy Roman emperor (1452–93) and German king (1440–93) *. Maximilian I, Holy Roman emperor and German king (1493–1519) *. Charles V, Holy Roman emperor (1519–58) and, as Charles I, king of Spain (1516–56) *. Ferdinand I, Holy Roman emperor (1558–64), king of Bohemia (1526–64) and of Hungary (1526–64) *. Maximilian II, Holy Roman emperor (1564–76), king of Bohemia (1562–76) and of Hungary (1563–76) *. Rudolf II, Holy Roman emperor (1576–1612), king of Bohemia (1575–1611) and of Hungary (1572–1608) *. Matthias, Holy Roman emperor (1612–19), king of Bohemia (1611–17) and of Hungary (1608–18) *. Ferdinand II, Holy Roman emperor (1619–37), king of Bohemia (1617–37) and of Hungary (1618–37) *. Ferdinand III, Holy Roman emperor (1637–57), king of Hungary (1626–57) and of Bohemia (1627–57) *. Leopold I, Holy Roman emperor (1658–1705), king of Bohemia (1656–1705) and of Hungary (1655–1705) *. Joseph I, Holy Roman emperor (1705–11), king of Hungary (1687–1711) and of Bohemia (1705–11) *. Charles VI, Holy Roman emperor (1711–40), king of Bohemia (1711–40) and, as Charles III, king of Hungary (1712–40) *. Charles VII, Holy Roman emperor (1742–45) and, as Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria (1726–45) *. Francis I, Holy Roman emperor (1745–65), duke of Lorraine (1729–37) as Francis Stephen, grand duke of Tuscany (1737–65) *. Joseph II, Holy Roman emperor (1765–90), king of Bohemia and Hungary (1780–90) *. Leopold II, Holy Roman emperor (1790–92), king of Bohemia and Hungary (1790–92), as Leopold I grand duke of Tuscany (1765–90) *. Francis II, last Holy Roman emperor (1792–1806), first emperor of Austria as Francis I (1804–35), king of Bohemia and of Hungary (1792–1835)

Byzantium: Emperors *. Leo I, Byzantine or East Roman emperor (457–74) *. Justin I, Byzantine emperor (518–27) *. Justinian I, Byzantine emperor (527–65) *. Theodora, Byzantine empress (527–48) *. Justin II, Byzantine emperor (565–78) *. Maurice, Byzantine emperor (582–602) *. Heraclius, Byzantine emperor (610–41) *. Constans II, Byzantine emperor (641–68) *. Constantine IV, Byzantine emperor (668–85) *. Justinian II, Byzantine emperor (685–95, 705–11) *. Leo III, Byzantine emperor (717–41) *. Constantine V, Byzantine emperor (741–75) *. Leo IV, Byzantine emperor (775–80) *. Constantine VI, Byzantine emperor (780–97) *. Irene, Byzantine empress (797–802) *. Nicephorus I, Byzantine emperor (802–11) *. Michael I, Byzantine emperor (811–13) *. Leo V, Byzantine emperor (813–20) *. Michael II, Byzantine emperor (820–29) *. Michael III, Byzantine emperor (842–67) *. Basil I, Byzantine emperor (867–86) *. Leo VI, Byzantine emperor (886–912) *. Constantine VII, Byzantine emperor (913–59) *. Romanus I, Byzantine emperor (usurper) (920–44) *. Romanus II, Byzantine emperor (959–63) *. Nicephorus II (Nicephorus Phocas), Byzantine emperor (963–69) *. John I (John Tzimisces), Byzantine emperor (969–76) *. Basil II, Byzantine emperor (976–1025) *. Romanus III (Romanus Argyrus), Byzantine emperor (1028–34) *. Zoë, Byzantine empress (1028–50) *. Comnenus, family name of several Byzantine emperors in the 11th and 12th centuries *. Isaac I (Isaac Comnenus), Byzantine emperor (1057–59), first of the Comneni dynasty *. Romanus IV (Romanus Diogenes), Byzantine emperor (1068–71) *. Alexius I (Alexius Comnenus), Byzantine emperor (1081–1118) *. John II (John Comnenus), Byzantine emperor (1118–43) *. Manuel I (Manuel Comnenus), Byzantine emperor (1143–80) *. Alexius II, Byzantine emperor (1180–83) *. Andronicus I (Andronicus Comnenus), Byzantine emperor (1183–85) *. Isaac II (Isaac Angelus), Byzantine emperor (1185–95, 1203–04) *. Alexius III (Alexius Angelus), Byzantine emperor (1195–1203) *. Alexius IV, Byzantine emperor (1203–04) *. Alexius V (Alexius Ducas Mourtzouphlos), Byzantine emperor (1204) *. Baldwin I, first Latin emperor of Constantinople (1204–05) *. Theodore I, Byzantine emperor of Nicaea (1204–22) *. Robert of Courtenay, Latin emperor of Constantinople (1218–28) *. John III (John Ducas Vatatzes), Byzantine emperor of Nicaea (1222–54) *. Theodore II, Byzantine emperor of Nicaea (1254–58) *. Baldwin II, last Latin emperor of Constantinople (1228–61) *. John IV (John Lascaris), Byzantine emperor of Nicaea (1258–61) *. Michael VIII, Byzantine emperor (1261–82), first of the Palaeologusdynasty *. Andronicus II (Andronicus Palaeologus), Byzantine emperor (1282–1328) *. Andronicus III, Byzantine emperor (1328–41) *. John V (John Palaeologus), Byzantine emperor (1341–91) *. John VI (John Cantacuzene), Byzantine emperor (1347–54) *. John VII (John Palaeologus), Byzantine emperor (1390, 1399–1402) *. Manuel II, Byzantine emperor (1391–1425) *. John VIII, Byzantine emperor (1425–48) *. Constantine XI, last Byzantine emperor (1449–53)

Roman Republic and Roman Empire: Rulers Roman Republic *. Cato the Elder,statesman (234–149B.C.) *. Gracchi, (Tiberius Sempronius Graccus [d. 133B.C.] and Caius Sempronius Gracchus [d. 121B.C.], statesmen and social reformers *. Caius Marius, general and consul (157–86B.C.) *. Lucius Cornelius Sulla, general and consul (138–78B.C.) *. Pompey, general and member of First Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Crassus (106–48B.C.) *. Marcus Licinius Crassus, member of First Triumvirate with Caesar and Pompey (d. 53B.C.) *. Cato the Younger, statesman (95–46B.C.) *. Julius Caesar, general and statesman (100?–44B.C.) *. Marc Antony, politician and soldier, member of Second Triumvirate with Lepidus and Octavian (Augustus) (83–30B.C.) *. Lepidus, member of Second Triumvirate with Marc Antony and Octavian (d. 13B.C.) Roman Empire *. Augustus, (Octavian) first emperor, grandnephew of Julius Caesar, (27B.C.–A.D.14) *. Tiberius, stepson of Augustus, (14–37) *. Caligula, grandnephew of Tiberius (37–41) *. Claudius, uncle of Caligula (41–54) *. Nero, stepson of Claudius (54–68) *. Galba, proclaimed emperor by his soldiers (68–69) *. Otho, military commander (69) *. Vitellius, military commander (69) *. Vespasian, military commander (69–79) *. Titus, son of Vespasian (79–81) *. Domitian, son of Vespasian (81–96) *. Nerva, elected interim ruler (96-98) *. Trajan, adopted son of Nerva (98–117) *. Hadrian, ward of Trajan (117–138) *. Antoninus Pius, adopted by Hadrian (138–161) *. Marcus Aurelius, adopted by Antoninus Pius (161–180) *.Lucius Verus, adopted by Antoninus Pius; ruled jointly with Marcus Aurelius (161–169) *. Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius (180–192) *. Pertinax, proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard (193) *. Didius Julianus, bought office from the Praetorian Guard (193) *. Severus, proclaimed emperor (193–211) *. Caracalla, son of Severus (211–217) *.Geta, son of Severus, ruled jointly with Caracalla (211–212) *. Macrinus, proclaimed emperor by his soldiers (217–18) *. Heliogabalus, cousin of Caracalla (218–222) *. Alexander Severus, cousin of Heliogabalus (222–235) *. Maximin, proclaimed emperor by soldiers, (235–238) *. Gordian I, made emperor by the senate (238) *. Gordian II, son of Gordian I, ruled jointly with his father (238) *.Balbinus, elected joint emperor by the senate (238) *.Pupienus Maximus, elected joint emperor with Balbinus by the senate (238) *. Gordian III, son of Gordian II (238–244) *. Philip (the Arabian), assassin of Gordian III (244–249) *. Decius, proclaimed emperor by the soldiers (249–2251) *.Hostilianus, son of Decius, colleague of Gallus (251) *. Gallus, military commander (251–253) *.Aemilianus, military commander (253) *. Valerian, military commander (253–260) *. Gallienus, son of Valerian, coemperor with his father and later sole emperor (253–268) *. Claudius II, military commander (268–270) *. Aurelian, chosen by Claudius II as successor (270–275) *. Tacitus, chosen by the senate (275–276) *.Florianus, half brother of Tacitus (276) *. Probus, military commander (276–282) *. Carus, proclaimed by the Praetorian Guard (282–283) *. Carinus, son of Carus (283–285) *.Numerianus, son of Carus, joint emperor with Carinus (283–284) *. Diocletian, military commander, divided the empire; ruled jointly with Maximian and Constantius I 284–305) *. Maximian, appointed joint emperor by Diocletian (286–305) *. Constantius I, joint emperor and successor of Diocletian (305–306) *. Galerius, joint emperor with Constantius I (305–310) *. Maximin, nephew of Galerius (308–313) *. Licinius, appointed emperor in the West by Galerius; later emperor in the East (308–324) *. Maxentius, son of Maximian (306–312) *. Constantine I (the Great), son of Constantius I (306–337) *. Constantine II, son of Constantine I (337–340) *. Constans, son of Constantine I (337–350) *. Constantius II, son of Constantine I (337–361) *.Magnentius, usurped Constans' throne, (350–353) *. Julian (the Apostate), nephew of Constantine I (361–363) *. Jovian, elected by the army (363–364) *. Valentinian I, proclaimed by the army; ruled in the West (364–375) *. Valens, brother of Valentinian I; ruled in the East (364–378) *. Gratian, son of Valentinian I; coruler in the West with Valentinian II (375–383) *. Maximus, usurper in the West (383–388) *. Valentinian II, son of Valentinian I, ruler of the West (375–392) *.Eugenius, usurper in the West (393–394) *. Theodosius I (the Great), appointed ruler of the East (379–395) by Gratian; last ruler of united empire (394–395) Emperors in the East *. Arcadius, son of Theodosius I (395–408) *. Theodosius II, son of Arcadius, (408–450) *. Marcian, brother-in-law of Theodosius II (450–457) *. Leo I, chosen by the senate (457–474) *.Leo II, grandson of Leo I (474) *. Zeno(474–475) *. Basilicus(475–476) Emperors in the West *. Honorius, son of Theodosius (395–423) *.Maximus, usurper in Spain (409–411) *. Constantius III, named joint emperor by Honorius (421)

Ancient Persia: Kings *. Cambyses, two kings of the Achaemeniddynasty of Persia (c. 600–500B.C.) *. Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, founder of the greatness of the Achaemenidsand of the Persian Empire (c. 559–529B.C.) *. Darius I (Darius the Great), king of ancient Persia (521–486B.C.) *. Xerxes I (Xerxes the Great), king of ancient Persia (486–465B.C.) *. Artaxerxes I, king of ancient Persia (464–425B.C.), of the dynasty of the Achaemenis *. Xerxes II, king of ancient Persia (424B.C.) *. Darius II, king of ancient Persia (423?–404B.C.) *. Tissaphernes, Persian satrap of coastal Asia Minor (c.413–395B.C.) *. Artaxerxes II, king of ancient Persia (404–358B.C.) *. Mausolus, Persian satrap, ruler over Caria (c.376–353B.C.) *. Artaxerxes III, king of ancient Persia (358–338B.C.) *. Darius III (Darius Codomannus), king of ancient Persia (336–330B.C.) *. Tiridates, king of Parthia (c.248–211B.C.), second ruler of the Arsacid dynasty *. Shapur I, king of Persia (241–72) *. Shapur II, king of Persia (310–79), of the Sassanid, or Sassanian, dynasty *. Ardashir II, king of Persia (379–83), of the Sassanid, or Sassanian, dynasty *. Shapur III, king of Persia (383–88), of the Sassanid, or Sassanian, dynasty *. Khosrow I (Khosrow Anüshirvan), king of Persia (531–79) *. Khosrow II (Khosrow Parviz), king of Persia of the Sassanid, or Sassanian, dynasty (590–628)

Ancient Greece and Macedon: Rulers *. Draco, Athenian politician (c. 621B.C.) *. Solon, chief magistrate of Athens (594–546B.C.) *. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens (605?–527B.C.) *. Hippias, tyrant of Athens (527–510B.C.) *. Hipparchus, tyrant of Athens (c. 555–514B.C.) *. Themistocles, Athenian statesman (c. 525–462B.C.) *. Cimon, Athenian general and statesman (d. 449B.C.) *. Cleisthenes, democratic ruler of Athens (506B.C.) *. Pericles, Athenian statesman (c. 495-429B.C.) *. Cleon, Athenian statesman (d. 422B.C.) *. Alcibiades, Athenian statesman, (c. 450–404B.C.) *. Agesilaus II, king of Sparta (c. 444–360B.C.) *. Agis, name of four Spartan kings *. Philip II, king of Macedon and Greece (359–336B.C.) *. Alexander the Great, , king of Macedon and much of Asia, (356–323B.C.) *. Lysimachus, general of Alexander the Great, ruler of Thrace, west Asia Minor, and Macedonia, (c. 355–281B.C.) *. Cassander, king of Macedon (358–297B.C.) *. Demetrius I, king of Macedon (c. 337–283B.C.) *. Antigonus II, king of Macedon (c. 320-239B.C.) *. Demetrius II, king of Macedon (c. 239–229B.C.) *. Antigonus III, king of Macedon (d. 221B.C.) *. Cleomenes III, king of Sparta (235–221B.C.) *. Philip V, king of Macedon (221–179B.C.) *. Perseus, last king of Macedon (179–168B.C.)

Ancient Egypt: Rulers *. Amenemhet I, king of ancient Egypt, founder of the XII dynasty (2000–1970B.C.) *. Sesostris I, king of ancient Egypt, second ruler of the XII dynasty (1980–1926B.C.) *. Amasis I, king of ancient Egypt (c.1570–1545B.C.), founder of the XVIII dynasty *. Thutmose I, king of ancient Egypt (1525–1495B.C.), third ruler of the XVIII dynasty *. Hatshepsut, queen of ancient Egypt (1486–1468B.C.), of the XVIII dynasty *. Ikhnaton, king of ancient Egypt (c.1372–1354B.C.), of the XVIII dynasty *. Ramses, name of several kings of ancient Egypt of the XIX and XX dynasties *. Horemheb, king of ancient Egypt (c.1342–c.1303B.C.), founder of the XIX dynasty *. Seti I, king of ancient Egypt (1302–1290B.C.), of the XIX dynasty *. Merneptah, king of ancient Egypt (1224–1215B.C.), of the XIX dynasty *. Sheshonk I, king of ancient Egypt (950–924?B.C.), founder of the XXII (Libyan) dynasty *. Piankhi, king of ancient Nubia(c.741–c.715B.C.) *. Taharka, king of ancient Egypt (688–663B.C.), last ruler of the XXV dynasty *. Psamtik, king of ancient Egypt (661–609B.C.), founder of the XXVI dynasty *. Apries, king of ancient Egypt (588–569B.C.), of the XXVI dynasty *. Amasis II, king of ancient Egypt (569–525B.C.), of the XXVI dynasty *. Ptolemy I (Ptolemy Soter), king of ancient Egypt (323–284B.C.), the first ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (or Lagid dynasty) *. Ptolemy II (Ptolemy Philadelphus), king of ancient Egypt (285–246B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Berenice, queen of ancient Cyrene and Egypt (273–221B.C.) *. Ptolemy III (Ptolemy Euergetes), king of ancient Egypt (246–221B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy IV (Ptolemy Philopator), king of ancient Egypt (221–205B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy V (Ptolemy Epiphanes), king of ancient Egypt (205–180B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy VI (Ptolemy Philometor), king of ancient Egypt (180–145B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy VII (Ptolemy Physcon), king of ancient Egypt (145–116B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy VIII (Ptolemy Lathyrus), king of ancient Egypt (116–107B.C., 88–81B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy IX, king of ancient Egypt (107–88B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy X, king of ancient Egypt (80B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Cleopatra, queen of Egypt (69–30B.C.) *. Ptolemy XI (Ptolemy Auletes), king of ancient Egypt (80–58B.C., 55–51B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy XII, king of ancient Egypt (51–47B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy XIII, king of ancient Egypt (47–44B.C.), the last of the Macedonian dynasty

Pentagon History World's largest office building has distinctive past The world's largest office building, the Pentagon is synonymous with the Department of Defenseand a symbol of American military might. Exactly 60 years before the September 2001 attacks, on September 11, 1941, ground was broken in Arlington Country, Virginia, for a huge new building to house the War Department, forerunner of today's Department of Defense. The department was then operating from 17 separate buildings in Washington. Pearl Harbor Alters Plans At certain periods 13,000 people worked on the project. Originally, plans called for three floors, but as the military prepared for war after the attack on Pearl Harbor, two more floors were added. To conserve steel, concrete ramps were used in place of elevators and the outside walls were made of reinforced concrete. The Pentagon was built in "stripped classical" style, a variation of Greek and Roman classicism popular in the middle of the 20th century and often used for government buildings. On January 15, 1943, just 16 months after construction began, the Pentagon was completed. In April, occupants began moving in. Including outside facilities, the project cost about $83,000,000. Five Sides, Five Layers, Five Floors Since five roads surrounded the site, builders chose a five-sided building, which is how the Pentagon got its name. The building consists of five concentric rings connected by ten corridors that run, like spokes, from the inner ring to the outer. Interior courtyards that provide light separate the rings. The corridors are a total of 17.5 miles long, while the building provides a gross floor area of 6,500,000 square feet. There are 3,800,000 square feet for offices, concessions, and storage. The five-sided center courtyard covers five acres. A shopping concourse, numerous snack bars, cafeterias, dining rooms, banks, a subway station, and a bus platform make the Pentagon "a city within a city." Massive Dimensions The structure is supported by 41,492 concrete piles. There are five floors, plus mezzanines and basements. The building itself is 77 feet, 3.5 inches high. Each outside wall is 921 feet long. More than seven acres of glass went into the 7,754 windows in the Pentagon. There are 16,250 light fixtures, with some 250 bulb replacements made each day. There are 7,000 electric clock outlets, 691 drinking fountains, 131 stairways, 19 escalators, 13 elevators, 672 firehouse cabinets, and 284 rest rooms. The Pentagon site covers a total of 583 acres, while the building itself sits on 29 acres. The Pentagon's sewage treatment plant and the heating and refrigeration unit each cover one acre. The parking lot is 67 acres and has spaces for 8,770 vehicles. Miles of Cables Thirty miles of access highway and 21 bridges and overpasses were built to connect the complex to nearby roads. Some 100,000 miles of telephone cable handle the 200,000 phone calls made at the Pentagon each day. The Defense Post Office handles 1,200,000 pieces of mail each month. At its peak during World War II, 33,000 people worked in the Pentagon. A Historic Landmark In 1992, the Pentagon became a national historic landmark. Architects noted the building's unusual shape, facades, courtyard, two terraces, and its history as significant characteristics. September 11 Attack In 1990, a major renovation plan was approved, calling for the building to be gutted, asbestos removed, and new plumbing, wiring, and other features installed in compliance with current building codes. The plane that crashed into the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, hit a section that had recently been renovated and was still only partially occupied. Authorities say the death toll of 189 would have likely been much higher if the area had been fully occupied. The crash caused a gash on the west side of the Pentagon measuring 30 yards wide and 10 yards deep; 185,693 square feet were damaged and 37,161 square feet were destroyed. Three of the five Pentagon rings were damaged. It cost $501 million to repair the building; repairs were finished within a year of the attack.

Arlington National Cemetery Arlington National Cemetery occupies 612 acres in Virginiaon the Potomac River, directly opposite Washington. This land was part of the estate of John Parke Custis, Martha Washington'sson. His son, George Washington Parke Custis, built the mansion which later became the home of Robert E. Lee. In 1864, Arlington became a military cemetery. More than 240,000 service members and their dependents are buried there. Expansion of the cemetery began in 1966, using a 180-acre tract of land directly east of the present site. Among the many famous and distinguished people buried in the cemetery are presidents William Howard Taftand John F. Kennedy; a number of supreme court justices, including Chief Justice Earl Warren, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.,and Thurgood Marshall; explorers Robert Pearyand Matthew Henson; civil rights leader Medgar Evers; band leader Glenn Miller; and mystery writer Dashiell Hammett. There are also 3,800 Civil War “contrabands” (fugitive and liberated slaves) buried there, their headstones engraved only with “Civilian” or “Citizen.” In 1921, an Unknown American Soldierof World War I was buried in the cemetery; the monument at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier was opened to the public without ceremony in 1932. Two additional Unknowns, one from World War II and one from the Korean War, were buried May 30, 1958. The Unknown Serviceman of Vietnam was buried on May 28, 1984. In June 1998 his body was disinterred and recent DNA-testing technology was used to identify him as First Lt. Michael Blassie, an Air Force pilot from St. Louis. It is possible that technology will prevent there from ever being another “unknown” buried in the tomb. The inscription carved on the Tomb of the Unknowns reads: HERE RESTS IN HONORED GLORY AN AMERICAN SOLDIER KNOWN BUT TO GOD

Mount Rushmore Mount Rushmore(6,000 ft), in South Dakota, became a celebrated American landmark after sculptor Gutzon Borglumtook on the project of carving into the side of it the heads of four great presidents. From 1927 until his death in 1941, Borglum worked on chiseling the 60-foot likenesses of Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt. His son, Lincoln, finished the sculpture later that year.

The Supreme Court Building Source:U.S. Supreme Court. Web: www.supremecourtus .gov. Despite its role as a coequal branch of government, the Supreme Court was not provided with a building of its own until 1935, the 146th year of its existence. Initially, the Court met in the Merchants Exchange Building in New York City. When the national capital moved to Philadelphiain 1790, the Court moved with it, establishing Chambers first in Independence Halland later in the City Hall. When the Federal Government moved, in 1800, to the permanent capital in Washington, D.C., Congress lent the Court space in the new Capitol Building. The Court was to change its meeting place a half dozen times within the Capitol. Additionally, the Court convened for a short period in a private house after the British set fire to the Capitol during the War of 1812. Following this episode, the Court returned to the Capitol and met from 1819 to 1860 in a chamber now restored as the “Old Supreme Court Chamber.” Then from 1860 until 1935, the Court sat in what is now known as the “Old Senate Chamber.” Finally in 1929, Chief Justice William Howard Taft, who had been president of the United States from 1909 to 1913, persuaded Congress to end this arrangement and authorize the construction of a permanent home for the Court. Architect Cass Gilbertwas charged by Chief Justice Taft to design “a building of dignity and importance suitable for its use as the permanent home of the Supreme Court of the United States.” Neither Taft nor Gilbert survived to see the Supreme Court Building completed. The construction, begun in 1932, was completed in 1935, when the Court was finally able to occupy its own building.

The Liberty Bell The Liberty Bell was cast in England in 1752 for the Pennsylvania Statehouse (now named Independence Hall) in Philadelphia. It was recast in Philadelphiain 1753. It is inscribed with the words, “Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof” (Lev. 25:10). The bell was rung on July 8, 1776, for the first public reading of the Declaration of Independence. Hidden in Allentown during the British occupation of Philadelphia, it was re-placed in Independence Hall in 1778. The bell cracked on July 8, 1835, while tolling the death of Chief Justice John Marshall. In 1976 the Liberty Bell was moved to a special exhibition building near Independence Hall.

Washington Monument Construction of this magnificent Washington, DC, monument took nearly a century of planning, building, and controversy. Provision for a large equestrian statue of George Washingtonwas made in the original city plan, but the project was soon dropped. After Washington's death it was taken up again, and a number of false starts and changes of design were made. Finally, in 1848, work was begun on the monument that stands today. The design, by architect Robert Mills, then featured an ornate base. In 1854, however, political squabbling and a lack of money brought construction to a halt. Work was resumed in 1880, and the monument was completed in 1884 and opened to the public in 1888. The tapered shaft, faced with white marble and rising from walls 15 ft (4.6 m) thick at the base, was modeled after the obelisksof ancient Egypt. The monument, one of the tallest masonry constructions in the world, stands just over 555 ft (169 m). Memorial stones from the 50 states, foreign countries, and organizations line the interior walls. The top, reached only by elevator, commands a panoramic view of the city.

The White House: The White House, the official residence of the president, is at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC 20500. The site, covering about 18 acres, was selected by President Washington and city planner Pierre Charles L'Enfant, and the architect was James Hoban. The design appears to have been influenced by Leinster House, Dublin, and James Gibb'sBook of Architecture.The cornerstone was laid Oct. 13, 1792, and the first residents were President John Adamsand First Lady Abigail Adamsin Nov. 1800. The White House has a fascinating history. The main building was burned by the British in 1814 during the War of 1812. Afterward, when the building was being restored, the smoke-stained gray stone walls were painted white. The name “White House,” however, was not used officially until President Theodore Roosevelthad it engraved on his stationery in 1901. Prior to that, the building was known variously as the “President's Palace,” the “President's House,” and the “Executive Mansion.” Over the years, there have been several additions made to the main building, including the west wing (1902), the east wing (1942), and a penthouse and a bomb shelter (1952). The west wing, which contains the president's oval office and the offices of his staff, is the center of activity at the White House. During Harry Truman'spresidency, from Dec. 1948 to March 1952, the interior of the White House was rebuilt, and the outer walls were strengthened. Nevertheless, the exterior stone walls are the same ones that were first put in place when the White House was constructed two centuries ago. The rooms for public functions are on the first floor; the second and third floors are used as the residence of the president and first family. The most celebrated public room is the East Room, where formal receptions take place. Other public rooms are the Red Room, the Green Room, and the Blue Room. The State Dining Room is used for formal dinners. In all, there are 132 rooms, 35 bathrooms, 28 fireplaces, 8 staircases, and 3 elevators. Source:Department of the Interior, U.S. National Park Service

U.S. Capitol: When the French architect and engineer Maj. Pierre Charles L'Enfantfirst began to lay out the plans for a new federal city (now Washington, DC), he noted that Jenkins' Hill, overlooking the area, seemed to be “a pedestal waiting for a monument.” It was here that the U.S. Capitol would be built. The basic structure as we know it today evolved over a period of more than 150 years. In 1792 a competition was held for the design of a capitol building. Dr. William Thornton, a physician and amateur architect, submitted the winning plan, a simple, low-lying structure of classical proportions with a shallow dome. Later, internal modifications were made by Benjamin Henry Latrobe. After the building was burned by the British in 1814, Latrobe and architect Charles Bulfinchwere responsible for its reconstruction. Finally, under Thomas Walter, who was Architect of the Capitol from 1851 to 1865, the House and Senate wings and the imposing cast-iron dome topped with the Statue of Freedom were added, and the Capitol assumed the form we see today. The Capitol building is rich in historic associations. It was in the old Senate chamber that Daniel Webstercried out, “Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable!” In Statuary Hall, which used to be the old House chamber, a small disk on the floor marks the spot where John Quincy Adamswas fatally stricken after more than 50 years of service to his country. A whisper from one side of this room can be heard across the vast space of the hall. Visitors can see the original Supreme Courtchamber a floor below the Rotunda. The Capitol Building is also a vast artistic treasure house. The works of such famous artists as Gilbert Stuart, Rembrandt Peale, and John Trumbullare displayed on the walls. The Great Rotunda, with its 180-foot- (54.9-meter-) high dome, is decorated with a fresco by Constantino Brumidi, which extends some 300 ft (90 m) in circumference. Throughout the building are many paintings of events in U.S. history and sculptures of outstanding Americans.The 68-acre (27.5-hectare) park that the Capitol is situated on was designed by the 19th-century landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. There are free guided tours of the Capitol, which include admission to the House and Senate galleries. Those who wish to visit the visitors' gallery in either wing without taking the tour may obtain passes from their senators or representatives. Visitors may ride on the monorail subway that joins the House and Senate wings of the Capitol with the congressional office buildings.

U.S. Historical Monuments: The Statue of Liberty: The Statue of Liberty (“Liberty Enlightening the World”) is a 225-ton, steel-reinforced copper female figure, 151 ft 1 in. (46.05 m) in height, facing the ocean from Liberty Island1in New York Harbor. The right hand holds aloft a torch, and the left hand carries a tablet upon which is inscribed: “July IV MDCCLXXVI.” The statue was designed by Fredéric Auguste Bartholdiof Alsace as a gift to the United States from the people of Franceto memorialize the alliance of the two countries in the American Revolutionand their abiding friendship. The French people contributed the $250,000 cost. The 150-foot pedestal was designed by Richard M. Huntand built by Gen. Charles P. Stone, both Americans. It contains steel underpinnings designed by Alexander Eiffelof France to support the statue. The $270,000 cost was borne by popular subscription in this country. President Grover Clevelandaccepted the statue for the United States on Oct. 28, 1886. The Statue of Liberty was designated a National Monument in 1924 and a World Heritage Site in 1984. On Sept. 26, 1972, President Richard M. Nixondedicated the American Museum of Immigration, housed in structural additions to the base of the statue. In 1984 scaffolding went up for a major restoration and the torch was extinguished on July 4. It was relit with much ceremony July 4, 1986, to mark its centennial. On a tablet inside the pedestal is engraved the following sonnet, written by Emma Lazarus(1849–1887): The New ColossusNot like the brazen giant of Greek fame. With conquering limbs astride from land to land; Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name Mother of Exiles. From her beacon-hand Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame. “Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!” cries she With silent lips. “Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door!” 1. Called Bedloe's Island prior to 1956.

Seven New Wonders The original Seven Wonders of the Ancient World is a list that has no doubt long frustrated intrepid travelers. Six of the seven structures on the list haven't existed for centuries, and must be forever imagined, never seen. (And one of the seven, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, may never have existed at all, according to some historians.) Herodotus is believed to have started the original list, way back in the 5th century B.C., so it's no surprise that the architectural marvels he praised were not around for modern man to admire. But as of 7/7/07 travelers should take note: a new list is out, one that's modern in both origin and scope, and each of the structures on it can be viewed in person. 100 Million Votes The new Seven Wonders of the World was compiled by popular vote over a six year period by a nonprofit group headed by Swiss adventurer Bernard Weber. In 1999 Weber began collecting suggestions from Internet users around the world. A list of over 200 nominations was narrowed down to 70, and then to 21, and finally to 7. The group reported more than 100 million votes, received via the Internet and cell phone messages, which, if true, makes this the largest poll ever conducted. Not everyone has welcomed the list with open arms. Egyptian officials were not pleased that the Pyramids of Giza, the only original wonder that still exists, had to compete in the contest. Eventually the organizers decided to remove it from the voting and make it an honorary choice (making it a list of eight). And the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) did not support the contest, pointing out that the results reflected only the opinions of the cyber voters. But for Warner and other organizers, the contest was a way to celebrate cultural diversity and history, and to encourage travel and communication. Half of the money raised during the contest will be used to fund the preservation and restoration of monuments around the world, including a giant Buddha statue destroyed by the Taliban in 2000 in Afghanistan. The new list: The Great Wall of China This 4,160-mile wall was built to protect China from invading Huns, Mongols, and other tribes, and to unite fortifications into one defense system. Begun in the 7thcentury B.C., the barricade took hundreds of years to build, and ranks as the world's longest man-made structure-and is apparently the only one visible from space. Petra Jordan This ancient capital city was built around 9 B.C. during the reign of King Aretas IV and continued to flourish during the Roman Empire. It is now visible in its pink stone ruins and carved façade. Christ Redeemer Statue Brazil Standing 125 feet tall atop the Corcovado Mountain high above Rio, this statue took five years to build. Constructed in France by sculptor Paul Landowski, it was shipped to Brazil in pieces, and then carried up the mountain by train, where it was reassembled. Machu Picchu Peru This "city in the clouds" was built 8,000 feet above sea level in the 15thcentury by Incan emperor Pachacutec. Abandoned by the Incas, the city remained unknown until it was rediscovered by an explorer in 1911. Pyramid at Chichen Itza Mexico The center of Mayan civilization in its day, Chichen Itza is still visible in several structures, including the pyramid of Kukulkan. Roman Colosseum Italy This giant, 50,000 seat amphitheater in the center of Rome was built over 2,000 years ago, and still influences the design of sports stadiums worldwide. Taj Mahal India Built in 1630 by a grieving emperor, Shah Jahan, in honor of his dead wife, this white marble structure combines Indian, Persian, and Islamic style of architecture.

World Trade Center History (part 2 of 2): Rebuilding Plans In 2002, separate design contests were held for rebuilding the World Trade Center site and creating a memorial for the victims of the attacks. The first round of finalists for the site, unveiled in July 2002, were widely criticized as being too boring and having too much of an emphasis on office space, leading to a new round of finalists in December. In February 2003, the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation, which was established by Governor Pataki to coordinate the various agencies and advisory committees involved in the rebuilding efforts, chose architect Daniel Libeskind's design for rebuilding the 16-acre site of the former World Trade Center. The design included a hanging garden, a memorial, a cultural center, and Freedom Tower, which would be a symbolic 1,776 feet tall from the ground to the top of its spire. This would make it taller than any building currently standing in the world. (The Burj Dubai skyscraper currently under construction in the United Arab Emirates is expected to be higher, however.) In July 2003, David Childs was brought in as the new lead architect of Freedom Tower, although Libeskind remained in charge of designing the site in general. The two had different visions for the tower; a design combining the approaches of both architects was unveiled in December 2003. It would include wind turbines in its spire, designed to generate as much as 20% of the building's power. On July 4, 2004, New York Governor Pataki, New Jersey Governor McGreevey, and New York City Mayor Bloomberg laid the cornerstone for Freedom Tower. The skyscraper, estimated to cost $1.5 billion, was expected to be ready for its first occupants by late 2008, while construction on the site in general was expected to last through 2015. Just as construction was beginning, security concerns were raised, leading to a complete redesign of the tower. The new plans were released on June 29, 2005. The tower is to be moved further back from the street, and will have a cubic base the same size as each of the Twin Towers. The wind turbines have been eliminated. The design recalls that of the old buildings, while adding its own twists: starting with the square base, the tower's design moves to triangular forms, creating an octagon in the middle, and culminates in a square at the top, rotated 45 degrees from the base. A spire will rise a bit more than 400 feet beyond that, to retain the planned total height of 1,776 feet. Work on excavating the foundation finally got underway in late April 2006. Refined plans were announced in June 2006, calling for glass prisms around a concrete base, to liven up the area while meeting security requirements. The tower is now planned to cost $2 billion, and be ready for occupants in 2011. Design for World Trade Center Memorial Selected The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation announced in January 2004 that architects Michael Arad and Peter Walker had won a competition to design the memorial to the people who died at the World Trade Center. There had been more than 5,000 entries in the competition. The memorial, Reflecting Absence, would honor those who died at the World Trade Center in terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, and February 26, 1993. In the 1993 tragedy, a truck bomb exploded in a garage in the north tower, killing six people and injuring more than a thousand. Reflecting Absence, which will be built where the Twin Towers once stood, includes two shallow pools surrounded by leafy trees. The names of the victims would be etched in walls around the pools. “In its powerful, yet simple articulation of the footprints of the Twin Towers, Reflecting Absence has made the gaping voids left by the towers' destruction the primary symbol of loss,” said Vartan Gregorian, who chaired the jury that chose the winner. The memorial plans were redesigned in June 2006 due to security concerns, budgetary issues, and input from the victims' families. The central features—including the two pools, fed by waterfalls—will be retained. The names of those killed would be moved to the surrounding plaza, above ground. Construction will begin in 2006, and the memorial is scheduled to open on Sept. 11, 2009. Twin Towers Stats —200,000 tons of steel —425,000 cubic yards of concrete —43,600 windows —12,000 miles of electric cables —198 miles of heating ducts —23,000 fluorescent light bulbs Each Tower —110 floors —208 ft by 208 ft at base —1,368 ft high (north tower) —1,362 ft high (south tower) —Weighed 500,000 tons —97 elevators for passengers, 6 for freight

World Trade Center History (part 1 of 2): The twin towers of the World Trade Center were more than just buildings. They were proof of New York's belief in itself. Built at a time when New York's future seemed uncertain, the towers restored confidence and helped bring a halt to the decline of lower Manhattan. Brash, glitzy, and grand, they quickly became symbols of New York. Rockefeller Brainchild The World Trade Center was conceived in the early 1960s by the Downtown-Lower Manhattan Development Association to revitalize the seedy “radio row” dominated by electronic stores. Chase Manhattan Bank chairman David Rockefeller, founder of the development association, and his brother, New York governor Nelson Rockefeller, pushed hard for the project, insisting it would benefit the entire city. In 1962, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey began plans to build the center. Minoru Yamasaki and Associates of Michigan was hired as architect. Eventually, Yamasaki decided on two huge towers. Critics charged that a modern monolith would rob New York of character, ruin the skyline, disrupt television reception, and strain city services. However, the project was approved and construction began in 1966. In order to create the 16-acre World Trade Center site, five streets were closed off and 164 buildings were demolished. Construction required the excavation of more than 1.2 million cubic yards of earth, which was used to create 23.5 acres of land along the Hudson River in lower Manhattan. During peak construction periods, 3,500 people worked at the site. A total of 10,000 people worked on the towers; 60 died during its construction. Instant Landmarks The north tower was opened in Dec. 1970 and the south tower in Jan. 1972; they were dedicated in April 1973. They were the world's tallest buildings for only a short time, since the Sears Tower in Chicago was completed in May 1973. However, the towers were ranked as the fifth and sixth tallest buildings in the world at the time of their destruction on Sept. 11, 2001. Four smaller buildings and a hotel, all built nearby around a central landscaped plaza, completed the complex. The mall at the World Trade Center, which was located immediately below the plaza, was the largest shopping mall in lower Manhattan. The six basements housed two subway stations and a stop on the PATH trains to New Jersey. Some 50,000 people worked in the buildings, while another 200,000 visited or passed through each day. The top floor observation deck had 26,000 visitors daily, who could see for 45 mi on a clear day. From the ground, the towers were visible for at least 20 mi. The complex had its own zip code, 10048. Previous Bombing In 1993 terrorists drove a truck packed with 1,100 lbs of explosives into the basement parking garage at the World Trade Center. Despite the size of the blast—it left a crater 22 ft wide and five stories deep—only six people were killed and 1,000 injured. The towers were repaired, cleaned, and reopened in less than a month. September 11, 2001 On the morning of September 11, 2001, terrorists from al-Qaeda hijacked four planes. Two were Boston-to-Los Angeles flights, which the hijackers diverted to New York City. At 8:45 a.m., American Airlines Flight 11 was flown into the north tower of the World Trade Center. Eighteen minutes later, United Airlines Flight 175 was flown into the south tower. Each plane was loaded with sufficient jet fuel for its intended cross-country trip, which ignited upon impact, creating intense fireballs in both towers and weakening the structural integrity of each. At 9:50 a.m., the affected floors of the south tower gave way; the upper floors collapsed onto the lower ones, destroying the tower and crushing everyone who was still inside it. At 10:29 a.m., the same happened to the north tower. 2,824 people were killed in the attacks, including hundreds of firefighters and other rescue workers. (Of the other two hijacked planes, one was crashed into the Pentagon; the other crashed southeast of Pittsburgh, apparently as a result of its passengers fighting the hijackers. There were no survivors.)

World's Tallest Skyscrapers: A Brief History The Empire State Building, built in 1931, was the world's tallest skyscraper for 41 years until it was surpassed in 1972 by the World Trade Center (1,368 ft, 110 stories). Two years later, the Sears Tower in Chicago (1,450 ft, 110 stories) superseded it. And 24 years after that, in 1998, the record went to the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (1,483 ft, 88 stories). Taipei 101 in Taiwan was the tallest from 2004 to 2010, topping out at 1,670 ft and 101 stories. Burj Khalifa, in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, was completed in January 2010 and became the world's tallest building at 2,716 feet (828 meters) and 160 stories.

Top Ten Tallest Completed Building Projects, 2008. This table provides information about completed buildings in 2008 that are fully clad and either "open for business" or at least partially occupied.. Building name/locationHeight (m/ft)StoriesUse 1. Shanghai World Financial Center, Shanghai492 m /1,614 ft101Office/Hotel 2. Minsheng Bank Building, Wuhan331 m /1,087 ft68Office 3. The Address Downtown, Burj Dubai306 m /1,004 ft63Hotel 4. One Island East, Hong Kong298 m /979 ft69Office 5. Comcast Center, Philadelphia297 m /974 ft57Office 6. Landmark Tower, Yokohama296 m /972 ft73Office/Hotel 7. The Cullinan I, Hong Kong270 m /886 ft68Residential 8. The Cullinan II, Hong Kong270 m /886 ft68Hotel/Residential 9. Al Kazim Tower 1, Dubai265 m /869 ft53Residential 10. Al Kazim Tower 2, Dubai265 m /869 ft53Residential NOTE: Height is measured from sidewalk level of the main entrance to the structural top of the building including spire, but not including communications antennas or flagpoles. Source:Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. Web: www.ctbuh.org.

World's Tallest Buildings1 The following table lists the tallest buildings in the world by height. The Burj Khalifa, completed in January 2010, tops the list. NOTE: This list includes only buildings.2For towers,see World's Tallest Towers.See also Skyscraper History, Skyscraper Facts, and America's Favorite Structures. Building, cityYearStoriesHeight Rankmft 1.Burj Khalifa (formerly Burj Dubai), Dubai, The United Arab Emirates20101608282,716 2. Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan20041015081,667 3.World Financial Center, Shanghai, China20081014921,614 4. Petronas Tower1, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia1998884521,483 5.Petronas Tower 2, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia1998884521,483 6.Greenland Financial Center, Nanjing, China2009664501,476 7. Sears Tower, Chicago19741104421,451 8.Guangzhou West Tower, Guangzhou, China20091034381,435 9.Jin Mao Building, Shanghai, China1999884211,381 10.Two International Finance Centre, Hong Kong2003884151,362 11.Trump International Hotel, Chicago, U.S.2009964151,362 12.CITIC Plaza, Guangzhou, China1996803911,283 13.Shun Hing Square, Shenzhen, China1996693841,260 14. Empire State Building, New York19311023811,250 15.Central Plaza, Hong Kong1992783741,227 16.Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong1989703671,205 17.Bank of America Tower, New York City, U.S.2009543661,200 18.Almas Tower, Dubai, United Arab Emirates2009683631,191 19.Emirates Tower One, Dubai, United Arab Emirates1999543551,165 20.Tuntex Sky Tower, Kaohsiung, Taiwan1997853481,140 21.Aon Centre, Chicago1973803461,136 22.The Center, Hong Kong1998733461,135 23.John Hancock Center, Chicago19691003441,127 24.Rose Tower, Dubai2007723331,093 25.Shimao International Plaza, Shanghai2006603331,093 26.Minsheng Bank Building, Wuhan, China2007683311,087 27.Ryugyong Hotel, Pyongyang, N. Korea19951053301,083 28.China World Trade Center, Beijing, China2009743301,083 29.The Index, Dubai, United Arab Emirates2009803281,076 30.Q1, Gold Coast, Australia2005783231,058 31.Burj al Arab Hotel, Dubai1999603211,053 32. Chrysler Building, New York1930773191,046 33.Nina Tower I, Hong Kong2006803191,046 34.New York Times Building, New York2007523191,046 35.Bank of America Plaza, Atlanta1993553171,039 36.U.S. Bank Tower, Los Angeles1990733101,018 37.Menara Telekom Headquarters, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia1999553101,017 38.Emirates Tower Two, Dubai2000563091,014 39.AT&T Corporate Center, Chicago1989603071,007 40.The Address Downtown Burj Dubai, Dubai, U.A.E.2008633061,004 41.JP Morgan Chase Tower, Houston1982753051,002 42.Baiyoke Tower II, Bangkok199785304997 43.Two Prudential Plaza, Chicago199064303995 44.Wells Fargo Plaza, Houston198371302992 45.Kingdom Centre, Riyadh200241302992 46.Aspire Tower, Doha200636300984 47.Arraya 2, Kuwait City, Kuwait200956300984 48.One Island East Centre, Hong Kong, China200869298979 49.First Bank Tower, Toronto197572298978 50.Shanghai Wheelock Square, Shanghai, China200958298978 51.Eureka Tower, Melbourne200691297975 52.Comcast Center, Philadelphia, U.S.200857297975 53.Landmark Tower, Yokohama, Japan199373296971 54.Emirates Crown, Dubai, U.A.E200863296971 55.311 South Wacker Drive, Chicago199065293961 56.SEG Plaza, Shenzhen, China200071292957 57.American International Building, New York193267290952 58.Key Tower, Cleveland199157289947 59.Plaza 66, Shanghai200166288945 60.One Liberty Place, Philadelphia198761288945 61.Columbia Center, Seattle, U.S.198576285937 62.Millennium Tower, Dubai200659285935 63.Sunjoy Tomorrow Square, Shanghai200355285934 64.Chongqing World Trade Center, Chongqing, China200560283929 65.Cheung Kong Center, Hong Kong199963283929 66.The Trump Building, New York193071283927 67.Bank of America Plaza, Dallas198572281921 68.United Overseas Bank Plaza, Singapore199266280919 69.Republic Plaza, Singapore199566280919 70.Overseas Union Bank Centre, Singapore198663280919 71.Citigroup Center, New York197759279915 72.Hong Kong New World Tower, Shanghai200261278913 73.Diwang International Commerce Center, Nanning, China200654276906 74.Scotia Plaza, Toronto198968275902 75.Williams Tower, Houston198364275901 76.Moscow, Moscow200973274900 77.Wuhan World Trade Tower, Wuhan, China199860273896 78.Cullinan North Tower, Hong Kong200768270886 79.Cullinan South Tower, Hong Kong200768270886 80.Renaissance Tower, Dallas197556270886 81.China International Center Tower B, Guangzhou, China200762270884 82.Dapeng International Plaza, Guangzhou, China200656269883 83.One Luijiazui, Shanghai, China200847269883 84.21st Century Tower, Dubai200355269883 85.Naberezhnaya Tower C, Moscow200761268881 86.Al Faisaliah Center, Riyadh200030267876 87.900 North Michigan Ave., Chicago198966265871 88.

Famous Buildings and Structures Prehistorical and Ancient (part 2 of 2): Peter(England; 1220–1472);Milan Cathedral(Italy; begun in 1386); andCologne Cathedral(Germany; 13th–19th centuries; damaged in World War II but completely restored). The Duomo(cathedral) in Florence, with its pink, white, and green marble façade, has become a symbol of the city and the Renaissance. Construction began in 1296 and was completed nearly 200 years later, with the addition of Brunelleschi's massive dome. The adjacent baptistery is famous for its gilded bronze doors by Ghiberti. The Vaticanis a group of buildings in Rome comprising the official residence of the pope. TheBasilica of St. Peter,the largest church in the Christian world, was begun in 1452, and it was rebuilt between 1506 and 1626. TheSistine Chapel,begun in 1473, is noted for frescoes by Michelangelo. Other examples of Renaissance architecture are thePalazzo Riccardi,thePalazzo Pitti,and thePalazzo Strozziin Florence; thePalazzo Farnesein Rome; thePalazzo Grimani(completed c. 1550) in Venice; theEscorial(1563–93) near Madrid; theTown Hallof Seville (1527–32); theLouvre,Paris; theChâteauat Blois, France;St. Paul's Cathedral,London (1675–1710; badly damaged in World War II); theÉcole Militaire,Paris (1752); thePazzi Chapel,Florence, designed by Brunelleschi (1429); and thePalace of Fontainebleauand theChâteau de Chambordin France. The Palace of Versaillesin France, containing the famous Hall of Mirrors, was built during the reign of Louis XIV in the 17th century and served as the royal palace until 1793. Built on the colossal scale typical of many works of baroque architecture, the palace is also noted for its gardens, which include some 1,400 fountains. Outstanding European buildings of the 18th and 19th centuries are theSupergaat Turin (Italy); theHôtel-Dieuin Lyons; theBelvedere Palaceat Vienna; theRoyal Palaceof Stockholm; theBank of England,theBritish Museum,theUniversity of London,and theHouses of Parliament,all in London; and thePanthéon,theChurch of the Madeleine,theBourse,thePalais de Justice, and theOpera House,all in Paris. The Eiffel Tower,in Paris, was built for the Exposition of 1889 by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel. It is 984 ft high (1,056 ft including the television tower). TheGuggenheim Bilbao Museum(1993–97) in Bilbao, Spain, was designed by Frank Gehry. The undulating form of this riverfront building, clad in glass and gleaming sheets of titanium, has been compared to a fish, a boat, and water itself. See also: Architects World's Tallest Buildings Seven Wonders of the World Asian, African, and South American The Taj Mahal(1632–1650), at Agra, India, built by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife, is considered by some as the most perfect example of the Mogul style and by others as the most beautiful building in the world. Four slim white minarets flank the building, which is topped by a white dome; the entire structure is made of marble. Another well-known Muslim edifice is theCitadel,located on an outcrop of limestone overlooking Cairo. Begun in 810, it was fortified (1176–1183) by Saladin during the Crusades. Petra,in Jordan, is an ancient city whose buildings have been carved out of the surrounding hills. It was the capital of the Nabataeans in the 4th centuryB.C.The most famous of its buildings is Al Khazneh, a temple or treasury, with its impressive two-story facade jutting out from a pink rock. Other famed Muslim edifices are theTombs of the Mamelukes(15th century) in Cairo, theTomb of Humayunin Delhi, theBlue Mosque(1468) at Tabriz, and theTamerlane Mausoleumat Samarkand. Angkor Wat,outside the city of Angkor Thom, Cambodia, is one of the most beautiful examples of Cambodian, or Khmer, architecture. The sanctuary was built during the 12th century. The 8th-century Borobudur Templeon Java is a masterpiece of Indonesian Buddhist art and architecture. Its ascending terraces feature bas-relief sculptures and 72 Buddha statues. The Great Wall of China(begun c. 214B.C.), designed specifically as a defense against nomadic tribes, has large watchtowers that could be called buildings. It was erected by Emperor Ch'in Shih Huang Ti and is 1,400 mi long. Built mainly of earth and stone, it varies in height between 18 and 30 ft. The Forbidden City(1407–1420) in Beijing served as the seat of imperial power during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911). It is the world's largest palace complex, covering about 183 acres and including 9,999 buildings. Typical of Chinese architecture are the pagodas, or temple towers. Among some of the better-known pagodas are theGreat Pagoda of the Wild Geeseat Sian (founded in 652) andNan t'a(11th century) at Fang Shan.

Famous Buildings and Structures (part 1 of 2): Prehistorical and Ancient The megalithic passage tomb atNewgrangein Ireland covers over an acre and was constructed around 3200B.C.Buried for centuries, the mound was rediscovered in 1699 and was restored starting in 1962. The tomb is extensively decorated with spiral and lozenge shapes. At the winter solstice, the rising sun shines down a long passage and lights up a cross-shaped chamber. Stonehenge,a massive circular megalithic monument on the Salisbury Plain in southern England, is the most famous of all prehistoric structures. Thought to have been built c. 2000B.C.,it may have been used as an astronomical instrument to measure solar and lunar movements. The Great Sphinxof Egypt, one of the wonders of ancient Egyptian architecture, adjoins thepyramids of Gizaand has a length of 240 ft. Built in the fourth dynasty, it is approximately 4,500 years old. A 10-year, $2.5 million restoration project was completed in 1998. Other Egyptian buildings of note include theTemples of Karnak,Edfu,andAbu Simbeland theTombs at Beni Hassan. The Parthenonof Greece, built on the Acropolisin Athens, was the chief temple to the goddess Athena. It was believed to have been completed by 438B.C.The present temple remained intact until the 5th centuryA.D.Today, though the Parthenonis in ruins, its majestic proportions are still discernible. Other great structures of the ancient Greek world were theTemples at Paestum(c. 540 and 420B.C.); the famous Erechtheum(c. 421–405B.C.), theTemple of Athena Nike(c. 426B.C.), and theOlympieum(begun in the 6th centuryB.C.) in Athens; theAthenian Treasuryat Delphi (c. 515B.C.); and theTheater at Epidaurus(c. 325B.C.). The Colosseum(Flavian Amphitheater) of Rome, the largest and most famous of the Roman amphitheaters, was opened for useA.D.80. Elliptical in shape, it consisted of three stories and an upper gallery, rebuilt in stone in its present form in the 3rd centuryA.D.It was principally used for gladiatorial combat and could seat between 40,000 and 50,000 spectators. The Pantheonat Rome, begun by Agrippa in 27B.C.as a temple, was rebuilt in its present circular form by Hadrian (A.D.118–128). Literally the Pantheonwas intended as a temple of “all the gods.” It is remarkable for its perfect preservation today, and has served continuously for 20 centuries as a place of worship. Famous Roman triumphal arches, built to commemorate major military victories, include theArch of Titus(c.A.D.80) and theArch of Constantine(c.A.D.315). Later European St. Mark's Cathedralin Venice (1063–1071), one of the great examples of Byzantine architecture, was begun in the 9th century. Partly destroyed by fire in 976, it was later rebuilt as a Byzantine edifice. Other famous examples of Byzantine architecture areSt. Sophiain Istanbul (532–537);San Vitalein Ravenna (542); andAssumption Cathedralin the Kremlin, Moscow (begun in 1475). The cathedral group at Pisa (1067–1173), one of the most celebrated groups of structures built in Romanesque style, consists of the cathedral, the cathedral's baptistery, and the campanile ( Leaning Tower). The campanile, a form of bell tower, is 180 ft high and now leans 13.5 ft out of the perpendicular. Other examples of Romanesque architecture include theVézelay Abbeyin France (1130) andDurham Cathedralin England. TheAlhambra(1248–1354), located in Granada, Spain, is universally esteemed as one of the greatest masterpieces of Muslim architecture. Designed as a palace and fortress for the Moorish monarchs of Granada, it is surrounded by a heavily fortified wall more than a mile in perimeter. The Tower of Londonis a group of buildings and towers covering 13 acres along the north bank of the Thames. The centralWhite Tower,begun in 1078 during the reign of William the Conqueror, was originally a fortress and royal residence, but was later used as a prison. TheBloody Toweris associated with Anne Boleyn and other notables. Westminster Abbey,in London, was begun in 1050 and completed in 1065. It was rebuilt and enlarged in several phases, beginning in 1245. With only two exceptions (Edward V and Edward VIII), every British monarch since William the Conqueror has been crowned in the abbey. Notre-Dame de Paris(begun in 1163), one of the great examples of Gothic architecture, is a twin-towered church with a steeple over the crossing and immense flying buttresses supporting the masonry at the rear of the church. Other famous Gothic structures are Chartres Cathedral(France; 12th century);Sainte-Chapelle(Paris, France; 1246–1248);Reims Cathedral(France; 13th–14th centuries; rebuilt after its almost complete destruction in World War I);Rouen Cathedral(France; 13th–16th centuries);Salisbury Cathedral(England; 1220–1260);York Minster, or theCathedral of St.

Famous Buildings and Structures Prehistorical and Ancient The megalithic passage tomb atNewgrangein Ireland covers over an acre and was constructed around 3200B.C.Buried for centuries, the mound was rediscovered in 1699 and was restored starting in 1962. The tomb is extensively decorated with spiral and lozenge shapes. At the winter solstice, the rising sun shines down a long passage and lights up a cross-shaped chamber. Stonehenge,a massive circular megalithic monument on the Salisbury Plain in southern England, is the most famous of all prehistoric structures. Thought to have been built c. 2000B.C.,it may have been used as an astronomical instrument to measure solar and lunar movements. The Great Sphinxof Egypt, one of the wonders of ancient Egyptian architecture, adjoins thepyramids of Gizaand has a length of 240 ft. Built in the fourth dynasty, it is approximately 4,500 years old. A 10-year, $2.5 million restoration project was completed in 1998. Other Egyptian buildings of note include theTemples of Karnak,Edfu,andAbu Simbeland theTombs at Beni Hassan. The Parthenonof Greece, built on the Acropolisin Athens, was the chief temple to the goddess Athena. It was believed to have been completed by 438B.C.The present temple remained intact until the 5th centuryA.D.Today, though the Parthenonis in ruins, its majestic proportions are still discernible. Other great structures of the ancient Greek world were theTemples at Paestum(c. 540 and 420B.C.); the famous Erechtheum(c. 421–405B.C.), theTemple of Athena Nike(c. 426B.C.), and theOlympieum(begun in the 6th centuryB.C.) in Athens; theAthenian Treasuryat Delphi (c. 515B.C.); and theTheater at Epidaurus(c. 325B.C.). The Colosseum(Flavian Amphitheater) of Rome, the largest and most famous of the Roman amphitheaters, was opened for useA.D.80. Elliptical in shape, it consisted of three stories and an upper gallery, rebuilt in stone in its present form in the 3rd centuryA.D.It was principally used for gladiatorial combat and could seat between 40,000 and 50,000 spectators. The Pantheonat Rome, begun by Agrippa in 27B.C.as a temple, was rebuilt in its present circular form by Hadrian (A.D.118–128). Literally the Pantheonwas intended as a temple of “all the gods.” It is remarkable for its perfect preservation today, and has served continuously for 20 centuries as a place of worship. Famous Roman triumphal arches, built to commemorate major military victories, include theArch of Titus(c.A.D.80) and theArch of Constantine(c.A.D.315). Later European St. Mark's Cathedralin Venice (1063–1071), one of the great examples of Byzantine architecture, was begun in the 9th century. Partly destroyed by fire in 976, it was later rebuilt as a Byzantine edifice. Other famous examples of Byzantine architecture areSt. Sophiain Istanbul (532–537);San Vitalein Ravenna (542); andAssumption Cathedralin the Kremlin, Moscow (begun in 1475). The cathedral group at Pisa (1067–1173), one of the most celebrated groups of structures built in Romanesque style, consists of the cathedral, the cathedral's baptistery, and the campanile ( Leaning Tower). The campanile, a form of bell tower, is 180 ft high and now leans 13.5 ft out of the perpendicular. Other examples of Romanesque architecture include theVézelay Abbeyin France (1130) andDurham Cathedralin England. TheAlhambra(1248–1354), located in Granada, Spain, is universally esteemed as one of the greatest masterpieces of Muslim architecture. Designed as a palace and fortress for the Moorish monarchs of Granada, it is surrounded by a heavily fortified wall more than a mile in perimeter. The Tower of Londonis a group of buildings and towers covering 13 acres along the north bank of the Thames. The centralWhite Tower,begun in 1078 during the reign of William the Conqueror, was originally a fortress and royal residence, but was later used as a prison. TheBloody Toweris associated with Anne Boleyn and other notables. Westminster Abbey,in London, was begun in 1050 and completed in 1065. It was rebuilt and enlarged in several phases, beginning in 1245. With only two exceptions (Edward V and Edward VIII), every British monarch since William the Conqueror has been crowned in the abbey. Notre-Dame de Paris(begun in 1163), one of the great examples of Gothic architecture, is a twin-towered church with a steeple over the crossing and immense flying buttresses supporting the masonry at the rear of the church. Other famous Gothic structures are Chartres Cathedral(France; 12th century);Sainte-Chapelle(Paris, France; 1246–1248);Reims Cathedral(France; 13th–14th centuries; rebuilt after its almost complete destruction in World War I);Rouen Cathedral(France; 13th–16th centuries);Salisbury Cathedral(England; 1220–1260);York Minster, or theCathedral of St.

The Seven Wonders of the Modern World People have put together many lists of the seven ancient wonders of the world. But this “seven wonders” list celebrates monumental engineering and construction feats of the 20th century. It was chosen by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Empire State Building.Finished in 1931, it towers 1,250 ft over New York City. Until the first tower of the World Trade Center was finished in 1972, it was the world's tallest building. The Empire State Building Itaipu Dam.Built by Brazil and Paraguay on the Paraná River, the dam is the world's largest hydroelectric power plant. Completed in 1991, it took 16 years to build this series of dams whose length totals 7,744 m. It used 15 times more concrete than the Channel Tunnel. CN Tower.In 1976, the tower became the world's tallest freestanding structure. It looms about one-third of a mile high (1,815 ft) above Toronto, Canada. A glass floor on the observation deck lets you look 342 m down to the ground. Panama Canal.It took 34 years to create this 50-mile-long canal across the Isthmus of Panama. The amount of digging required and the size of its locks helped make it the most expensive project in American history at that time—and the most deadly: About 80,000 people died during construction (most from disease). Channel Tunnel.Known as the Chunnel, it links France and England. It is 31 mi long, and 23 of those miles are 150 ft beneath the seabed of the English Channel. High-speed trains whiz through its side-by-side tubes. Netherlands North Sea Protection Works.Because the Netherlands is below sea level, a series of dams, floodgates, and surge barriers have been built to keep the sea from flooding the country during storms. The biggest part of the project was a two-mile-long moveable surge barrier across an estuary finished in 1986. It is made of 65 concrete piers each weighing 18,000 tons. It has been said that the project is nearly equal in scale to the Great Wall of China. The Golden Gate Bridge Wide World Photos Golden Gate Bridge.Connecting San Francisco and Marin County in 1937, for many years this was the longest suspension bridge in world. Experts thought that winds, ocean currents, and fog would make it impossible to build. It took about four years to complete the beautiful 1.2-mile-long bridge. It is held by 80,000 mi worth of steel wire, and the cables that link the two towers are 36.5 inches in diameter—the biggest ever made.

The Seven Wonders of the World Since ancient times, numerous “seven wonders” lists have been created. The content of these lists tends to vary, and none is definitive. The seven wonders that are most widely agreed upon as being in the original list are theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World,which was compiled by ancient Greek historians and is thus confined to the most magnificent structures known to the ancient Greek world. Of all the Ancient Wonders, the pyramids alone survive. The Pyramids of Egyptare three pyramids at Giza, outside modern Cairo. The largest pyramid, built by Khufu (Cheops), a king of the fourth dynasty, had an original estimated height of 482 ft (now approximately 450 ft). The base has sides 755 ft long. It contains 2,300,000 blocks; the average weight of each is 2.5 tons. Estimated date of completion is 2680B.C. TheHangingGardensof Babylonwere supposedly built by Nebuchadnezzararound 600B.C.to please his queen, Amuhia. They are also associated with the mythical Assyrian queen Semiramis. Archeologists surmise that the gardens were laid out atop a vaulted building, with provisions for raising water. The terraces were said to rise from 75 to 300 ft. TheStatue of Zeus (Jupiter) at Olympiawas made of gold and ivory by the Greek sculptor Phidias(5th centuryB.C.). Reputed to be 40 ft high, the statue has been lost without a trace, except for reproductions on coins. TheTemple of Artemis(Diana) at Ephesuswas begun about 350B.C., in honor of a non-Hellenic goddess who later became identified with the Greek goddess of the same name. The temple, with Ionic columns 60 ft high, was destroyed by invading Goths inA.D.262. TheMausoleum at Halicarnassuswas erected by Queen Artemisia in memory of her husband, King Mausolusof Caria in Asia Minor, who died in 353B.C.Some remains of the structure are in the British Museum. This shrine is the source of the modern wordmausoleum. The Colossus at Rhodeswas a bronze statue of Helios (Apollo), about 105 ft high. The work of the sculptor Chares, who reputedly labored for 12 years before completing it in 280B.C., it was destroyed during an earthquake in 224B.C. The Pharos(Lighthouse) of Alexandriawas built by Sostratus of Cnidus during the 3rd centuryB.C.on the island of Pharos off the coast of Egypt. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the 13th century. (Some lists include the Walls of Babylonin place of the second or seventh wonder.)

The Seven Wonders of the World Since ancient times, numerous “seven wonders” lists have been created. The content of these lists tends to vary, and none is definitive. The seven wonders that are most widely agreed upon as being in the original list are theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World,which was compiled by ancient Greek historians and is thus confined to the most magnificent structures known to the ancient Greek world. Of all the Ancient Wonders, the pyramids alone survive. The Pyramids of Egyptare three pyramids at Giza, outside modern Cairo. The largest pyramid, built by Khufu (Cheops), a king of the fourth dynasty, had an original estimated height of 482 ft (now approximately 450 ft). The base has sides 755 ft long. It contains 2,300,000 blocks; the average weight of each is 2.5 tons. Estimated date of completion is 2680B.C. TheHangingGardensof Babylonwere supposedly built by Nebuchadnezzararound 600B.C.to please his queen, Amuhia. They are also associated with the mythical Assyrian queen Semiramis. Archeologists surmise that the gardens were laid out atop a vaulted building, with provisions for raising water. The terraces were said to rise from 75 to 300 ft. TheStatue of Zeus (Jupiter) at Olympiawas made of gold and ivory by the Greek sculptor Phidias(5th centuryB.C.). Reputed to be 40 ft high, the statue has been lost without a trace, except for reproductions on coins. TheTemple of Artemis(Diana) at Ephesuswas begun about 350B.C., in honor of a non-Hellenic goddess who later became identified with the Greek goddess of the same name. The temple, with Ionic columns 60 ft high, was destroyed by invading Goths inA.D.262. TheMausoleum at Halicarnassuswas erected by Queen Artemisia in memory of her husband, King Mausolusof Caria in Asia Minor, who died in 353B.C.Some remains of the structure are in the British Museum. This shrine is the source of the modern wordmausoleum. The Colossus at Rhodeswas a bronze statue of Helios (Apollo), about 105 ft high. The work of the sculptor Chares, who reputedly labored for 12 years before completing it in 280B.C., it was destroyed during an earthquake in 224B.C. The Pharos(Lighthouse) of Alexandriawas built by Sostratus of Cnidus during the 3rd centuryB.C.on the island of Pharos off the coast of Egypt. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the 13th century. (Some lists include the Walls of Babylonin place of the second or seventh wonder.)

The Seven Wonders of the World Since ancient times, numerous “seven wonders” lists have been created. The content of these lists tends to vary, and none is definitive. The seven wonders that are most widely agreed upon as being in the original list are theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World,which was compiled by ancient Greek historians and is thus confined to the most magnificent structures known to the ancient Greek world. Of all the Ancient Wonders, the pyramids alone survive. The Pyramids of Egyptare three pyramids at Giza, outside modern Cairo. The largest pyramid, built by Khufu (Cheops), a king of the fourth dynasty, had an original estimated height of 482 ft (now approximately 450 ft). The base has sides 755 ft long. It contains 2,300,000 blocks; the average weight of each is 2.5 tons. Estimated date of completion is 2680B.C. TheHangingGardensof Babylonwere supposedly built by Nebuchadnezzararound 600B.C.to please his queen, Amuhia. They are also associated with the mythical Assyrian queen Semiramis. Archeologists surmise that the gardens were laid out atop a vaulted building, with provisions for raising water. The terraces were said to rise from 75 to 300 ft. TheStatue of Zeus (Jupiter) at Olympiawas made of gold and ivory by the Greek sculptor Phidias(5th centuryB.C.). Reputed to be 40 ft high, the statue has been lost without a trace, except for reproductions on coins. TheTemple of Artemis(Diana) at Ephesuswas begun about 350B.C., in honor of a non-Hellenic goddess who later became identified with the Greek goddess of the same name. The temple, with Ionic columns 60 ft high, was destroyed by invading Goths inA.D.262. TheMausoleum at Halicarnassuswas erected by Queen Artemisia in memory of her husband, King Mausolusof Caria in Asia Minor, who died in 353B.C.Some remains of the structure are in the British Museum. This shrine is the source of the modern wordmausoleum. The Colossus at Rhodeswas a bronze statue of Helios (Apollo), about 105 ft high. The work of the sculptor Chares, who reputedly labored for 12 years before completing it in 280B.C., it was destroyed during an earthquake in 224B.C. The Pharos(Lighthouse) of Alexandriawas built by Sostratus of Cnidus during the 3rd centuryB.C.on the island of Pharos off the coast of Egypt. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the 13th century. (Some lists include the Walls of Babylonin place of the second or seventh wonder.)

The Seven Wonders of the World Since ancient times, numerous “seven wonders” lists have been created. The content of these lists tends to vary, and none is definitive. The seven wonders that are most widely agreed upon as being in the original list are theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World,which was compiled by ancient Greek historians and is thus confined to the most magnificent structures known to the ancient Greek world. Of all the Ancient Wonders, the pyramids alone survive. The Pyramids of Egyptare three pyramids at Giza, outside modern Cairo. The largest pyramid, built by Khufu (Cheops), a king of the fourth dynasty, had an original estimated height of 482 ft (now approximately 450 ft). The base has sides 755 ft long. It contains 2,300,000 blocks; the average weight of each is 2.5 tons. Estimated date of completion is 2680B.C. TheHangingGardensof Babylonwere supposedly built by Nebuchadnezzararound 600B.C.to please his queen, Amuhia. They are also associated with the mythical Assyrian queen Semiramis. Archeologists surmise that the gardens were laid out atop a vaulted building, with provisions for raising water. The terraces were said to rise from 75 to 300 ft. TheStatue of Zeus (Jupiter) at Olympiawas made of gold and ivory by the Greek sculptor Phidias(5th centuryB.C.). Reputed to be 40 ft high, the statue has been lost without a trace, except for reproductions on coins. TheTemple of Artemis(Diana) at Ephesuswas begun about 350B.C., in honor of a non-Hellenic goddess who later became identified with the Greek goddess of the same name. The temple, with Ionic columns 60 ft high, was destroyed by invading Goths inA.D.262. TheMausoleum at Halicarnassuswas erected by Queen Artemisia in memory of her husband, King Mausolusof Caria in Asia Minor, who died in 353B.C.Some remains of the structure are in the British Museum. This shrine is the source of the modern wordmausoleum. The Colossus at Rhodeswas a bronze statue of Helios (Apollo), about 105 ft high. The work of the sculptor Chares, who reputedly labored for 12 years before completing it in 280B.C., it was destroyed during an earthquake in 224B.C. The Pharos(Lighthouse) of Alexandriawas built by Sostratus of Cnidus during the 3rd centuryB.C.on the island of Pharos off the coast of Egypt. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the 13th century. (Some lists include the Walls of Babylonin place of the second or seventh wonder.)

Michigan and Huron: One Lake or Two? It is a widely accepted fact that Lake Superior, with an area of 31,820 square miles, is the world's largest freshwater lake. However, this fact is based on a historical inaccuracy in the naming of Lake Huron and Lake Michigan. What should have been considered one body of water, Lake Michigan-Huron with an area of 45,410 square miles, was mistakenly given two names, one for each lobe. The explorers in colonial times incorrectly believed each lobe to be a separate lake because of their great size. Why should the two lakes be considered one? The Huron Lobe and the Michigan Lobe are at the same elevation and are connected by the 120-foot-deep Mackinac Strait, also at the same elevation. Lakes are separated from each other by streams and rivers. The Strait of Mackinac is not a river. It is 3.6 to 5 miles wide, wider than most lakes are long. In essence, it is just a narrowing, not a separation of the two lobes of Lake Michigan-Huron. The flow between the two lakes can reverse. Because of the large connecting channel, the two can equalize rapidly whenever a water level imbalance occurs. Gauge records for the lakes clearly show them to have identical water level regimes and mean long-term behavior; that is, they are hydrologically considered to be one lake. Historical names are not easily changed. The separate names for the lake are a part of history and are also legally institutionalized since Lake Michigan is treated as American and Lake Huron is bisected by the international boundary between the United States and Canada. Of all the world's freshwater lakes, North America's Great Lakes are unique. Their five basins combine to form a single watershed with one common outlet to the ocean. The total volume of the lakes is about 5,475 cubic miles, more than 6,000 trillion gallons. The Great Lakes are Superior, with an area of 31,820 square miles (82,414 km) shared by the United States and Canada; Huron, with an area of 23,010 square miles (59,596 sq. km) shared by the United States and Canada; Michigan, with an area of 22,400 square miles (58,016 sq. km) entirely in the United States; Erie, with an area of 9,930 square miles (25,719 km) shared by the United States and Canada; and Ontario, with an area of 7,520 square miles (19,477 km) shared by the United States and Canada.

The Continental Divide The Continental Divide is a ridge of high ground that runs irregularly north and south through the Rocky Mountains and separates eastward-flowing from westward-flowing streams. The waters that flow eastward empty into the Atlantic Ocean, chiefly by way of the Gulf of Mexico; those that flow westward empty into the Pacific. Every continent with the exception of Antarctica has a continental divide.

Mason and Dixon's Line Mason and Dixon's Line (often called the Mason-Dixon Line) is the boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland, running at a north latitude of 39°43'19.11". The greater part of it was surveyed from 1763–1767 by Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, English astronomers who had been appointed to settle a dispute between the colonies. As the line was partly the boundary between the free and the slave states, it has come to signify the division between the North and the South.

World Heritage Sites in the United States The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has identified 878 World Heritage sites that it considers of “outstanding universal value.” In the United States, there are 20 of these sites; the 17 that are natural sites are listed below. The World Heritage Web site is as follows: http://whc.unesco.org /en/list/. Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site, Illinois:BetweenA.D.900 andA.D.1500 the Cahokia site was the regional center for the Mississippian Indian culture. Named for the Cahokia Indians who came after them, Cahokia features the largest prehistoric earthen constructions in the Americas, a testament to the sophisticated engineering skills of Mississippian culture. Carlsbad Caverns National Park, New Mexico:Carlsbad Caverns National Park is a network of more than 80 limestone caves, including the nation's deepest—1,597 feet—and third longest. The Lechuguilla Cave is particularly noteworthy for its beautiful stalagtites and stalagmites. Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico:BetweenA.D.900 andA.D.1100, the Anasazi built large multistory stone villages and an impressive 400-mile road system in Chaco canyon exemplifying their engineering and construction talents. Everglades National Park, Florida:The Everglades, or “River of Grass” as the Seminoles called it, is formed by a river of fresh water 6 inches deep and 50 miles wide that flows slowly across the expanse of land of sawgrass marshes, pine forests, and mangrove islands. More than 300 species of birds live in the park as well as alligators, manatees, and Florida panthers. Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska:The park is made up of a huge chain of great tidewater glaciers and a dramatic range of landscapes, from rocky terrain recently covered by ice to lush temperate rain forest. Brown and black bears, mountain goats, whales (including humpbacks), seals, and eagles can be found within the park. Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona:The Grand Canyon is among Earth's greatest ongoing geological spectacles. About 65 million years ago in Earth's shifting, a huge area of land was lifted a mile and a half above sea level, forming what is now the Colorado Plateau. For the last 6 to 10 million years, the Colorado River has been slowly carving its way down through the center, exposing the many colorful strata of rock. Great Smoky Mountains National Park, North Carolina/Tennessee:“Place of Blue Smoke” was the name given by the Cherokee Indians to these Appalachian Highlands. The forest here exudes water vapor and oily residues which create a smoke-like haze that surrounds the peaks and fills the valleys. The park is one of the world's finest temperate deciduous forests. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii:It is thought that the Hawaiian islands were created when molten rock pushed through Earth's crust, forming volcanoes. The two most spectacular live volcanoes are Kilauea and Mauna Loa. Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky:Mammoth Cave, as its name suggests, is the world's most extensive cave system, with 345 miles of passages. Water seeping into the cave creates stalactites, stalagmites, and white gypsum crystal formations. Rare and unusual animals, such as blind fish and colorless spiders, demonstrate adaptation to the absolute blackness and isolation. Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado:In the sixth century, the Anasazi, or “Ancient Ones,” established villages on the high, flat land in southwestern Colorado. In the late 1100s they began constructing multistory stone apartment houses, or pueblos, tucked on ledges and under rock overhangs. Olympic National Park, Washington:The park encompasses not only snow-capped Mount Olympus, glaciers, alpine meadows, and rocky Pacific Mountain coastline, but also one of the few temperate rain forests in the world. The luxuriant forest is created by the warm, moisture-laden air from the Pacific meeting the mountains, resulting in a dense, green, jungle-like world. Papahanaumokuakea:This string of isolated islands is the largest conservation area in the United States and one of the largest marine conservation areas in the world. It covers 139,797 square miles of the Pacific Ocean. The extensive coral reefs found in Papahanaumokuakea are home to more than 7,000 marine species, one-quarter of which are found only in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Many of the islands and shallow water environments are important habitats for rare species, such as the threatened green sea turtle and the endangered Hawaiian monk seal. Papahanaumokuakea is also of great cultural importance to Native Hawaiians with significant cultural sites found on the islands of Nihoa and Mokumanamana.Source: http://papahanaumok uakea.gov.

Geysers in the United States Geysers are natural hot springs that intermittently eject a column of water and steam into the air. They exist in many parts of the volcanic regions of the world such as Japan and South America but their greatest development is in Iceland, New Zealand, and Yellowstone National Park. There are 120 named geysers in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, and perhaps half that number unnamed. Most of the geysers and the 4,000 or more hot springs are located in the western portion of the park. The most important are the following: Norris Geyser Basin has 24 or more active geysers; the number varies. There are scores of steam vents and hot springs.Steamboatis the largest active geyser in the world, sending water more than 300 ft. into the air for 3 to 20 minutes. It emits water every few minutes, but its major eruptions are infrequent and erratic.Valentineerupts 50–75 ft. at intervals varying from 18 hr. to 3 days or more.Minutéerupts 15–20 ft. high, several hours apart. Others include:Fearless, Veteran, Vixen, Corporal, Whirligig, Little Whirligig,andPinwheel. Lower Geyser Basin has at least 18 active geysers.Fountainthrows water 50–75 ft. in all directions at unpredictable intervals.Clepsydraerupts violently from 4 vents up to 30 ft.Great Fountainplays every 8 to 15 hr. in spurts from 30 to 90 ft. high. Midway Geyser Basin has vast steaming terraces of red, orange, pink and other colors; there are pools and springs, including the beautifulGrand Prismatic Spring. Excelsiorcrater discharges boiling water into Firehole River at the rate of 6 cu. ft. per second. Gianterupts up to 200 ft. at intervals of 21/2 days to 3 mo; eruptions last about 11/2 hr.Daisysends water up to 75 ft. but is irregular and frequently inactive. Old Faithful,the most famous geyser in the park, sends up a column varying from 116 to 175 ft. at intervals of about 65 min, varying from 33 to 90 min. Eruptions last about 4 min, during which time about 12,000 gal. are discharged. Giantessseldom erupts, but during its active period sends up streams 150–200 ft. Lionplays up to 60 ft. every 2–4 days when active;Little Cubup to 10 ft. every 1–2 hr.Big CubandLionessseldom erupt. There are no geysers in the Mammoth Hot Springs area. The formation is travertine. Sides of a hill are steps and terraces over which flow the steaming waters of hot springs laden with minerals. Each step is tinted by algae to many shades of orange, pink, yellow, brown, green, and blue. Terraces are white where no water flows.

Rivers of the United States (350 or more miles long) Alabama-Coosa(600 mi.; 966 km): From junction of Oostanula and Etowah R. in Georgia to Mobile R. Altamaha-Ocmulgee(392 mi.; 631 km): From junction of Yellow R. and South R., Newton Co. in Georgia to Atlantic Ocean. Apalachicola- Chattahoochee(524 mi.; 843 km): From Towns Co. in Georgia to Gulf of Mexico in Florida. Arkansas(1,459 mi.; 2,348 km): From Lake Co. in Colorado to Mississippi R. in Arkansas. Brazos(923 mi.; 1,490 km): From junction of Salt Fork and Double Mountain Fork in Texas to Gulf of Mexico. Canadian(906 mi.; 1,458 km): From Las Animas Co. in Colorado to Arkansas R. in Oklahoma. Cimarron(600 mi.; 966 km): From Colfax Co. in New Mexico to Arkansas R. in Oklahoma. Colorado(1,450 mi.; 2,333 km): From Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado to Gulf of California in Mexico. Colorado(862 mi.; 1,387 km): From Dawson Co. in Texas to Matagorda Bay. Columbia(1,243 mi.; 2,000 km): From Columbia Lake in British Columbia to Pacific Ocean (entering between Oregon and Washington). Colville(350 mi.; 563 km): From Brooks Range in Alaska to Beaufort Sea. Connecticut(407 mi.; 655 km): From Third Connecticut Lake in New Hampshire to Long Island Sound in Connecticut. Cumberland(720 mi.; 1,159 km): From junction of Poor and Clover Forks in Harlan Co. in Kentucky to Ohio R. Delaware(390 mi.; 628 km): From Schoharie Co. in New York to Liston Point, Delaware Bay. Gila(649 mi.; 1,044 km): From Catron Co. in New Mexico to Colorado R. in Arizona. Green(360 mi.; 579 km): From Lincoln Co. in Kentucky to Ohio R. in Kentucky. Green(730 mi.; 1,175 km): From Sublette Co. in Wyoming to Colorado R. in Utah. Illinois(420 mi.; 676 km): From St. Joseph Co. in Indiana to Mississippi R. at Grafton in Illinois. James(sometimes calledDakota) (710 mi.; 1,143 km): From Wells Co. in North Dakota to Missouri R. in South Dakota. Kanawha-New(352 mi.; 566 km): From junction of North and South Forks of New R. in North Carolina, through Virginia and West Virginia (New R. becoming Kanawha R.), to Ohio R. Kansas(743 mi.; 1,196 km): From source of Arikaree R. in Elbert Co., Colorado, to Missouri R. at Kansas City, Kansas. Koyukuk(470 mi.; 756 km): From Brooks Range in Alaska to Yukon R. Kuskokwim(724 mi.; 1,165 km): From Alaska Range in Alaska to Kuskokwim Bay. Licking(350 mi.; 563 km): From Magoffin Co. in Kentucky to Ohio R. at Cincinnati in Ohio. Little Missouri(560 mi.; 901 km): From Crook Co. in Wyoming to Missouri R. in North Dakota. Milk(625 mi.; 1,006 km): From junction of forks in Alberta Province to Missouri R. Mississippi(2,348 mi.; 3,779 km): From Lake Itasca in Minnesota to mouth of Southwest Pass in Louisiana. Mississippi-Missouri-Red Rock(3,710 mi.; 5,970 km): From source of Red Rock R. in Montana to mouth of Southwest Pass in Louisiana. Missouri(2,315 mi.; 3,726 km): From junction of Jefferson R., Gallatin R., and Madison R. in Montana to Mississippi R. near St. Louis. Missouri-Red Rock(2,540 mi.; 4,090 km): From source of Red Rock R. in Montana to Mississippi R. near St. Louis. Mobile-Alabama-Coosa(645 mi.; 1,040 km): From junction of Etowah R. and Oostanula R. in Georgia to Mobile Bay. Neosho(460 mi.; 740 km): From Morris Co. in Kansas to Arkansas R. in Oklahoma. Niobrara(431 mi.; 694 km): From Niobrara Co. in Wyoming to Missouri R. in Nebraska. Noatak(350 mi.; 563 km): From Brooks Range in Alaska to Kotzebue Sound. North Canadian(800 mi.; 1,290 km): From Union Co. in New Mexico to Canadian R. in Oklahoma. North Platte(618 mi.; 995 km): From Jackson Co. in Colorado to junction with South Platte R. in Nebraska to form Platte R. Ohio(981 mi.; 1,579 km): From junction of Allegheny R. and Monongahela R. at Pittsburgh to Mississippi R. between Illinois and Kentucky. Ohio-Allegheny(1,306 mi.; 2,102 km): From Potter Co. in Pennsylvania to Mississippi R. at Cairo in Illinois. Osage(500 mi.; 805 km): From east-central Kansas to Missouri R. near Jefferson City in Missouri. Ouachita(605 mi.; 974 km): From Polk Co. in Arkansas to Red R. in Louisiana. Pearl(411 mi.; 661 km): From Neshoba County in Mississippi to Gulf of Mexico (Mississippi-Louisiana). Pecos(926 mi.; 1,490 km): From Mora Co. in New Mexico to Rio Grande in Texas. Pee Dee-Yadkin(435 mi.; 700 km): From Watauga Co. in North Carolina to Winyah Bay in South Carolina. Pend Oreille–Clark Fork(531 mi.; 855 km): Near Butte in Montana to Columbia R. on Washington-Canada border. Platte(990 mi.; 1593 km): From source of Grizzly Creek in Jackson Co., Colorado, to Missouri R. south of Omaha, Nebraska. Porcupine(569 mi.; 916 km): From Yukon Territory, Canada, to Yukon R. in Alaska. Potomac(383 mi.; 616 km): From Garrett Co. in Maryland to Chesapeake Bay at Point Lookout in Maryland.

Mountain Peaks in the United States Higher Than 14,000 Feet NameStateHeight (ft.) Mt. McKinleyAlaska20,320 Mt. St. EliasAlaska18,008 Mt. ForakerAlaska17,400 Mt. BonaAlaska16,500 Mt. BlackburnAlaska16,390 Mt. SanfordAlaska16,237 Mt. VancouverAlaska15,979 South ButtressAlaska15,885 Mt. ChurchillAlaska15,638 Mt. FairweatherAlaska15,300 Mt. HubbardAlaska14,950 Mt. BearAlaska14,831 East ButtressAlaska14,730 Mt. HunterAlaska14,573 Browne TowerAlaska14,530 Mt. AlverstoneAlaska14,500 Mt. WhitneyCalif.14,4941 University PeakAlaska14,470 Mt. ElbertColo.14,433 Mt. MassiveColo.14,421 Mt. HarvardColo.14,420 Mt. RainierWash.14,410 Mt. WilliamsonCalif.14,370 La Plata PeakColo.14,361 Blanca PeakColo.14,345 Uncompahgre PeakColo.14,309 Crestone PeakColo.14,294 Mt. LincolnColo.14,286 Grays PeakColo.14,270 Mt. AnteroColo.14,269 Torreys PeakColo.14,267 Castle PeakColo.14,265 Quandary PeakColo.14,265 Mt. EvansColo.14,264 Longs PeakColo.14,255 Mt. WilsonColo.14,246 White Mtn.Calif.14,246 North PalisadeCalif.14,242 Mt. CameronColo.14,238 Mt. ShavanoColo.14,229 Crestone NeedleColo.14,197 Mt. BelfordColo.14,197 Mt. PrincetonColo.14,197 Mt. YaleColo.14,196 Mt. BrossColo.14,172 Kit Carson Mtn.Colo.14,165 Mt. WrangellAlaska14,163 Mt. SillCalif.14,162 Mt. ShastaCalif.14,162 El Diente PeakColo.14,159 Point SuccessWash.14,158 Maroon PeakColo.14,156 Tabeguache Mtn.Colo.14,155 Mt. OxfordColo.14,153 Mt. SneffelsColo.14,150 Mt. DemocratColo.14,148 Capitol PeakColo.14,130 Liberty CapWash.14,112 Pikes PeakColo.14,110 Snowmass Mtn.Colo.14,092 Mt. RussellCalif.14,088 Mt. EolusColo.14,083 Windom PeakColo.14,082 Mt. ColumbiaColo.14,073 Mt. AugustaAlaska14,070 Missouri Mtn.Colo.14,067 Humboldt PeakColo.14,064 Mt. BierstadtColo.14,060 Sunlight PeakColo.14,059 Split Mtn.Calif.14,058 Handies PeakColo.14,048 Culebra PeakColo.14,047 Mt. LindseyColo.14,042 Ellingwood PointColo.14,042 Middle PalisadeCalif.14,040 Little Bear PeakColo.14,037 Mt. ShermanColo.14,036 Redcloud PeakColo.14,034 Mt. LangleyCalif.14,027 Conundrum PeakColo.14,022 Mt. TyndallCalif.14,019 Pyramid PeakColo.14,018 Wilson PeakColo.14,017 Wetterhorn PeakColo.14,015 North Maroon PeakColo.14,014 San Luis PeakColo.14,014 Middle PalisadeCalif.14,012 Mt. MuirCalif.14,012 Mt. of the Holy CrossColo.14,005 Huron PeakColo.14,003 Thunderbolt PeakCalif.14,003 Sunshine PeakColo.14,001 1. National Geodetic Survey. Source:U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey.

Highest, Lowest, and Mean Elevations in the United States StateElevation (ft.)1Highest pointElevation (ft.)Lowest pointElevation (ft.) Alabama500Cheaha Mountain2,405Gulf of MexicoSea level Alaska1,900Mt. McKinley20,320Pacific OceanSea level Arizona4,100Humphreys Peak12,633Colorado River70 Arkansas650Magazine Mountain2,753Ouachita River55 California2,900Mt. Whitney14,494Death Valley–2822 Colorado6,800Mt. Elbert14,433Arkansas River3,350 Connecticut500Mt. Frissell, on south slope2,380Long Island SoundSea level Delaware60Ebright Road, Del.–Pa. state line448Atlantic OceanSea level D.C.150Tenleytown, at Reno Reservoir410Potomac River1 Florida100Sec. 30, T6N, R20W, Walton County345Atlantic OceanSea level Georgia600Brasstown Bald4,784Atlantic OceanSea level Hawaii3,030Puu Wekiu, Mauna Kea13,796Pacific OceanSea level Idaho5,000Borah Peak12,662Snake River710 Illinois600Charles Mound1,235Mississippi River279 Indiana700Franklin Township, Wayne County1,257Ohio River320 Iowa1,100Sec. 29, T100N, R41W, Osceola County1,670Mississippi River480 Kansas2,000Mt. Sunflower4,039Verdigris River679 Kentucky750Black Mountain4,139Mississippi River257 Louisiana100Driskill Mountain535New Orleans–82 Maine600Mt. Katahdin5,267Atlantic OceanSea level Maryland350Backbone Mountain3,360Atlantic OceanSea level Massachusetts500Mt. Greylock3,487Atlantic OceanSea level Michigan900Mt. Arvon1,979Lake Erie572 Minnesota1,200Eagle Mountain2,301Lake Superior600 Mississippi300Woodall Mountain806Gulf of MexicoSea level Missouri800Taum Sauk Mountain1,772St. Francis River230 Montana3,400Granite Peak12,799Kootenai River1,800 Nebraska2,600Johnson Township, Kimball County5,424Missouri River840 Nevada5,500Boundary Peak13,140Colorado River479 New Hampshire1,000Mt. Washington6,288Atlantic OceanSea level New Jersey250High Point1,803Atlantic OceanSea level New Mexico5,700Wheeler Peak13,161Red Bluff Reservoir2,842 New York1,000Mt. Marcy5,344Atlantic OceanSea level North Carolina700Mt. Mitchell6,684Atlantic OceanSea level North Dakota1,900White Butte3,506Red River750 Ohio850Campbell Hill1,549Ohio River455 Oklahoma1,300Black Mesa4,973Little River289 Oregon3,300Mt. Hood11,239Pacific OceanSea level Pennsylvania1,100Mt. Davis3,213Delaware RiverSea level Rhode Island200Jerimoth Hill812Atlantic OceanSea level South Carolina350Sassafras Mountain3,560Atlantic OceanSea level South Dakota2,200Harney Peak7,242Big Stone Lake966 Tennessee900Clingmans Dome6,643Mississippi River178 Texas1,700Guadalupe Peak8,749Gulf of MexicoSea level Utah6,100Kings Peak13,528Beaverdam Wash2,000 Vermont1,000Mt. Mansfield4,393Lake Champlain95 Virginia950Mt. Rogers5,729Atlantic OceanSea level Washington1,700Mt. Rainier14,410Pacific OceanSea level West Virginia1,500Spruce Knob4,861Potomac River240 Wisconsin1,050Timms Hill1,951Lake Michigan579 Wyoming6,700Gannett Peak13,804Belle Fourche River3,099 United States2,500Mt. McKinley (Alaska)20,320Death Valley (California)–2822 1. Approximate mean elevation. 2. Below sea level. Source:U.S. Geological Survey.

The Difference between the U.K., Great Britain, England, and the British Isles Key differences of these names often used interchangeably United Kingdom Commonwealth of Nations British Monarch Isle of Man There are key differences between Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and England—names often used interchangeably. Great Britain Great Britain is an island that consists of three somewhat autonomous regions that include England, Scotland, and Wales. It is located east of Ireland and northwest of Francein the Atlantic Ocean. The United Kingdom The United Kingdom is a country that includes England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Its official name is “United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.” England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland are often mistaken as names of countries, but they are only a part of the United Kingdom. The British Isles The British Isles is another term altogether and encompasses Great Britain, the island of Ireland, and several other smaller islands, such as the Isle of Man. The Isle of Man is not a part of the United Kingdom or the European Union, even though its Lord is the Monarch of the United Kingdom. The Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nationsis a voluntary association of countries that were formerly British colonies. Members of the Commonwealth of Nations recognize the United Kingdom Monarch as their own king or queen, but remain politically independent. Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Antigua and Barbuda Australia Bahamas Bangladesh Barbados Belize Botswana Brunei Canada Cameroon Cyprus Dominica Gambia Ghana Grenada Guyana India Jamaica Kenya Kiribati Lesotho Malawi Malaysia Maldives Malta Mauritius Mozambique Namibi a Nauru New Zealand Nigeria Papua New Guinea Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Solomon Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Swaziland Tanzania Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tuvalu Uganda United Kingdom Vanuatu Zambia

Principal Deserts of the World Deserts are arid regions, generally receiving less than ten inches of precipitation a year, or regions where the potential evaporation rate is twice as great as the precipitation. The world's deserts are divided into four categories.Subtropical desertsare the hottest, with parched terrain and rapid evaporation. Althoughcool coastal desertsare located within the same latitudes as subtropical deserts, the average temperature is much cooler because of frigid offshore ocean currents.Cold winter desertsare marked by stark temperature differences from season to season, ranging from 100° F (38° C) in the summer to 10° F (–12° C) in the winter.Polar regionsare also considered to be deserts because nearly all moisture in these areas is locked up in the form of ice. DesertLocationSizeTopography SUBTROPICAL DESERTS SaharaMorocco, Western Sahara, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia3.5 million sq. mi.70% gravel plains, sand, and dunes. Contrary to popular belief, the desert is only 30% sand. The world's largest nonpolar desert gets its name from the Arabic wordSahra', meaning desert ArabianSaudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen1 million sq. mi.Gravel plains, rocky highlands; one-fourth is the Rub al-Khali (“Empty Quarter”), the world's largest expanse of unbroken sand KalahariBotswana, South Africa, Namibia220,000 sq. mi.Sand sheets, longitudinal dunes Australian Desert Gibson Australia (southern portion of the Western Desert)120,000 sq. mi.Sandhills, gravel, grass. These three regions of desert are collectively referred to as the Great Western Desert—otherwise known as “the Outback.” Contains Ayers Rock, or Uluru, one of the world's largest monoliths Great Sandy Australia (northern portion of the Western Desert)150,000 sq. mi. Great Victoria Australia (southernmost portion of the Western Desert)250,000 sq. mi. Simpson and Sturt Stony Australia (eastern half of the continent)56,000 sq. mi.Simpson's straight, parallel sand dunes are the longest in the world—up to 125 mi. Encompasses the Stewart Stony Desert, named for the Australian explorer MojaveU.S.: Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, California54,000 sq. mi.Mountain chains, dry alkaline lake beds, calcium carbonate dunes SonoranU.S.: Arizona, California; Mexico120,000 sq. mi.Basins and plains bordered by mountain ridges; home to the Saguaro cactus ChihuahuanMexico; southwestern U.S.175,000 sq. mi.Shrub desert; largest in North America TharIndia, Pakistan175,000 sq. mi.Rocky sand and sand dunes COOL COASTAL DESERTS NamibAngola, Namibia, South Africa13,000 sq. mi.Gravel plains AtacamaChile54,000 sq. mi.Salt basins, sand, lava; world's driest desert COLD WINTER DESERTS Great BasinU.S.: Nevada, Oregon, Utah190,000 sq. mi.Mountain ridges, valleys, 1% sand dunes Colorado Plateau U.S.: Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming130,000 sq. mi.Sedimentary rock, mesas, and plateaus—includes the Grand Canyon and is also called the “Painted Desert” because of the spectacular colors in its rocks and canyons PatagonianArgentina260,000 sq. mi.Gravel plains, plateaus, basalt sheets Kara-Kum Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan135,000 sq. mi.90% gray layered sand—name means “black sand” Kyzyl-Kum Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan115,000 sq. mi.Sands, rock—name means “red sand” IranianIran100,000 sq. mi.Salt, gravel, rock TaklamakanChina105,000 sq. mi.Sand, dunes, gravel GobiChina, Mongolia500,000 sq. mi.Stony, sandy soil, steppes (dry grasslands) POLAR ArcticU.S., Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia5.4 million sq. mi.Snow, glaciers, tundra AntarcticAntarctica5.5 million sq. mi.Ice, snow, bedrock

Large Islands of the World The following table lists the world's largest islands including the name, location, political affiliation, and land area. Greenland is the world's largest island covering 2,175,597 square kilometers. Area IslandLocation and political affiliationsq. mi.sq. km GreenlandNorth Atlantic (Danish)839,9992,175,597 New GuineaSouthwest Pacific (West Papua [Irian Jaya], Indonesia, western part; Papua New Guinea, eastern part)309,000800,311 BorneoWest mid-Pacific (Indonesian, south part; Brunei and Malaysian, north part)287,300744,108 MadagascarIndian Ocean (Malagasy Republic)227,000587,931 BaffinNorth Atlantic (Canadian)195,926507,451 SumatraNortheast Indian Ocean (Indonesian)182,859473,605 HonshuSea of Japan–Pacific (Japanese)89,176230,966 Great BritainOff coast of NW Europe (England, Scotland, and Wales)88,795229,979 VictoriaArctic Ocean (Canadian)83,896217,291 EllesmereArctic Ocean (Canadian)75,767196,236 Sulawesi(Celebes)West mid-Pacific (Indonesian)73,057189,218 South IslandSouth Pacific (New Zealand)58,384151,215 JavaIndian Ocean (Indonesian)51,038132,189 North IslandSouth Pacific (New Zealand)44,702115,778 CubaCaribbean Sea (republic)42,803110,860 NewfoundlandNorth Atlantic (Canadian)42,031108,860 LuzonWest mid-Pacific (Philippines)40,420104,688 IcelandNorth Atlantic (republic)39,800103,082 MindanaoWest mid-Pacific (Philippines)36,53794,631 IrelandWest of Great Britain (republic, south part; United Kingdom, north part)32,59784,426 HokkaidoSea of Japan–Pacific (Japanese)32,24583,515 Sakhalin(Karafuto)North of Japan (Russian)29,50076,405 HispaniolaCaribbean Sea (Dominican Republic, east part; Haiti, west part)29,30075,887 BanksArctic Ocean (Canadian)27,03870,028 TasmaniaSouth of Australia (Australian)26,20067,858 Sri Lanka(Ceylon)Indian Ocean (republic)24,90064,491 DevonArctic Ocean (Canadian)21,33155,247 Tierra del FuegoSouthern tip of South America (Argentinian, east part; Chilean, west part)18,60548,187 Axel HeibergArctic Ocean (Canadian)16,67143,178 MelvilleArctic Ocean (Canadian)16,27442,149 KyushuSea of Japan–Pacific (Japanese)16,22342,018 SouthamptonHudson Bay (Canadian)15,91341,214 NOTE: Australia is not included in this list because it is defined as a continent rather than an island.

Principal Rivers of the World The following table lists the principal rivers of the world including the name, source location, outflow, and approximate length. The Nile is the world's longest river stretching 6,690 kilometers. (See Rivers of the United Statesfor other U.S. rivers.) Approx. length RiverSourceOutflowmi.km NileTributaries of Lake Victoria, AfricaMediterranean Sea4,1806,690 AmazonGlacier-fed lakes, PeruAtlantic Ocean3,9126,296 Mississippi-Missouri- Red Rock Source of Red Rock, MontanaGulf of Mexico3,7105,970 Chang Jiang (Yangtze)Tibetan plateau, ChinaChina Sea3,6025,797 ObAltai Mts., RussiaGulf of Ob3,4595,567 Huang He(Yellow)Eastern part of Kunlan Mts., West ChinaGulf of Chihli2,9004,667 YeniseiTannu-Ola Mts., western Tuva, RussiaArctic Ocean2,8004,506 ParanáConfluence of Paranaiba and Grande riversRío de la Plata2,7954,498 IrtishAltai Mts., RussiaOb River2,7584,438 Zaire (Congo)Confluence of Lualab and Luapula rivers, CongoAtlantic Ocean2,7164,371 Heilong (Amur)Confluence of Shilka (Russia) and Argun (Manchuria) riversTatar Strait2,7044,352 LenaBaikal Mts., RussiaArctic Ocean2,6524,268 MackenzieHead of Finlay River, British Columbia, CanadaBeaufort Sea (Arctic Ocean)2,6354,241 NigerGuineaGulf of Guinea2,6004,184 MekongTibetan highlandsSouth China Sea2,5004,023 MississippiLake Itasca, MinnesotaGulf of Mexico2,3483,779 MissouriConfluence of Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison rivers, MontanaMississippi River2,3153,726 VolgaValdai plateau, RussiaCaspian Sea2,2913,687 MadeiraConfluence of Beni and Maumoré rivers, Bolivia–Brazil boundaryAmazon River2,0123,238 PurusPeruvian AndesAmazon River1,9933,207 São FranciscoSouthwest Minas Gerais, BrazilAtlantic Ocean1,9873,198 YukonJunction of Lewes and Pelly rivers, Yukon Territory, CanadaBering Sea1,9793,185 St. LawrenceLake OntarioGulf of St. Lawrence1,9003,058 Rio GrandeSan Juan Mts., ColoradoGulf of Mexico1,8853,034 BrahmaputraHimalayasGanges River1,8002,897 IndusHimalayasArabian Sea1,8002,897 DanubeBlack Forest, GermanyBlack Sea1,7662,842 EuphratesConfluence of Murat Nehri and Kara Su rivers, TurkeyShatt-al-Arab1,7392,799 DarlingCentral part of Eastern Highlands, AustraliaMurray River1,7022,739 Zambezi11°21'S, 24°22'E, ZambiaMozambique Channel1,7002,736 TocantinsGoiás, BrazilPará River1,6772,699 MurrayAustralian Alps, New South WalesIndian Ocean1,6092,589 NelsonHead of Bow River, western Alberta, CanadaHudson Bay1,6002,575 ParaguayMato Grosso, BrazilParaná River1,5842,549 UralSouthern Ural Mts., RussiaCaspian Sea1,5742,533 GangesHimalayasBay of Bengal1,5572,506 Amu Darya (Oxus)Nicholas Range, Pamir Mts., TurkmenistanAral Sea1,5002,414 JapuráAndes, ColombiaAmazon River1,5002,414 SalweenTibet, south of Kunlun Mts.Gulf of Martaban1,5002,414 ArkansasCentral ColoradoMississippi River1,4592,348 ColoradoGrand County, ColoradoGulf of California1,4502,333 DnieperValdai Hills, RussiaBlack Sea1,4192,284 Ohio- AlleghenyPotter County, PennsylvaniaMississippi River1,3062,102 IrrawaddyConfluence of Nmai and Mali rivers, northeast BurmaBay of Bengal1,3002,092 OrangeLesothoAtlantic Ocean1,3002,092 OrinocoSerra Parima Mts., VenezuelaAtlantic Ocean1,2812,062 PilcomayoAndes Mts., BoliviaParaguay River1,2421,999 Xi Jiang (Si Kiang)Eastern Yunnan Province, ChinaChina Sea1,2361,989 ColumbiaColumbia Lake, British Columbia, CanadaPacific Ocean1,2321,983 DonTula, RussiaSea of Azov1,2231,968 SungariChina–North Korea boundaryAmur River1,2151,955 SaskatchewanCanadian Rocky Mts.Lake Winnipeg1,2051,939 PeaceStikine Mts., British Columbia, CanadaGreat Slave River1,1951,923 TigrisTaurus Mts., TurkeyShatt-al-Arab1,1801,899

Oceans and Seas The following table lists the world's oceans and seas, according to area and average depth, including the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Arctic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, Bering Sea, and more. NameAreaAverage depthGreatest known depthPlace of greatest known depth sq. mi.sq. kmft.mft.m Pacific Ocean60,060,700155,557,00013,2154,02836,19811,033Mariana Trench Atlantic Ocean29,637,90076,762,00012,8803,92630,2469,219Puerto Rico Trench Indian Ocean26,469,50068,556,00013,0023,96324,4607,455Sunda Trench Southern Ocean17,848,30020,327,00013,100–16,4004,000–5,00023,7367,235South Sandwich Trench Arctic Ocean5,427,00014,056,0003,9531,20518,4565,62577°45'N; 175°W Mediterranean Sea21,144,8002,965,8004,6881,42915,1974,632Off Cape Matapan, Greece Caribbean Sea1,049,5002,718,2008,6852,64722,7886,946Off Cayman Islands South China Sea895,4002,319,0005,4191,65216,4565,016West of Luzon Bering Sea884,9002,291,9005,0751,54715,6594,773Off Buldir Island Gulf of Mexico615,0001,592,8004,8741,48612,4253,787Sigsbee Deep Okhotsk Sea613,8001,589,7002,74983812,0013,658146°10'E; 46°50'N East China Sea482,3001,249,2006171889,1262,78225°16'N; 125°E Hudson Bay475,8001,232,300420128600183Near entrance Japan Sea389,1001,007,8004,4291,35012,2763,742Central Basin Andaman Sea308,000797,7002,85487012,3923,777Off Car Nicobar Island North Sea222,100575,200308942,165660Skagerrak Red Sea169,100438,0001,6114917,2542,211Off Port Sudan Baltic Sea163,000422,200180551,380421Off Gotland NOTE: For Caspian Sea,see Large Lakes of the World. 1. A decision by the International Hydrographic Organization in spring 2000 delimited a fifth world ocean. 2. Includes Black Sea and Sea of Azov.

Mortals on Mount Olympus: A History of Climbing Everest Called Chomolungma (“goddess mother of the world”) in Tibet and Sagarmatha (“goddess of the sky”) in Nepal, Mount Everest once went by the pedestrian name of Peak XV among Westerners. That was before surveyors established that it was the highest mountain on Earth, a fact that came as something of a surprise—Peak XV had seemed lost in the crowd of other formidable Himalayan peaks, many of which gave the illusion of greater height. In 1852 the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India measured Everest's elevation as 29,002 feet above sea level. This remarkably accurate figure remained the officially accepted height for more than one hundred years. In 1955 it was adjusted by a mere 26 feet to 29,028 (8,848 m). The mountain received its official name in 1865 in honor of Sir George Everest, the British Surveyor General from 1830–1843 who had mapped the Indian subcontinent. He had some reservations about having his name bestowed on the peak, arguing that the mountain should retain its local appellation, the standard policy of geographical societies. Pretenders to the Throne Before the Survey of India, a number of other mountains ranked supreme in the eyes of the world. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Andean peak Chimboraso was considered the highest. At a relatively unremarkable 20,561 feet (6,267 m), it is in fact nowhere near the highest, surpassed by about thirty other Andean peaks and several dozen in the Himalayas. In 1809, the Himalayan peak Dhaulagiri (26,810 ft.; 8,172 m) was declared the ultimate, only to be shunted aside in 1840 by Kanchenjunga (28,208 ft.; 8,598 m), which today ranks third. Everest's status has been unrivaled for the last century-and-a-half, but not without a few threats. The most recent challenge came from a 1986 American expedition climbing K2 (28,250 ft., 8,611 m) in the Karakoram range. According to their measurements, K2 was actually 29,284 feet, beating Everest by a cool 256 feet. Had this figure been accepted, mountaineering history would have required drastic revision: Everest would have taken a back seat to K2, no longer thene plus ultraof geographical extremes. The Third Pole Once the North and South Poles had been reached by explorers, the next geographical feat to capture the international imagination was Everest, often called the Third Pole. Attempts to climb Everest began in the 1921, when the forbidden kingdom of Tibet opened its borders to outsiders. On June 8, 1924, two members of a British expedition, George Mallory and Andrew Irvine, attempted the summit. Famous for his retort to the press—“because it's there”—when asked why he wanted to climb Everest, Mallory had already failed twice at reaching the summit. The two men were last spotted “going strong” for the top until the clouds perpetually swirling around Everest engulfed them. They vanished for good. Mallory's body was not found for another 75 years, and it did not clear up the mystery as to whether the two men made it to the top before the mountain killed them. Ten more expeditions over a period of thirty years failed to conquer Everest, with 13 losing their lives. Then, on May 29, 1953, Edmund Hillary, a New Zealand beekeeper, and Tenzing Norgay, an acclaimed Sherpa climber, became the first to reach the roof of the world. Their climb was made from the Nepalese side, which had eased its restrictions on foreigners at about the same time that Tibet, invaded in 1950 by China, shut its borders. World famous overnight, Hillary became a hero of the British empire—the news reached London just in time for Elizabeth II's coronation—and Norgay was touted as a symbol of national pride by three separate nations: Nepal, Tibet, and India. Into the Death Zone Although not considered one of the most technically challenging mountains to climb (K2 is more difficult), the dangers of Everest include avalanches, crevasses, ferocious winds up to 125 mph, sudden storms, temperatures of 40°F below zero, and oxygen deprivation. In the “death zone”—above 25,000 feet—the air holds only a third as much oxygen as at sea level, heightening the chances of hypothermia, frostbite, high-altitude pulmonary edema (when the lungs fatally fill with fluid) and high-altitude cerebral edema (when the oxygen-starved brain swells up). Even when breathing bottled oxygen, climbers experience extreme fatigue, impaired judgment and coordination, headaches, nausea, double vision, and sometimes hallucinations. Expeditions spend weeks, sometimes months, acclimatizing, and usually attempt Everest only in May and October, avoiding the winter snows and the summer monsoons. After Hillary and Norgay's ascent of Everest, other records were broken, including the first ascent by a woman, the first solo ascent, the first to traverse up one route and down another, and the first descent on skis.

Everest Is Higher Than Ever As of Nov. 11, 1999, the new official height of Mount Everest was announced as 29,035 feet, or 8,850 meters—6 feet, or 2 meters, higher than the previously accepted measurement. The new elevation was determined using satellite-based technology: the Trimble Global Positioning System (GPS). A team of seven climbers measured the mountain from the summit on May 5, 1999, collecting data from various GPS satellite receivers at the very top of Everest. It took the climbers a number of attempts over several years until they were able to successfully set up the equipment at the summit. Everest was first measured in 1852 in the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, which established the peak as the highest on Earth. That figure (29,002 feet above sea level) remained Everest’s officially accepted height for more than one hundred years. The original 1852 measurement was remarkably accurate: in 1955 the elevation was adjusted by a mere 26 feet to 29,028 feet (8,848 meters).

New Island Emerges off the Coast of Germany Norderoogsand, a new island in the North Sea, is already a home to many birds and plants. By Jennie Wood A new island has appeared in the North Sea. A new island has emerged from the North Sea, off the coast of Germany, located sixteen miles from the German state, Schleswig Holstein. The 34 acre island has been named Norderoogsand, but it is being referred to as Bird Island because many birds, including sea gulls, grey geese, ducks, and peregrine falcons have been found there nesting or feeding. Forty-nine plant species have also been found on the island. The island appeared slowly over a ten year period from 2003 through 2013. The land mass emerged due to tidal action, not global warming. The island’s appearance surprised scientists because that area of the North Sea has strong winds and shifting tides. However, Norderoogsand was helped by its position between other islands. The surrounding islands helped to shelter it. Also, there have been very few storm surges in the area over the last decade. In early 2013, Martin Stock, a National Park Management biologist, said in a statement, “A strong storm flood could wipe the island out overnight. The plants do not have the roots necessary yet to bind the dunes together.” Other scientists have also warned that a major storm could destroy Norderoogsand, but, for now, birds and plants have a new home.

Climbing the Seven Summits About 350 mountaineers have climbed all "Seven Summits"—the highest peak on each of the seven continents. The first was Dick Bass, an American businessman, on April 30, 1985. ContinentMountainCountry and/or locationHeight FeetMeters AsiaMt. EverestTibet-Nepal29,0358,850 South AmericaMt. AconcaguaArgentina22,8346,960 North AmericaMt. McKinley (Denali)United States, Alaska20,3206,194 AfricaMt. KilimanjaroTanzania19,3405,995 EuropeElbrusRussia/Georgia18,5105,642 AntarcticaVinson MassifEllsworth Mts.16,0664,897 Australia1KosciuskoAustralia7,3102,228 1. Some climbers believe that the true Seven Summits should include Carstensz Pyramid (16,023 ft.) in Irian Jaya, Indonesia, rather than Australia's Kosciusko. Carstensz is the highest summit in Australia/Oceania, but strictly speaking, Oceania is not a continent.

Highest Mountain Peaks of the World The following table lists the highest mountain peaks of the world including mountain name, mountain range, vertical height, and location, according to the National Geographic Society. See Named Summits in the U.S. Over 14,000 Feet Above Sea Levelfor U.S. Peaks. See also Climbing the World's 14 8,000- meter Peaks, The Seven Summits, Mortals on Mount Olympus: A History of Climbing Everest, and the Everest Almanac. Mountain peakRangeLocationHeight ft.m Everest1 HimalayasNepal/Tibet29,0358,850 K2 (Godwin Austen) KarakoramPakistan/China28,2508,611 KanchenjungaHimalayasIndia/Nepal28,1698,586 Lhotse IHimalayasNepal/Tibet27,9408,516 Makalu IHimalayasNepal/Tibet27,7668,463 Cho OyuHimalayasNepal/Tibet26,9068,201 DhaulagiriHimalayasNepal26,7958,167 Manaslu IHimalayasNepal26,7818,163 Nanga ParbatHimalayasPakistan26,6608,125 AnnapurnaHimalayasNepal26,5458,091 Gasherbrum IKarakoramPakistan/China26,4708,068 Broad PeakKarakoramPakistan/China26,4008,047 Gasherbrum IIKarakoramPakistan/China26,3608,035 Shishma Pangma (Gosainthan)HimalayasTibet26,2898,013 Annapurna IIHimalayasNepal26,0417,937 Gyachung KangHimalayasNepal25,9107,897 Disteghil SarKarakoramPakistan25,8587,882 HimalchuliHimalayasNepal25,8017,864 NuptseHimalayasNepal25,7267,841 Nanda DeviHimalayasIndia25,6637,824 MasherbrumKarakoramKashmir225,6607,821 RakaposhiKarakoramPakistan25,5517,788 Kanjut SarKarakoramPakistan25,4617,761 KametHimalayasIndia/Tibet25,4467,756 Namcha BarwaHimalayasTibet25,4457,756 Gurla MandhataHimalayasTibet25,3557,728 Ulugh Muztagh KunlunTibet25,3407,723 KungurMuztagh AtaChina25,3257,719 Tirich Mir Hindu KushPakistan25,2307,690 Saser KangriKarakoramIndia25,1727,672 Makalu IIHimalayasNepal25,1207,657 Minya Konka (Gongga Shan)Daxue ShanChina24,9007,590 Kula KangriHimalayasBhutan24,7837,554 Chang-tzuHimalayasTibet24,7807,553 Muztagh AtaMuztagh AtaChina24,7577,546 Skyang KangriHimalayasKashmir24,7507,544 Ismail Samani Peak(formerly Communism Peak) PamirsTajikistan24,5907,495 Jongsong PeakHimalayasNepal24,4727,459 Pobeda Peak Tien ShanKyrgyzstan24,4067,439 Sia KangriHimalayasKashmir24,3507,422 Haramosh PeakKarakoramPakistan24,2707,397 Istoro NalHindu KushPakistan24,2407,388 Tent PeakHimalayasNepal24,1657,365 Chomo LhariHimalayasTibet/Bhutan24,0407,327 ChamlangHimalayasNepal24,0127,319 KabruHimalayasNepal24,0027,316 Alung GangriHimalayasTibet24,0007,315 Baltoro KangriHimalayasKashmir23,9907,312 Muztagh Ata (K-5)KunlunChina23,8907,282 ManaHimalayasIndia23,8607,273 BaruntseHimalayasNepal23,6887,220 Nepal PeakHimalayasNepal23,5007,163 Amne MachinKunlunChina23,4907,160 Gauri SankarHimalayasNepal/Tibet23,4407,145 BadrinathHimalayasIndia23,4207,138 NunkunHimalayasKashmir23,4107,135 Lenin PeakPamirsTajikistan/Kyrgyzstan23,4057,134 PyramidHimalayasNepal23,4007,132 ApiHimalayasNepal23,3997,132 PauhunriHimalayasIndia/China23,3857,128 TrisulHimalayasIndia23,3607,120 Korzhenevski PeakPamirsTajikistan23,3107,105 KangtoHimalayasTibet23,2607,090 NyainqentanglhaNyainqentanglha ShanChina23,2557,088 TrisuliHimalayasIndia23,2107,074 DunagiriHimalayasIndia23,1847,066 Revolution PeakPamirsTajikistan22,8806,974 Aconcagua AndesArgentina22,8346,960 Ojos del SaladoAndesArgentina/Chile22,6646,908 BoneteAndesArgentina/Chile22,5466,872 Ama DablamHimalayasNepal22,4946,856 TupungatoAndesArgentina/Chile22,3106,800 Moscow PeakPamirsTajikistan22,2606,785 PissisAndesArgentina22,2416,779 MercedarioAndesArgentina/Chile22,2116,770 HuascaránAndesPeru22,2056,768 LlullaillacoAndesArgentina/Chile22,0576,723 El LibertadorAndesArgentina22,0476,720 CachiAndesArgentina22,0476,720 KailasHimalayasTibet22,0276,714 IncahuasiAndesArgentina/Chile21,7206,620 YerupajaAndesPeru21,7096,617 KurumdaPamirsTajikistan21,6866,610 GalanAndesArgentina21,6546,600 El MuertoAndesArgentina/Chile21,4636,542 SajamaAndesBolivia21,3916,520 NacimientoAndesArgentina21,3026,493 IllampuAndesBolivia21,2766,485 IllimaniAndesBolivia21,2016,462 CoropunaAndesPeru21,0836,426 LaudoAndesArgentina20,9976,400 AncohumaAndesBolivia20,9586,388 CuzcoAndesPeru20,9456,384 (Ausangate) Toro AndesArgentina/Chile20,9326,380 Tres CrucesAndesArgentina/Chile20,8536,356 HuandoyAndesPeru20,8526,356 ParinacotaAndesBolivia/Chile20,7686,330 TortolasAndesArgentina/Chile20,7456,323 ChimborazoAndesEcuador20,7026,310 AmpatoAndesPeru20,7026,310 El CondorAndesArgentina20,6696,300 SalcantayAndesPeru20,5746,271 HuancarhuasAndesPeru20,5316,258 FamatinaAndesArgentina20,5056,250 PumasilloAndesPeru20,4926,246 SoloAndesArgentina20,4926,246 PollerasAndesArgentina20,4566,235 PularAndesChile20,4236,225 ChañiAndesArgentina20,3416,200 McKinley (Denali)AlaskaAlaska20,3206,194 AucanquilchaAndesChile20,2956,186 JuncalAndesArgentina/Chile20,2766,180 NegroAndesArgentina20,1846,152 QuelaAndesArgentina20,1286,135 CondoririAndesBolivia20,0956,125

The World's 14 Highest Mountain Peaks (above 8,000 meters)All 14 of the world's 8,000-meter peaks are located in the Himalaya or the Karakoram ranges in Asia. According to E verestnews.com, only 17 climbers have reached the summits of all 14: Reinhold Messner (Italy) was first, followed by Jerzy Kukuczka (Poland), Ehardt Loretan (Switzerland), Carlos Carsolio (Mexico), Krzysztof Wielicki (Poland), Juan Oiarzabal (Spain), Sergio Martini (Italy), Park Young Seok (Korea), Hang-Gil Um (Korea), Alberto Inurrategui (Spain), Han Wang Yong (Korea), Ed Viesturs (U.S.), Alan Hinkes (British), and Silvio Mondinelli (Italy), Ivan Vallejo (Ecuador), Denis Urubko (Kazakhstan), Andrew Lock (Australia). MountainLocationHeightFirst to summit (nationality)Date MetersFeet 1. Everest 1Nepal/Tibet8,85029,035Edmund Hillary (New Zealander, UK), Tenzing Norgay (Nepalese)May 29, 1953 2. K2 (Godwin Austen)Pakistan/China8,61128,250A. Compagnoni, L. Lacedelli (Italian)July 31, 1954 3. Kangchenjunga Nepal/India8,58628,169G. Band, J. Brown, N. Hardie, S. Streather (UK)May 25, 1955 4. Lhotse Nepal/Tibet8,51627,940F. Luchsinger, E. Reiss (Swiss)May 18, 1956 5. Makalu Nepal/Tibet8,46327,766J. Couzy, L. Terray, J. Franco, G. Magnone-Gialtsen, J. Bouier, S. Coupé, P. Leroux, A. Vialatte (French)May 15, 1955 6. Cho Oyu Nepal/Tibet8,20126,906H. Tichy, S. Jöchler (Austrian), Pasang Dawa Lama (Nepalese)Oct. 19, 1954 7. Dhaulagiri Nepal8,16726,795A. Schelbert, E. Forrer, K. Diemberger, P. Diener (Swiss), Nyima Dorji, Nawang Dorji (Nepalese)May 13, 1960 8. Manaslu Nepal8,16326,781T. Imamishi, K. Kato, M. Higeta, (Japanese) G. Norbu (Nepalese)May 9, 1956 9. Nanga Parbat Pakistan8,12526,660Hermann Buhl (Austrian)July 3, 1953 10. AnnapurnaNepal8,09126,545M. Herzog, L. Lachenal (French)June 3, 1950 11. Gasherbrum IPakistan/China8,06826,470P. K. Schoeing, A. J. KauffmanJuly 4, 1958 12. Broad PeakPakistan/China8,04726,400M. Schmuck, F. Wintersteller, K. Diemberger, H. Buhl (Austrian)June 9, 1957 13. Gasherbrum IIPakistan/China8,03526,360F. Moravec, S. Larch, H. Willenpart (Austrian)July 7, 1956 14. Shisha PangmaTibet8,01326,289Hsu Ching and team of 9 (Chinese)May 2, 1964 1. The 1955 elevation of Everest, 29,028 ft. (8,848 m), was revised on Nov. 11, 1999, and now stands at 29,035 ft. (8,850 m). See Named Summits in the U.S. Over 14,000 Feet Above Sea Levelfor U.S. Peaks. See also Climbing the World's 14 8,000- meter Peaks, The Seven Summits, Mortals on Mount Olympus: A History of Climbing Everest, and the Everest Almanac.

World Land Areas and Elevations The following table lists the approximate land area, highest elevation, and lowest elevation of the world's continents, including Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America, according to the World Atlas. AreaApproximate land area sq. kmApproximate land area sq. mi.Percentage of total land areaElevation, feet and meters HighestLowest WORLD148,647,00057,393,000100.0%Mt. Everest, Tibet-Nepal, 29,035 ft. (8,850 m)1Dead Sea, Israel-Jordan, 1,349 ft. below sea level (–411 m) AFRICA30,065,00011,608,00020.2Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, 19,340 ft. (5,895 m)Lake Assal, Djibouti, 512 ft. below sea level (–156 m) ANTARCTICA13,209,0005,100,0008.9Vinson Massif, Ellsworth Mts., 16,066 ft. (4,897 m)Lowest land point hidden within Bentley Subglacial Trench2 ASIA(includes the Middle East)44,579,00017,212,00030.0Mt. Everest, Tibet-Nepal, 29,035 ft. (8,850 m)Dead Sea, Israel-Jordan, 1,349 ft. below sea level (–411 m) AUSTRALIA (includes Oceania)8,112,0003,132,0005.3Mt. Kosciusko, Australia, 7,310 ft. (2,228 m)Lake Eyre, Australia, 52 ft. below sea level (–12 m) EUROPE(the Ural Mountains in Russia form the boundary between Europe and Asia)9,938,0003,837,0006.7Mt. Elbrus, Russia/Georgia, 18,510 ft. (5,642 m)Caspian Sea, Russia/Kazakhstan 92 ft. below sea level (–28 m) NORTH AMERICA(includes Central America and the Caribbean)24,474,0009,449,00016.5Mt. McKinley, Alaska, 20,320 ft. (6,194 m)Death Valley, Calif., 282 ft. below sea level (–86 m) SOUTH AMERICA17,819,0006,879,00012.0Mt. Aconcagua, Argentina, 22,834 ft. (6,960 m)Valdes Peninsula, Argentina 131 ft. below sea level (–40 m) 1. The 1954 elevation of Everest, 29,028 ft. (8,848 m) was revised on Nov. 11, 1999, and now stands at 29,035 ft. (8,850 m). 2. Bentley Subglacial Trench itself (ice, not land) is –8,327 ft. below sea level (–2,538 m). Source: WorldAtlas.com.

Continental Drift and Plate-Tectonics Theory Source:U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey According to the theory of continental drift, the world was made up of a single continent through most of geologic time. That continent eventually separated and drifted apart, forming into the seven continents we have today. The first comprehensive theory of continental drift was suggested by the German meteorologist Alfred Wegenerin 1912. The hypothesis asserts that the continents consist of lighter rocks that rest on heavier crustal material—similar to the manner in which icebergs float on water. Wegener contended that the relative positions of the continents are not rigidly fixed but are slowly moving—at a rate of about one yard per century. According to the generally accepted plate-tectonics theory, scientists believe that Earth's surface is broken into a number of shifting slabs or plates, which average about 50 miles in thickness. These plates move relative to one another above a hotter, deeper, more mobile zone at average rates as great as a few inches per year. Most of the world's active volcanoes are located along or near the boundaries between shifting plates and are called plate-boundary volcanoes. The peripheral areas of the Pacific Ocean Basin, containing the boundaries of several plates, are dotted with many active volcanoes that form the so-called Ring of Fire. The Ring provides excellent examples of plate-boundary volcanoes, including Mount St. Helens. However, some active volcanoes are not associated with plate boundaries, and many of these so-called intra-plate volcanoes form roughly linear chains in the interior of some oceanic plates. The Hawaiian Islands provide perhaps the best example of an intra-plate volcanic chain, developed by the northwest-moving Pacific plate passing over an inferred “hot spot” that initiates the magma-generation and volcano-formation process. Plate-Tectonics Theory—The Lithosphere Plates of Earth This figure shows the boundaries of lithosphere plates that are active at present. The double lines indicate zones of spreading from which plates are moving apart. The lines with barbs show zones of underthrusting (subduction), where one plate is sliding beneath another. The barbs on the lines indicate the overriding plate. The single line defines a strike-slip fault along which plates are sliding horizontally past one another. The stippled areas indicate a part of a continent, exclusive of that along a plate boundary, which is undergoing active extensional, compressional, or strike-slip faulting. Source:U.S. Geological Survey.

The Continents A continent is defined as a large unbroken land mass completely surrounded by water, although in some cases continents are (or were in part) connected by land bridges. The seven continents are North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica. The island groups in the Pacific are often called Oceaniabut this name doesnotimply that scientists consider them the remains of a continent. Political considerations have often overridden geographical facts when it came to naming continents. Geographically, Europe, including the British Isles, is a large western peninsula of the continent of Asia; and many geographers, when referring to Europe and Asia, speak of the Eurasian continent. But traditionally, Europe is counted as a separate continent, with the Uraland the Caucasus mountains forming the line of demarcation between Europe and Asia. To the south of Europe, Asia has an odd-shaped peninsula jutting westward, which has a large number of political subdivisions. The northern section is taken up by Turkey; to the south of Turkey there are Syria, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and a number of smaller Arab countries. All these are part of Asia. Traditionally, the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean is also considered to be part of Asia. The Caribbean islands, Central America, and Greenland are considered part of North America.

World Geography Glossary Find the definition of geography terms and phrases. (last part): Tropic of Capricorn A line of latitude located at 23°30' south. The Sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Capricorn on the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere (Dec. 20 or 21). It marks the southernmost point of the tropics. Arctic Circle A line of latitude located at 66°30' north, delineating the Northern Frigid Zone of the Earth. Antarctic Circle A line of latitude located at 66°30' south, delineating the Southern Frigid Zone of the Earth. globe The most accurate map of the Earth, duplicating its spherical shape and relative size. pole Point at which the earth turns; the north and south poles illustrate the axis on which the earth rotates. map Representation of a physical plane with selective information. Maps represent a definite area and contain detailed geographical information. atlas Combination of maps and charts. An atlas usually includes geographical information, as well as varied non-geographical information (population statistics, sea levels, etc.) about a particular location. compass A directional device that is made of a magnetic needle that synchronizes with the north and south poles. climate maps Give general information about the climate and precipitation (rain and snow) of a region. Cartographers, or mapmakers, use colors to show different climate or precipitation zones. economic or resource maps Feature the type of natural resources or economic activity that dominates an area. Cartographers use symbols to show the locations of natural resources or economic activities. For example, oranges on a map of Florida tell you that oranges are grown there. physical maps Illustrate the physical features of an area, such as the mountains, rivers and lakes. The water is usually shown in blue. Colors are used to show relief-differences in land elevations. Green is typically used at lower elevations, and orange or brown indicate higher elevations. political maps Do not show physical features. Instead, they indicate state and national boundaries and capital and major cities. A capital city is usually marked with a star within a circle. road maps Show major-some minor highways-and roads, airports, railroad tracks, cities and other points of interest in an area. People use road maps to plan trips and for driving directions. topographic maps Include contour lines to show the shape and elevation of an area. Lines that are close together indicate steep terrain, and lines that are far apart indicate flat terrain. map projections Two-dimensional representations of the three-dimensional Earth. Because projections attempt to present the spherical Earth on a flat plane, they inevitably produce distortions. Map projections are numerous and complex (e.g., there are a variety of cylindrical, conic, or azimuthal projections). Each projection has advantages and serves different purposes, and each produces different types of distortions in direction, distance, shape, and relative size of areas. One of the most famous projections is the Mercator, created by Geradus Mercator in 1569. It is a rectangular-shaped map in which all longitude and latitude lines are parallel and intersect at right angles (on a globe, meridians are not parallel, but grow narrower, eventually converging at the poles). Near the equator, the scale of the Mercator is accurate, but the farther one moves toward the poles, the greater the distortion—Antarctica in the far south and Greenland in the far north, for example, appear gigantic. The Mercator projection was used well into the 20th century, but has now been superseded by others, including the widely used Robinson projection. The Robinson projection is an elliptical-shaped map with a flat top and bottom. Developed in 1963 by Arthur H. Robinson, it is an orthophanic (“right appearing”) projection, which attempts to reflect the spherical appearance of the Earth. The meridians, for example, are curved arcs, which gives the flat map a three-dimensional appearance. But to convey the likeness of a curved, three-dimensional globe, the Robinson projection must in fact distort shape, area, scale, and distance. The Albers, Lambert, Mollweide, and Winkel Tripel are some of the other commonly used map projections.

World Geography Glossary Find the definition of geography terms and phrases. geography The study of the physical features of the earth. Includes study of regional formations and their relation to humans. latitude lines Imaginary lines running horizontally around the globe. Also called parallels, latitude lines are equidistant from each other. Each degree of latitude is about 69 miles (110 km) apart. Zero degrees (0°) latitude is the equator, the widest circumference of the globe. Latitude is measured from 0° to 90° north and 0° to 90° south—90° north is the North Pole and 90° south is the South Pole. longitude lines Imaginary lines, also called meridians, running vertically around the globe. Unlike latitude lines, longitude lines are not parallel. Meridians meet at the poles and are widest apart at the equator. Zero degrees longitude (0°) is called the prime meridian. The degrees of longitude run 180° east and 180° west from the prime meridian. geographic coordinates Latitude and longitude lines form an imaginary grid over the Earth's surface. By combining longitude and latitude measurements, any location on earth can be determined. The units of measurement for geographic coordinates are degrees (°), minutes ('), and seconds ("). Like a circle, the Earth has 360 degrees. Each degree is divided into 60 minutes, which in turn is divided into 60 seconds. Latitude and longitude coordinates also include cardinal directions: north or south of the equator for latitude, and east or west of the prime meridian for longitude. The geographic coordinates of New York City, for example, are 40° N, 74° W, meaning that it is located 40 degrees north latitude and 74 degrees west longitude. Using minutes and seconds as well as degrees, the coordinates for New York would be 40°42'51" N, 74°0'23" W. (Latitude is always listed first.) A less common format for listing coordinates is in decimal degrees. The Tropic of Cancer, for example, can be expressed in degrees and minutes (23°30' N) or in decimal degrees (23.5° N). continental drift Theory that the earth's continents at one time were once part of a singular landmass. It is believed that the continents have spread out due to plate tectonics. hemisphere A hemisphere is half the Earth's surface. The four hemispheres are the Northern and Southern hemispheres, divided by the equator (0° latitude), and the Eastern and Western hemispheres, divided by the prime meridian (0° longitude) and the International Date Line (180°). equator Zero degrees latitude. The Sun is directly overhead the equator at noon on the two equinoxes (March and Sept. 20 or 21). The equator divides the globe into the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The equator appears halfway between the North and South poles, at the widest circumference of the globe. It is 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 km) long. prime meridian Zero degrees longitude (0°). The prime meridian runs through the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, England (the location was established in 1884 by international agreement). The prime meridian divides the globe into the Western and Eastern hemispheres. The Earth's time zones are measured from the prime meridian. The time at 0° is called Universal Time (UT) or Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). With the Greenwich meridian as the starting point, each 15° east and west marks a new time zone. The 24 time zones extend east and west around the globe for 180° to the International Date Line. When it is noon along the prime meridian, it is midnight along the International Date Line. International Date Line Located at 180° longitude (180° E and 180° W are the same meridian). Regions to the east of the International Date Line are counted as being one calendar day earlier than the regions to the west. Although the International Date Line generally follows the 180° meridian (most of which lies in the Pacific Ocean), it does diverge in places. Since 180° runs through several countries, it would divide those countries not simply into two different time zones, but into two different calendar days. To avoid such unnecessary confusion, the date line dips and bends around countries to permit them to share the same time. tropics Also referred to as the torrid zone or tropical zone, all the water and land of the earth between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The tropics experience at least one day per year in which the sun passes directly overhead. Tropic of Cancer A line of latitude located at 23°30' north of the equator. The Sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Cancer on the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere (June 20 or 21). It marks the northernmost point of the tropics, which falls between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.

Millennium Milestones The 100 Most Significant Events of the Last Thousand Years Reducing the millennium to a laundry list of highlights cannot pretend to be a definitive or accurate exercise. Note that only events judged to haveworldsignificance are included. Apologies for the inevitable bias toward Western as well as twentieth century events—we are all prisoners of our own history. For a less whirlwind glance at the last thousand years, see our Millennium Timeline. *.1066— Norman Conquestof Britain *.1095—Pope Urban II calls for the Crusades *.1100s— Angkor Watis built *.1206— Genghis Khanbegins creation of largest land empire in history *.1215— Magna Cartasigned *.1260— Chartres Cathedralconsecrated *.1271— Marco Polobegins travels to Asia *.1273— Thomas Aquinas'sSumma theologica *.1300s— Renaissancebegins in Italy *.1347— Bubonic plague(Black Death) spreads in Europe *.c.1387— Chaucer'sCanterbury Tales *.1399— Tamerlanebegins last great conquest *.1438— Incan Empireformed in Peru *.1455— Gutenberg's movable-type printing press produces the Bible *.1492— Columbusreaches the New World *.1509— Michelangelobegins painting Sistine Chapel *.1513— Machiavelli'sThe Prince *.1517— Martin Lutherinitiates Reformation *.1519— Aztec Empireat height as Spanish arrive *.1520— Suleiman I“the Magnificent” presides over the Ottoman Empire's greatest period *.1522— Magellan's expedition circumnavigates the globe *.1543— Copernicuspostulates a heliocentric universe *.1582— Pope Gregory XIIIreforms calendar *.1603— Shakespeare'sHamlet *.1605— Cervantes'sDon Quixote,first modern novel *.1609— Galileomakes first astronomical observations with a telescope *.1637— DescartespublishesDiscours de la méthode *.1643— Taj Mahalcompleted *.1664— Newton's theory of universal gravitation *.1667— Milton'sParadise Lost *.1684— Leibniz's calculuspublished *.1690— Locke'sEssay Concerning Human Understanding *.1721— Bachcompletes the Brandenburg Concertos *.1755— Johnson'sDictionary of the English Language *.1760— Industrial Revolutionbegins in England *.1762— Rousseau'sThe Social Contract *.1764— Mozart(aged eight) writes first symphony *.1769— Wattpatents first practical steam engine *.1776—U.S. Declaration of Independence; Adam Smith'sWealth of Nations *.1787— U.S. Constitutionsigned *.1789— French Revolutionbegins *.1792— Wollstonecraft'sVindication of the Rights of Woman *.1796— Jennerdiscovers smallpox vaccine *.1808— Beethoven'sFifth Symphony *.1815—Battle of Waterloo crushes Napoleon *.1819— Bolívardefeats Spanish forces at Boyacá *.1826—Niepce takes first photograph *.1833— Slavery abolishedin British Empire *.1842—Long uses first anesthetic(ether) *.1859— Darwin'sOn the Origin of Species;Lenoir builds first practical internal-combustion engine *.1862— Pasteur's experiments lead to germ theory; Salon des Refusés introduces impressionism *.1867—Japan ends 675-year shogun rule *.1876— Bellpatents the telephone *.1879— Edisoninvents electric light *.1880s—Europe colonizes African continent *.1885—World's first skyscraperbuilt in Chicago *.1893— New Zealandbecomes first country in the world to grant women the vote *.1895—Lumiére brothers introduce motion pictures; Marconisends first radio signals *.1897—Herzl launches Zionist movement *.1900— Freud'sInterpretation of Dreams *.1903— Wright brothersfly first motorized airplane *.1905— Einsteinannounces theory of relativity *.1907— Picasso'sLes Demoiselles d'Avignonintroduces cubism *.1911— Rutherforddiscovers structure of atom *.1913— Forddevelops first moving assembly line *.1914— World War Ibegins *.1916— Sangerfounds international birth control movement *.1917— Leninleads the BolshevikRevolution *.1918—Global “Spanish flu” epidemic *.1922— Joyce'sUlyssespublished *.1927— Farnsworthdemonstrates working model of a television; Lemaitreproposes big bang theory *.1928— Flemingdiscovers penicillin *.1929— Hubbleproposes theory of expanding universe; U.S. stock market crash precipitates global depression *.1936— Keynes'sThe General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money *.1939— Hitlerinvades Poland; World War IIbegins *.1942—Nazi leaders at Wannsee Conferencecoordinate “final solution to the Jewish question” *.1945— Atomic bombsare dropped on Hiroshimaand Nagasaki; first electronic computer, ENIAC, is built; Arab Leaguelaunches modern pan-Arabism *.1946—First meeting of U.N. General Assembly; Churchill's “Iron Curtain” speech marks beginning of cold war *.1947— Gandhi's civil disobedience movement leads to an independent India *.1949—Communist victory in Chinaunder Mao Zedong *.1950s— Abstract expressionismintroduced

Time Tangled Island: Ancient Greece Factropica Fast Facts and quizzes Ancient Greece Quiz! Factropica Fast Facts The Oracle of Delphi, which dates to 1400 B.C., was the most important shrine in Greeceand was considered the center of the world. The Oracle at Delphi is also known as Pythiaor Sybil. People believed the Pythia could see into the future. People traveled from all over Greece and beyond to ask the Oracle of Delphi questions, ranging from when to plant crops to predict opportune times to wage war. If people didn't like Pythia's predictions, she would make another for more gold. Greek city-states agreed to work together to protect Delphi, which is on Mount Parnassus. The Oracle of Delphi was a religious site from pre-historic times to c. 395, when the Roman Emperor Theodosiusordered it closed. According to Greek legend, the first Olympics occurred in 776 BC. Opinions differ about their origins. Some credit them to Hercules, who brought a sacred olive tree to Olympia. Another myth says the hero Pelopsestablished the festival after defeating King Oenomaus in a chariot race. Olympia was famous for its temples and monuments, especially 40-foot tall, gold and ivory Statue of Zeus, which was built c. 432 BC. It is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The Lion Gate at Mycenae, which stood at the entrance to the city of Mycenae, was built c. 1250 BC. Mycenae was a center of commerce and culture in ancient Greece. Triremes were a type of ship developed and used in Greece in the 5th century B.C. These ships, which were used in warfare, had three groups of rowers who sat almost on top of each other on each side of the ship.

Time Tangled Island: Aztec Empire Factropica Fast Facts and quizzes Aztec Empire Quiz! Factropica Fast Facts The Aztecsruled what is now Mexicofrom about 1428 to 1521. Tenochtitlán (modern Mexico City) was the capital of the Aztec empire. The Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlanstood about 197 feet (60 meters) high. A shrine to the god Huitzilopochtlisat atop the Great Pyramid. It was the site of both sacrifices and festivals. The Aztecs made important developments in engineering, architecture, art, math, and astronomy. The Aztecs used two calendars: a 260-day cycle for rituals and a 365-day cycle for the civil year. The Aztec sun stone is 12 feet in diameter and shows both calendars. It is one of the most famous sculptures from the Aztec Empire. Montezumaruled the Aztecs from about 1502–1520. He was a brutal ruler, and his reign was known for continuous warfare. The Aztecs worshipped many gods, including Huitzilopochtli. He was the Aztec's primary god, and the god of the sun and of war. Hernán Cortés, along with 500 Spaniards, arrived in Mesoamericain 1519 and found the region rich in gold. He captured Montezuma and forced him to pledge allegiance to the king of Spain. Cacao beans were used as currency in the Aztec Empire. Nahuatlwas the native language of the Aztecs. Dialects of it are still spoken in rural areas of Mexico. The words avocado, chocolate, and tomato are derived from Nahuatl.

Time Tangled Island: Viking Explorers Factropica Fast Facts and quizzes: Viking Explorer Quiz! Factropica Fast Facts Vikings lived in Scandinavia, which is present day Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. The Vikings were the best shipbuilders and sailors of their time. If the direction of land was unknown, Viking sailors would release a raven into the air and follow its course. Viking warriors were buried with their weapons, but not their armor. Viking women could get divorced, own property, control their wealth, and join or lead raiding parties. Vikings used runes, a complicated system of symbols, to write their language. Each rune represented a different goddess or god. Vikings believed Valkyries, female warriors, watched over battles and decided who would die. Vikings believed their dead went to Valhalla, the banquet hall of the god Odinin Asgard. Leif Ericssonwas the first European discoverer of North America, c. 1000. The last attempt by the Vikings to establish a colony in North America occurred around 1013 A.D.

Time Tangled Island: Ancient China Factropica Fast Facts and quizzes by Mark Hughes Related Links Great Wall of China Famous Buildings and Structures Seven New Wonders Try our Great Wall of China Quiz! Factropica Fast Facts Chinese astronomers made the first recorded sighting of Halley's Cometin 240 B.C. The Chinese have been using wheeled vehicles for the last 3,500 years. Chinese mathematicians were among the first to use powers of 10 to express magnitudesand to use negative numbers. The lessons of Confuciuswere written down around 470 B.C. His teachings are notable for being ethical rather than religious, for example, centering on the golden rule of doing to others as one would have done to oneself. From 214 B.C. to 206 B.C., General Meng Dian began connecting the existing defensive walls in northern China in order to form a single fortified system that became known as the Great Wall of China. The wall became the largest human building project in history. Chinese scholars recognized the connection between ocean tides and the phases of the moon about 2,200 years ago. The Silk Road was a trade route connecting China to Europe, a distance of 8,000 miles (12,800 km). In addition to defense, the Great Wall of China was used to store and protect state documents, which were written on paper. Gunpowder was invented in Chinaaround 270 A.D. It was first used to make fireworks. About 1,500 years ago, the Chinese were making flying toys that used horizontal propellers to slow their descent. That practice is similar to modern day helicopters.

2005 World History Mahmoud Abbas (1935– ) Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (1956– ) Angela Merkel (1954– ) Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf (1938– ) 2005 Worldwide aid pours in to help the 11 Asian countries devastated by the Dec. 26, 2004, tsunami(Jan.). Mahmoud Abbaswins presidency of the Palestinian Authorityin a landslide(Jan. 9). The Sudanesegovernment and rebels from southern Sudan sign a peace agreement to end a 20-year conflict that has claimed about 2 million people(Jan. 9). George W. Bushis officially sworn in for his second term as president(Jan. 20). Iraqi elections to select a 275-seat National Assembly take place despite threats of violence. A total of 8.5 million people voted, representing about 58% of those Iraqis eligible to vote(Jan. 30).In State of the Union address, President Bush announces his plan to reform Social Security; despite months of campaigning, his plan receives only a lukewarm reception(Feb. 2).Saudis (men only) are allowed to vote for the first time in municipal elections(Feb. 10).Former Lebanese prime minister Rafik Hariri> a nationalist who had called for Syria'swithdrawal from Lebanon—is assassinated(Feb. 14). The Terry Schiavocase becomes the focus of an emotionally charged battle in Congress(March 20).Schiavo dies 13 days after a federal judge refuses to order the reinsertion of her feeding tube(March 31). Pope John Paul IIdies(April 2).Violent protests follow March elections in Kyrgyzstan,which international monitors deem severely flawed. President Askar Akayevflees the country and then resigns(April 4). Benedict XVIbecomes the next pope(April 24).The Syrianmilitary, stationed in Lebanonfor 29 years, withdraws(April 26). Tony Blairbecomes first Labour Party prime minister to win three successive terms, but his party loses a large number of seats in the elections(May 5).South Korean scientist Hwang Woo-sukannounces that he has devised a new procedure to successfully produce human stem cell lines from a cloned human embryo(May 20),but claim is discredited in Dec. 2005. The European Union abandons plans to ratify the proposed European constitution by 2006 after both France and the Netherlands vote against it(June 16).Former Tehran mayor Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, a hard-line conservative, wins Iran's presidential election with 62% of the vote. He defiantly pursues Iran's nuclear ambitions over the course of his first year(June 24).Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connorannounces her retirement(July 1). NASA's Deep Impact spacecraft hits comet Tempel 1in effort to research primordial remnants of our solar system(July 4). Londonhit by Islamic terrorist bombings, killing 52 and wounding about 700. It is Britain's worst attack since World War II(July 7). Group of Eightindustrial nations pledge to double aid to Africa to $50 billion a year by 2010, cancel the debt of many poor countries, and open trade.(July 8).Federal appeals court upholds lower court decision that so-called Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act is unlawful because it fails to make an exception to the law for women whose health would be in jeopardy without the late-term procedure(July 8).Pentagon assessment finds Iraq'spolice force is, at best, “partially capable” of fighting the country's insurgency. The U.S.'s eventual withdrawal plan hinges upon Iraqi security forces replacing U.S. soldiers: “As Iraqis stand up, Americans will stand down,” President Bush had stated(July 20).The Irish Republican Army announces it is officially ending its violent campaign for a united Ireland and will instead pursue its goals politically(July 27). President Bushsigns the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), which will remove trade barriers between the U.S. and Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua(Aug. 2).The Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) sign a peace accordto end their nearly 30-year-long civil war(Aug. 15). Israelbegins evacuating about 8,000 Israeli settlers from the Gaza Strip, which has been occupied by Israel for the last 38 years(Aug. 15). Hurricane Katrinawreaks catastrophic damage on the Gulf Coast; more than 1,000 die and millions are left homeless. Americans are shaken not simply by the magnitude of the disaster but by how ill-prepared all levels of government were in its aftermath.(Aug. 25–30).Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist,who served on the U.S. Supreme Court for 33 years, dies(Sept. 3). John Roberts, Jr.,becomes 17th chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court(Sept. 22).Another major hurricane, Rita, ravages the Gulf Coast(Sept. 23).House majority leader Tom DeLayis accused of conspiring to violate Texas's election laws. He steps aside from his House leadership position(Sept. 28).A 7.6 earthquake centered in the Pakistani-controlled part of the Kashmir region kills more than 80,000 and leaves an estimated 4 million homeless(Oct. 2). President Bushselects Harriet Miers,White House counsel, to replace Justice Sandra Day O'Connor(Oct. 3).

2004 World History Viktor Yushchenko (1954– ) 2004 Former Enron CFO Andrew Fastow pleads guilty to defrauding Enron(Jan. 13).Bush proposes ambitious space program that includes flights to the Moon, Mars, and beyond(Jan. 14).Iraq weapons investigator David Kayresigns, says there’s no evidence of weapons of mass destruction, one of the Bush administration’s chief reasons for launching war in Iraq(Jan. 23).About one third of Iran's Parliament steps down to protest hard-line Guardian Council’s banning of more than 2,000 reformists from running in parliamentary elections(Feb. 1).A.Q. Khan, founder of Pakistan'snuclear program, admits he sold nuclear-weapons designs to other countries, including North Korea, Iran, and Libya(Feb. 4).Armed rebels in Haiti force President Aristideto resign and flee the country(Feb. 29). John Kerrysecures Democratic nomination after winning nine out of ten primaries and caucuses(March 2). Spainis rocked by terrorist attacks, killing more than 200. Al-Qaedatakes responsibility(March 11).Spain's governing Popular Party loses election to opposition Socialists. Outcome seen as a reaction to terrorist attacks days before and Popular Party's support of the U.S.-led war in Iraq(March 14). North Atlantic Treaty Organizationformally admits seven new countries: Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia(March 29).U.S. troops launch offensive in Falluja in response to killing and mutilation on March 31 of four U.S. civilian contractors.(April 5–May 1).Israeli prime minister Sharonannounces plan to unilaterally withdraw from Gaza Strip(April 12).Greek Cypriots reject UN reunification plan with Turkish Cypriots(April 24).U.S. media release graphic photos of American soldiers abusing and sexually humiliating Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison. Images spark outrage around the world(April 30). Gay marriagesbegin in Massachusetts, the first state in the country to legalize such unions(May 17). Sudanrebels (SPLA) and government reach accord to end 21-year civil war. However, separate war in western Darfurregion between Arab militias and black Africans continues unabated(May 26).U.S. hands over power to Iraqi interim government; Iyad Allawibecomes prime minister(June 28).InRasulv.Bush,Supreme Court rules that “enemy combatants” held at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, are legally entitled to file petitions for writs of habeas corpus; and inHamdiv.Rumsfeld,court rules that the detention of a U.S. citizen held as an enemy combatant is invalid, rejecting government's claim that the executive branch has unreviewable authority in time of war(June 28).Israeli Supreme Court orders removal of part of security barrier dividing Israeli and Palestinian lands(June 30).Senate Intelligence Committee reports that intelligence on Iraq's weapons programs was “overstated” and flawed(July 5).Sept. 11 commission harshly criticizes government’s handling of terrorist attacks(July 22).Democratic National Convention in Boston nominates John Kerryfor president(July 26–29).Security Council demands Sudanese government disarm militias in Darfur that are massacring civilians(July 30). Florida hit by hurricanesBonnie(Aug. 12)and Charley(Aug. 13). Summer Olympicstake place in Athens, Greece(Aug. 13–29). Venezuelanpresident Hugo Chavezsurvives recall referendum(Aug. 16).Pentagon-sponsored Schlesinger report rejects idea that Abu Ghraib prison abuse was work of a few aberrant soldiers, and asserts there were “fundamental failures throughout all levels of command”(Aug. 24).Republican Convention in New York renominates President Bush(Aug. 30–Sept. 2). Chechen terroriststake about 1,200 schoolchildren and others hostage in Beslan, Russia; 340 people die when militants detonate explosives(Sept. 1–3). Hurricane Ivan ravages U.S. south(Sept. 15).U.S.’s final report on Iraq’s weapons finds no WMDs(Sept. 16). UN Atomic Energy Agencytells Iran to stop enriching uranium; a nascent nuclear weapons program suspected(Sept. 18).Bush eases trade restrictions on Libya(Sept. 20).Congress extends tax cuts due to expire at the end of 2005(Sept. 23). Hurricane Jeannehits Florida(Sept. 26).380 tons of explosives reported missing in Iraq(Oct. 25). Bushreelected president(Nov. 2).U.S. troops launch attack on Falluja, stronghold of the Iraqi insurgency(Nov. 8). Yasir Arafatdies in Paris(Nov. 11). Ukrainepresidential election declared fraudulent(Nov. 21).Red Cross alleges abuse at U.S.-run Guantánamo prison(Nov. 30). Hamid Karzaiinaugurated as Afghanistan's first popularly elected president(Dec. 7).Missile test fails; setback for Bush administration's missile defense system(Dec. 15).Massive protests by supporters of opposition candidate Viktor Yushchenko'slead to a new Ukrainian election; Yushchenko eventually declared prime minister(Dec. 26).Enormous tsunamidevastates Asia; at least 225,000 killed(Dec. 26).

2003 World History George W. Bush (1946– ) Saddam Hussein (1937– ) INA/Reuters/Archive Photos Donald H. Rumsfeld (1932– ) Paul Martin (1938– ) 2003 North Koreawithdraws from treaty on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons(Jan. 10).Illinois governor George Ryancommutes 167 death row sentences, calling capital punishment flawed(Jan. 11).White House announces huge deficits expected to top $200 billion in 2003(Jan. 15).The UN's report on Iraqi weapons inspections is highly critical, but not damning(Jan. 27).In State of the Union address, Bush announces that he is ready to attack Iraq even without a UN mandate(Jan. 28). Ariel Sharonelected Israeli prime minister(Jan. 29). Space shuttle Columbiaexplodes, killing all seven astronauts(Feb. 1).Nine-week general strike in Venezuela calling for President Chavez's resignation ends in defeat(Feb. 2).U.S. Secretary of State Powellpresents Iraq war rationale to UN, citing Iraqi weapons as imminent threat to world security(Feb. 5).Massive peace demonstrations take place around the world, protesting potential invasion of Iraq(Feb. 15).UN Security Council members France, Germany, and Russia insist that “the military option should only be a last resort” concerning Iraq(Feb. 24).Serbian prime minister Zoran Djindjic assassinated(March 12).Hu Jintao succeeds Chinese president Jiang Zemin(March 15).The United States and Britain launch war against Iraq(March 19).Baghdad falls to U.S. troops(April 9).European Union expands by ten nations(April 16).First Palestinian prime minister, Mahmoud Abbas,sworn in(April 29).U.S.-backed “road map” for peace proposed for Middle East(April 30).The United States declares official end to combat operations in Iraq(May 1).U.S. diplomat Paul Bremerbecomes civil administrator of occupied Iraq(May 12).Terrorists strike in Saudi Arabia,killing 34 at Western compound; al-Qaedasuspected(May 12). Bushsigns ten-year, $350-billion tax-cut package, the third-largest tax cut in U.S. history(May 28).Burmese opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyiagain placed under house arrest by military regime(May 30).Eric Rudolph, Olympic bombing suspect, arrested(May 31).International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) discovers Iran'sconcealed nuclear activities and calls for intensified inspections(June 18).The U.S. Supreme Court decisively upholds the use of affirmative actionin higher education(June 23).Palestinian militant groups announce cease-fire toward Israel(June 29).Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeldannounces price of Iraq war is about $3.9 billion a month, nearly double the April estimate(July 9).Iraq's interim governing council is inaugurated(July 13).Saddam Hussein's sonskilled in firefight(July 22).Mutinous troops attempt unsuccessful coup in Philippines(July 27).Terrorist bombing at Indonesian hotel kills ten(Aug. 6).Liberia's autocratic president Charles Taylorforced to leave civil war–ravaged country(Aug. 11).NATO assumes control of peacekeeping force in Afghanistan(Aug. 11). Libyaaccepts blame for 1988 bombing of flight over Lockerbie, Scotland; agrees to pay $2.7 billion to the families of the 270 victims(Aug. 15).Suicide bombing destroys UN headquarters in Baghdad, killing 24, including top envoy Sergio Vieira de Mello(Aug. 19).Palestinian suicide bombing in Jerusalem kills 20 Israelis, including 6 children(Aug. 19).Venezuelan opposition files petition for referendum to recall President Hugo Chavez(Aug. 20).After Israel retaliates for suicide bombing by killing top member of Hamas, militant Palestinian groups formally withdraw from cease-fire in effect since June 29(Aug. 24). Investigation into the loss of space shuttle Columbiacites egregious organizational problems at NASA(Aug. 25).Palestinian prime minister Mahmoud Abbasresigns; “road map” to peace effectively collapses(Sept. 6).California governor Gray Davis ousted in recall vote; actor Arnold Schwarzeneggerelected in his place(Oct. 7).UN votes in favor of a resolution ordering Israel to end construction of security barrier dividing Israeli and Palestinian areas(Oct. 24).Bush signs bill banning so-called partial-birth abortion procedure(Nov. 5).President Bush signs $87.5 billion emergency package for post-war Iraq reconstruction; this supplements $79 billion approved in April(Nov. 5).New Palestinian prime minister Ahmed Qureitakes office(Nov. 12).Alabama chief justice Roy S. Mooreforced from office after his refusal to remove monument of the Ten Commandments(Nov. 13).The Bush administration reverses policy, agrees to transfer power to an interim Iraqi government sooner than originally planned(Nov. 14).Suicide bombers attack two synagogues in Istanbul, Turkey, killing 25(Nov. 15).Massachusetts Supreme Court rules in favor of gay marriage(Nov. 18).Another terrorist attack in Istanbul kills 26; al-Qaeda suspected in both(Nov. 20).Georgian president Eduard Shevardnadzeresigns after weeks of protests(Nov. 23).

2002 World History Jacques Chirac (1932–) Tony Blair (1953–) Hugo Chavez (1954–) Hu Jintao (1942–) Luiz Ignácio Lula da Silva (1945–) 2002 The euro currency debuts in 12 European countries(Jan. 2).U.S. takes Talibanand al-Qaedaprisoners to GuantanamoBay(Jan. 10).Defrocked priest John Geoghan convicted of child molestation; church's role in cover-up sparks national outrage(Jan. 18).U.S. reporter Daniel Pearl kidnapped in Pakistan(Jan. 23). Kenneth L. Lay,chairman of bankrupt energy trader Enron, resigns; company under federal investigation for hiding debt and misrepresenting earnings(Jan. 24).President Bush's first State of Union address labels Iran, Iraq, and North Korea“an axis of evil”(Jan. 29). Queen Elizabeth IIof England marks 50 years as monarch(Feb 6).The trial of Slobodan Milosevicon charges of crimes against humanity opens at The Hague(Feb. 12).American Taliban soldier John Walker Lindhcharged with supporting terrorism(Feb. 13).Reporter Pearl confirmed dead in Pakistan(Feb. 21).Angolan UNITA rebel leader Jonas Savimbikilled in battle(Feb. 22).Tamil Tigers and Sri Lankan government sign a cease-fire agreement(Feb. 22).Hundreds in India die in Hindu-Muslim clashes(March 2).U.S. and Afghan troops launch Operation Anaconda against remaining al-Qaeda and Taliban fighters in Afghanistan(March 2).Saudi peace proposal—offering Israel normal relations with all Arab nations in return for withdrawal from occupied territories—approved at Arab Leaguesummit(March 28).Israeli tanks and warplanes attack West Bank towns of Nablus, Jenin, Bethlehem, and others in response to string of Palestinian suicide attacks. In the first three months of 2002, 14 suicide bombers killed dozens of Israeli civilians and wounded hundreds(March 29–April 21). Israeli prime minister Sharoncalls for exile of Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat(April 2).UNITA Rebels and Angolan government sign a cease-fire ending 30 years of civil war(April 4).International Criminal Court wins UN ratification, but U.S. refuses to ratify(April 11). Venezuelan president Hugo Chavezousted in coup, then reinstated(April 12, 14).U.S. and Russia reach landmark arms agreement to cut both countries' nuclear arsenals by up to two-thirds over the next ten years(May 13). East Timorbecomes a new nation(May 20).In letter to Director, FBI lawyer Coleen Rowley criticizes FBI for thwarting terrorist efforts(May 21).Dirty bomb plot foiled with arrest of Jose Padilla(June 10).U.S. abandons 31-year-old Antiballistic Missile treaty(June 13).At national conference, U.S. bishops recommend zero tolerance policy for priests who abuse children(June 14).Arthur Andersen firm convicted of destroying documents relating to former client Enron Corp.(June 15).Bush announces U.S. will not recognize an independent Palestinian state until Yasir Arafat is replaced(June 24).WorldCom, after admitting to misstating profits, files for bankruptcy—largest claim in U.S. history(July 21).Pennsylvania miners rescued after spending 77 hours in a dark, flooded mine shaft(July 28).Bush signs corporate reform bill in response to spate of corporate scandals(July 30).Bush addresses United Nations, calls for a “regime change” in Iraq(Sept. 12).Tyco executives L. Dennis Kozlowski and Mark Swartz indicted in stock-fraud scheme(Sept. 12).Terrorist bomb in Balikills hundreds(Oct. 12).Government suspended in Northern Irelandin protest of suspected IRA spy ring(Oct. 14).Former ImClone Executive Sam Waksal pleads guilty to charges including fraud and perjury(Oct. 15). North Korea admits to developing nuclear arms in defiance of treaty(Oct. 16).Vatican calls for softening of U.S. bishops' abuse policy(Oct. 18).Chechen rebels take 763 hostages in Moscow theater; Russian authorities release a gas into theater, killing 116 hostages and freeing remaining survivors(Oct. 23–26).Snipers prey upon DC suburbs, killing ten and wounding others(Oct. 2–24).Police arrest two sniper suspects, John Allen Muhammad and John Lee Malvo(Oct. 24).CIA kills six al-Qaeda members in Yemen(Nov. 4).Republicans retake the Senate in midterm elections; gain additional House seats(Nov. 5).UN Security Council passes unanimous resolution calling on Iraq to disarm or else face “serious consequences”(Nov. 8).China's Jiang Zeminofficially retires as general secretary; Hu Jintaonamed as his successor(Nov. 14).UN arms inspectors return to Iraq(Nov. 18).EPA relaxes Clean Air Act(Nov. 22).Bush signs legislation creating cabinet-level Department of Homeland Security(Nov. 25).Boston archbishop Cardinal Bernard Law resigns over growing child sexual abuse scandal in the Catholic Church(Dec. 13). Trent Lottsteps down as Republican leader after furor over pro-segregationist remark(Dec. 20).Sen. Bill Frist unanimously elected Republican leader of the Senate(Dec. 23).

2001 World History Yasir Arafat (1929–2004) Ariel Sharon (1928– ) Mohammad Khatami (1943–) World Trade Center Hamid Karzai (1957– ) 2001 Congo president Laurent Kabilaassassinated by bodyguard(Jan. 16).In final days of presidency, Bill Clintonissues controversial pardons, including one for Marc Rich, billionaire fugitive financier(Jan. 20). George W. Bushis sworn in as 43rd president(Jan. 20).Earthquake kills thousands in India (Jan. 26et seq.). Libyan convicted in Flight 103 bombing over Lockerbie, Scotland(Jan. 31).Right-winger Ariel Sharonwins election in Israel(Feb. 6).U.S. submarineGreenevillesinks Japanese fishing boat, killing 9(Feb. 9).FBI agent Robert Hanssen is charged with spying for Russia for 15 years(Feb. 20).The long-simmering resentment of Macedonia's ethnic Albanians erupts into violence (March 15et seq.). British livestock epidemic, foot-and- mouth disease,reaches crisis levels(March 23).Bush abandons global-warming treaty (Kyoto Protocol), angering European leaders(March 30).U.S. spy plane and Chinese jet collide. The 24 crew members of the U.S. plane are detained for 11 days; U.S. issues a formal statement of regret (April 2et seq.). Race riots in Cincinnati continue for several days following a shooting of an unarmed black man by a white police officer (April 7et seq.). U.S. millionaire Dennis Titobecomes first space tourist, visiting the International Space Station aboard a Russian booster(April 28).Former Klansman Thomas E. Blanton convicted of 1963 murder of four black girls in Birmingham, Ala.(May 1).After a Palestinian suicide bomber kills 5 and wounds more than 100 in a Netanya shopping mall, Israeli warplanes retaliate by bombing West Bank and Gaza strip(May 18).Four are declared guilty in 1998 terrorist bombings of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania(May 29).Balance of the Senate shifts after Jim Jeffords of Vermont changes his party affiliation from Republican to Independent. The move strips Republicans of control of the Senate and gives Democrats the narrowest of majorities (50–49–1)(June 5).Bush signs new tax-cut law, cutting taxes by $1.35 trillion over 11 years, the largest tax cut in 2 decades(June 7). Mohammad Khatami,Iran's moderate president, is reelected in a landslide(June 9).Oklahoma City bomber Timothy McVeighexecuted(June 11).Syrian forces evacuate Beirut area after decades of occupation(June 19).Former Yugoslav president Slobodan Milosevic is delivered to UN tribunal in The Hague to await war-crimes trial(June 29).Without U.S., 178 nations reach agreement on climate accord, which rescues, though dilutes, 1997 Kyoto Protocol(July 23).Bush allows stem cell research, approving federal funds for studies using existing strains of stem cells(Aug. 9).After six months of fighting, a peace agreement is signed between rebels and the Macedonian government(Aug. 13).Budget surplus dwindles; some blame the slowing economy and the Bush tax cut(Aug. 22). Terrorists attack United States.Hijackers ram jetliners into twin towers of New York City's World Trade Centerand the Pentagon. A fourth hijacked plane crashes 80 mi outside of Pittsburgh. Toll of dead is more than 3,000. Within days, Islamic militant Osama bin Ladenand the al-Qaeda terrorist network are identified as the parties behind the attacks(Sept. 11). Anthraxscare rivets nation, as anthrax-laced letters are sent to various media and government officials. Several die after handling the letters (October 5et seq.). In response to Sept. 11 terrorist attacks, U.S. and British forces launch bombing campaign against Talibangovernment and al-Qaeda terrorist camps in Afghanistan. Bombings continue on a daily basis (Oct. 7et seq.). Irish Republican Armyannounces that it has begun to dismantle its weapons arsenal, marking a dramatic leap forward in Northern Ireland peace process(Oct. 23).Plane crash kills 260 in Queens, N.Y.(Nov. 12).Afghani factions create a post-Taliban government(Nov. 27).Enron Corp., one of world's largest energy companies, files for bankruptcy(Dec. 2).Israel condemns the Palestinian Authority as a “terror-supporting entity” and severs ties with leader Yasir Arafatfollowing mounting violence against Israelis. The Israeli Army begins bombing Palestinian areas (Dec. 4et seq.). Taliban regime in Afghanistan collapses after two months of bombing by American warplanes and fighting by Northern Alliance ground troops(Dec. 9). Hamid Karzai,new interim Afghan leader, is sworn in(Dec. 22).

2000 World History Hillary Clinton (1947–) Vladimir Putin (1952–) Vicente Fox Quesada (1942–) Vojislav Kostunica (1944– ) 2000 Socialist president, Ricardo Lagos,elected in Chile(Jan. 16). George W. Bushand Al Goretake Iowa caucuses in U.S. presidential race(Jan. 22).Austria at center of European dispute after conservative People's Party forms coalition with the far-right Freedom Party, headed by xenophobe Jörg Haider(Feb. 3).First Lady Hillary Clintonofficially enters N.Y. Senate race(Feb. 6).Hijackers seize Afghan plane; release hostages in Stansted, England(Feb. 6–12).Britain ends self-rule in Northern Ireland after Irish Republican Army misses disarmament deadline(Feb. 11).NEAR spacecraft becomes first to orbit an asteroid(Feb. 14).Wary investors cause stock plunge; beginning of the end of the Internet stock boom(Feb. 25).Reformists win control of Iranian parliament for first time since 1979 Islamic revolution(Feb. 26).Gun maker Smith & Wesson limits the manufacture and distribution of handguns in light of lawsuits(March 17). Mass murder or suicide of hundreds in Ugandan doomsday cult(March 18).Acting Russian president Vladimir V. Putinformally chosen for post(March 25).Microsoft loses antitrust suit; appeal expected(April 3).Controversial Osprey plane crash kills 19 marines(April 8). Cuban boy Elián Gonzálezreunited with father after federal raid of Miami relatives' home(April 22).Vermont approves same-sex unions(April 25).“I love you” virus disrupts computers worldwide(May 4).South Carolina removes Confederate battle flag from capitol dome(May 18).Chile ends Augusto Pinochet'simmunity, clearing way for trial on murder and torture charges during years as dictator(May 24).Israeli troops withdraw from Lebanese security zone after 22 years of occupation(May 24).Former Indonesian president Suhartounder house arrest, charged with corruption and abuse of power(May 29).Britain restores parliamentary powers to Northern Ireland after Sinn Feinagrees to disarm(June 4).Presidents of North and South Korea sign peace accord, ending half-century of antagonism(June 15).British find 58 bodies of illegal Asian immigrants suffocated in Dutch truck that transported them(June 20).Elián González returns to Cuba with father(June 23).U.S. navy resumes shelling exercises of Puerto Rico's Vieques Island,used as a training site(June 25). Human genomedeciphered; expected to revolutionize the practice of medicine(June 26).Iraq believed to resume missile program(June 30).Vicente Fox Quesada elected president of Mexico(July 2).Bashar al-Assad succeeds late father, Hafez al-Assad, as Syrian president(July 10).Concorde crash kills 113 near Paris(July 25).Republican convention picks Texas governor George W. Bush as presidential candidate; Dick Cheneyfor vice presidential spot(Aug. 2).Democratic convention selects Vice President Al Gore and Sen. Joseph I. Liebermanto head ticket(Aug. 14).Los Alamos scientist Wen Ho Lee,accused of stealing sensitive nuclear weapons data, freed after serving nine months in prison(Sept. 13).Olympic Games open in Australia(Sept. 15).Six-year Whitewater investigation of the Clintons ends without indictments(Sept. 20).Yugoslav opposition claims victory; incumbent Slobodan Milosevicdenies results(Sept. 25).Danish voters reject euro(Sept. 26).Abortion pill, RU-486, wins U.S. approval(Sept. 28).Palestinians and Israelis clash, spurred by visit of right-wing Israeli leader Ariel Sharonto a joint Jewish/Muslim holy site; “Al Aksa intifada” continues unabated(Sept. 30et seq.).Nationwide uprising overthrows Yugoslavian president Milosevic(Oct. 5). Vojislav Kostunicasworn in as Yugoslav president(Oct. 7).17 U.S. sailors on navy destroyerColedie in Yemen terrorist explosion(Oct. 12).U.S. presidential election closest in decades; Bush's slim lead in Florida leads to automatic recount in that state(Nov. 7–8).Republicans file federal suit to block manual recount of Florida presidential election ballots sought by Democrats(Nov. 11).Philippine president Joseph Estradaimpeached after receiving gambling payoffs(Nov. 13).Florida Supreme Court rules hand count of presidential ballots may continue(Nov. 21).Global warming talks collapse at Hague conference(Nov. 25).Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harriscertifies Bush as winner by 537 votes(Nov. 26). Mad Cow diseasealarms Europe(Nov. 30et seq.).Israeli prime minister Ehud Barakresigns(Dec. 9).U.S. Supreme Court orders halt to manual recount of presidential votes in Florida(Dec. 9).Supreme Court seals Bush victory by 5–4; rules there can be no further recounting(Dec. 12).

The Persian Gulf War (Jan. 16, 1991–April 6, 1991) 1990 Iraq invades its tiny neighbor, Kuwait, after talks break down over oil production and debt repayment. Iraqi president Saddam Hussein later annexes Kuwait and declares it a 19th province of Iraq(Aug. 2).President Bush believes that Iraq intends to invade Saudi Arabia and take control of the region's oil supplies. He begins organizing a multinational coalition to seek Kuwait's freedom and restoration of its legitimate government. The UN Security Council authorizes economic sanctions against Iraq. Bush orders U.S. troops to protect Saudi Arabia at the Saudis' request and “Operation Desert Shield” begins(Aug. 6).230,000 American troops arrive in Saudi Arabia to take defensive action, but when Iraq continues a huge military buildup in Kuwait, the President orders an additional 200,000 troops deployed to prepare for a possible offensive action by the U.S.-led coalition forces. He subsequently obtains a UN Security Council resolution setting aJan. 15, 1991deadline for Iraq to withdraw unconditionally from Kuwait(Nov. 8). 1991 Bush wins congressional approval for his position with the most devastating air assault in history against military targets in Iraq and Kuwait(Jan. 16).He rejects a Soviet-Iraq peace plan for a gradual withdrawal that does not comply with all the UN resolutions and gives Iraq an ultimatum to withdraw from Kuwait by noonFeb. 23(Feb. 22).The president orders the ground war to begin(Feb. 24).In a brilliant and lightning-fast campaign, U.S. and coalition forces smash through Iraq's defenses and defeat Saddam Hussein's troops in only four days of combat. Allies enter Kuwait City(Feb. 26).Iraqi army sets fire to over 500 of Kuwait's oil wells as final act of destruction to Kuwait's infrastructure. Bush orders a unilateral cease-fire 100 hours after the ground offensive started(Feb. 27).Allied and Iraqi military leaders meet on battlefield to discuss terms for a formal cease-fire to end the Gulf War. Iraq agrees to abide by all of the UN resolutions(Mar. 3).The first Allied prisoners of war are released(Mar. 4).Official cease-fire accepted and signed(April 6).532,000 U.S. forces served in Operation Desert Storm. There were a total of 147 U.S. battle deaths during the Gulf War, 145 nonbattle deaths, and 467 wounded in action.

Korean War (1950–1953) 1950 North Korean Communist forces invade South Korea(June 25).UN calls for cease-fire and asks UN members to assist South Korea(June 27).Truman orders U.S. forces into Korea(June 27).North Koreans capture Seoul(June 28).Gen. Douglas MacArthur designated commander of unified UN forces(July 8).Pusan Beachhead—UN forces counterattack and capture Seoul(Aug.–Sept.),capture Pyongyang, North Korean capital(Oct.).Chinese Communists enter war(Oct. 26),force UN retreat toward 38th parallel(Dec.). 1951 Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway replaces MacArthur after he threatens Chinese with massive retaliation(April 11).Armistice negotiations(July)continue with interruptions untilJune 1953. 1953 Armistice signed(July 27).Chinese troops withdraw from North Korea(Oct. 26, 1958),but over 200 violations of armistice noted to1959.

Vietnam War U.S., South Vietnam, and Allies versus North Vietnam and National Liberation Front (Viet Cong). 1950 President Truman sends 35-man military advisory group to aid French fighting to maintain colonial power in Vietnam. 1954 After defeat of French at Dien Bien Phu, Geneva Agreements(July)provide for withdrawal of French and Vietminh to either side of demarcation zone (DMZ) pending reunification elections, which are never held. Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (from 1954onward) send civilian advisers and, later, military personnel to train South Vietnamese. 1960 Communists form National Liberation Front in South. 1960–1963 U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam rise from 900 to 15,000. 1963 Ngo Dinh Diem, South Vietnam's premier, slain in coup(Nov. 1). 1964 North Vietnamese torpedo boats reportedly attack U.S. destroyers in Gulf of Tonkin(Aug. 2).President Johnson orders retaliatory air strikes. Congress approves Gulf of Tonkin resolution(Aug. 7)authorizing president to take “all necessary measures” to win in Vietnam, allowing for the war's expansion. 1965 U.S. planes begin combat missions over South Vietnam. InJune,23,000 American advisers committed to combat. By end of year over 184,000 U.S. troops in area. 1966 B-52s bomb DMZ, reportedly used by North Vietnam for entry into South(July 31). 1967 South Vietnam National Assembly approves election of Nguyen Van Thieu as president(Oct. 21). 1968 U.S. has almost 525,000 men in Vietnam. In Tet offensive(Jan.–Feb.),Viet Cong guerrillas attack Saigon, Hue, and some provincial capitals. In My Lai massacre, American soldiers kill 300 Vietnamese villagers(March 16).President Johnson orders halt to U.S. bombardment of North Vietnam(Oct. 31).Saigon and N.L.F. join U.S. and North Vietnam in Paris peace talks. 1969 President Nixon announces Vietnam peace offer(May 14)—begins troop withdrawals(June).Viet Cong forms Provisional Revolutionary Government. U.S. Senate calls for curb on commitments(June 25).Ho Chi Minh, 79, North Vietnam president, dies(Sept. 3);collective leadership chosen. Some 6,000 U.S. troops pulled back from Thailand and 1,000 marines from Vietnam (announcedSept. 30). Massive demonstrations in U.S. protest or support war policies(Oct. 15). 1970 U.S. troops invade Cambodia in order to destroy North Vietnamese sanctuaries(May 1). 1971 Congress bars use of combat troops, but not air power, in Laos and Cambodia(Jan. 1).South Vietnamese troops, with U.S. air cover, fail in Laos thrust. Many American ground forces withdrawn from Vietnam combat.New York Timespublishes Pentagon papers, classified material on expansion of war(June). 1972 Nixon responds to North Vietnamese drive across DMZ by ordering mining of North Vietnam ports and heavy bombing of Hanoi-Haiphong area(April 1).Nixon orders “Christmas bombing” of North to get North Vietnamese back to conference table(Dec.). 1973 President orders halt to offensive operations in North Vietnam(Jan. 15).Representatives of North and South Vietnam, U.S., and N.L.F. sign peace pacts in Paris, ending longest war in U.S. history(Jan. 27).Last American troops departed in their entirety(March 29). 1974 Both sides accuse each other of frequent violations of cease-fire agreement. 1975 Full-scale warfare resumes. South Vietnam premier Nguyen Van Thieu resigns(April 21).South Vietnamese government surrenders to North Vietnam; U.S. Marine embassy guards and U.S. civilians and dependents evacuated(April 30).More than 140,000 Vietnamese refugees leave by air and sea, many to settle in U.S. Provisional Revolutionary Government takes control(June 6). 1976 Election of National Assembly paves way for reunification of North and South.

World War II (1939–1945) Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria)versusAllies (U.S., Britain, France, USSR, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Greece, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Yugoslavia). 1939 Germanyinvades Polandand annexes Danzig; Britainand Francegive Hitlerultimatum(Sept. 1),declare war(Sept. 3).Disabled German pocket battleshipAdmiral Graf Speeblown up off Montevideo, Uruguay, on Hitler's orders(Dec. 17).Limited activity (“Sitzkrieg”) on Western Front. 1940 Nazis invade Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg(May 10). Chamberlainresigns as Britain's prime minister; Churchilltakes over(May 10).Germans cross French frontier(May 12)using air/tank/infantry “Blitzkrieg” tactics. Dunkerque evacuation> about 335,000 out of 400,000 Allied soldiers rescued from Belgium by British civilian and naval craft(May 26–June 3).Italy declares war on France and Britain; invades France(June 10).Germans enter Paris; city undefended(June 14).France and Germany sign armistice at Compiègne(June 22).Nazis bomb Coventry, England(Nov. 14). 1941 Germans launch attacks in Balkans. Yugoslavia surrenders—General Mihajlovic continues guerrilla warfare; Tito leads left-wing guerrillas(April 17).Nazi tanks enter Athens; remnants of British Army quit Greece(April 27).Hitler attacks Russia(June 22).Atlantic Charter—FDR and Churchill agree on war aims(Aug. 14).Japanese attacks on Pearl Harbor, Philippines, Guam force U.S. into war; U.S. Pacific fleet crippled(Dec. 7).U.S. and Britain declare war on Japan. Germany and Italy declare war on U.S.; Congress declares war on those countries(Dec. 11). 1942 British surrender Singapore to Japanese(Feb. 15).Roosevelt orders Japanese and Japanese Americans in western U.S. to be exiled to “relocation centers,” many for the remainder of the war(Feb. 19).U.S. forces on Bataan peninsula in Philippines surrender(April 9).U.S. and Filipino troops on Corregidor island in Manila Bay surrender to Japanese(May 6).Village of Lidice in Czechoslovakia razed by Nazis(June 10).U.S. and Britain land in French North Africa(Nov. 8). 1943 Casablanca Conference—Churchill and FDR agree on unconditional surrender goal(Jan. 14–24).German 6th Army surrenders at Stalingrad—turning point of war in Russia(Feb. 1–2).Remnants of Nazis trapped on Cape Bon, ending war in Africa(May 12).Mussolini deposed; Badoglio named premier(July 25).Allied troops land on Italian mainland after conquest of Sicily(Sept. 3).Italy surrenders(Sept. 8).Nazis seize Rome(Sept. 10).Cairo Conference: FDR, Churchill, Chiang Kai-shek pledge defeat of Japan, free Korea(Nov. 22–26).Tehran Conference: FDR, Churchill, Stalin agree on invasion plans(Nov. 28–Dec. 1). 1944 U.S. and British troops land at Anzio on west Italian coast and hold beachhead(Jan. 22).U.S. and British troops enter Rome(June 4).D-Day—Allies launch Normandy invasion(June 6).Hitler wounded in bomb plot(July 20).Paris liberated(Aug. 25).Athens freed by Allies(Oct. 13).Americans invade Philippines(Oct. 20).Germans launch counteroffensive in Belgium—Battle of the Bulge(Dec. 16). 1945 Yalta Agreement signed by FDR, Churchill, Stalin—establishes basis for occupation of Germany, returns to Soviet Union lands taken by Germany and Japan; USSR agrees to friendship pact with China(Feb. 11).Mussolini killed at Lake Como(April 28).Admiral Doenitz takes command in Germany; suicide of Hitler announced(May 1).Berlin falls(May 2).Germany signs unconditional surrender terms at Rheims(May 7).Allies declare V-E Day(May 8).Potsdam Conference—Truman, Churchill, Atlee (afterJuly 28), Stalin establish council of foreign ministers to prepare peace treaties; plan German postwar government and reparations(July 17–Aug. 2).A-bomb dropped on Hiroshima by U.S.(Aug. 6).USSR declares war on Japan(Aug. 8).Nagasaki hit by A-bomb(Aug. 9).Japan agrees to surrender(Aug. 14).V-J Day—Japanese sign surrender terms aboard battleshipMissouri(Sept. 2).

The Holocaust (1933–1945) “Holocaust” is the term describing the Nazi annihilation of about 6 million Jews (two thirds of the pre-World War II European Jewish population), including 4,500,000 from Russia, Poland, and the Baltic; 750,000 from Hungary and Romania; 290,000 from Germany and Austria; 105,000 from The Netherlands; 90,000 from France; 54,000 from Greece. The Holocaust was unique in its beinggenocide—the systematic destruction of a people solely because of religion, race, ethnicity, nationality, or sexual preference—on an unmatched scale. Along with the Jews, another 9 to 10 million people—Gypsies, Slavs (Poles, Ukrainians, and Belarussians), homosexuals, and the disabled—were exterminated. 1933 Hitler named German Chancellor(Jan.).Dachau, first concentration camp, established(March).Boycotts against Jews begin(April). 1935 Anti-Semitic Nuremberg Laws passed by Reichstag; Jews lose citizenship and civil rights(Sept.). 1937 Buchenwald concentration camp opens(July). 1938 Extension of anti-Semitic laws to Austria after annexation(March).Kristallnacht(Night of Broken Glass)—anti-Semitic riots and destruction of Jewish institutions in Germany and Austria(Nov. 9).26,000 Jews sent to concentration camps; Jewish children expelled from schools(Nov. 9–10).Expropriation of Jewish property and businesses(Dec.). 1940 As war continues, Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing squads) follow German army into conquered lands, rounding up and massacring Jews and other “undesirables.” 1941 Goering instructs Heydrich to carry out the “final solution to the Jewish question”(July 31).Deportation of German Jews begins; massacres of Jews in Odessa and Kiev(Nov.);and in Riga and Vilna(Dec.). 1942 Mass killings using Zyklon-B begin at Auschwitz-Birkenau(Jan.).Nazi leaders attend Wannsee Conference to coordinate the “final solution”(Jan. 20).100,000 Jews from Warsaw Ghetto deported to Treblinka death camp(July). 1943 Warsaw Ghetto uprisings(Jan.andApril);Ghetto exterminated(May). 1944 476,000 Hungarian Jews sent to Auschwitz(May–June).D-day(June 6).Soviet Army liberates Maidanek death camp(July).Nazis try to hide evidence of death camps(Nov.). 1945 As Allies advance, Nazis force concentration camp inmates on death marches. Americans liberate Buchenwald and British liberate Bergen-Belsen camps(April).Nuremberg War Crimes Trial(Nov. 1945–Oct. 1946).

World War I (1914–1918) Imperial, territorial, and economic rivalries led to the “Great War” between the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey) and the Allies (U.S., Britain, France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Romania, Montenegro, Portugal, Italy, and Japan). About 10 million combatants killed, 20 million wounded. 1914 Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and wife assassinated in Sarajevo by Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip(June 28).Austria declares war on Serbia(July 28).Germany declares war on Russia(Aug. 1),on France(Aug. 3),invades Belgium(Aug. 4).Britain declares war on Germany(Aug. 4).Germans defeat Russians in Battle of Tannenberg on Eastern Front(Aug.).First Battle of the Marne(Sept.).German drive stopped 25 miles from Paris. By end of year, war on the Western Front is “positional” in the trenches. 1915 German submarine blockade of Great Britain begins(Feb.).Dardanelles Campaign—British land in Turkey(April),withdraw from Gallipoli(Dec.–Jan. 1916).Germans use gas at second Battle of Ypres(April–May).Lusitaniasunk by German submarine—1,198 lost, including 128 Americans(May 7).On Eastern Front, German and Austrian “great offensive” conquers all of Poland and Lithuania; Russians lose 1 million men (bySept. 6). “Great Fall Offensive” by Allies results in little change from 1914(Sept.–Oct.).Britain and France declare war on Bulgaria(Oct. 14). 1916 Battle of Verdun—Germans and French each lose about 350,000 men(Feb.).Extended submarine warfare begins(March).British-German sea battle of Jutland(May);British lose more ships, but German fleet never ventures forth again. On Eastern Front, the Brusilov offensive demoralizes Russians, costs them 1 million men(June–Sept.).Battle of the Somme—British lose over 400,000; French, 200,000; Germans, about 450,000; all with no strategic results(July–Nov.).Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary(Aug. 27).Bucharest captured(Dec.). 1917 U.S. declares war on Germany(April 6).Submarine warfare at peak(April).On Italian Front, Battle of Caporetto—Italians retreat, losing 600,000 prisoners and deserters(Oct.–Dec.).On Western Front, Battles of Arras, Champagne, Ypres (third battle), etc. First large British tank attack(Nov.).U.S. declares war on Austria-Hungary(Dec. 7).Armistice between new Russian Bolshevik government and Germans(Dec. 15). 1918 Great offensive by Germans(March–June).Americans' first important battle role at Château-Thierry—as they and French stop German advance(June).Second Battle of the Marne(July–Aug.)—start of Allied offensive at Amiens, St. Mihiel, etc. Battles of the Argonne and Ypres panic German leadership(Sept.–Oct.).British offensive in Palestine(Sept.).Germans ask for armistice(Oct. 4).British armistice with Turkey(Oct.).German Kaiser abdicates(Nov.).Hostilities cease on Western Front(Nov. 11).

1999 World History Thabo Mbeki (1942–) Eileen Collins (1956– ) NASA 1999 U.S. agrees to ease restrictions on Cuba(Jan. 4).Dennis Hastert elected to replace Newt Gingrich as Speaker of the House(Jan. 6).NBA ends 191-day labor dispute(Jan. 6).International Olympic Committee expels six members as bribery scandal widens(Jan. 24).King Hussein of Jordan dies(Feb. 7).Senate acquits President Clinton of impeachment charges(Feb. 12).Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo elected president of Nigeria(Feb. 28).First nonstop balloon flight around world completed in 20 days by Bertrand Piccard (Switzerland) and Brian Jones (UK)(March 1–20).Marine pilot acquitted in killing of 20 in 1998 Italian ski gondola accident; Italians outraged(March 4).U.S. accuses China of stealing nuclear secrets(March 5).Joe DiMaggio dies at age 84(March 8). Czech Republic, Poland, and Hungary join NATO(March 12).NATO launches air strikes on Serbia to end attacks against ethnic Albanians in Kosovo(March 24).Dr. Jack Kevorkian convicted of second-degree murder in assisted-suicide case(March 26).“Melissa” computer virus spreads through the Internet(March 27).Libya hands over two suspects in 1988 Pan Am jet bombing(April 5).Two Colo. students go on shooting spree in ColumbineHigh School, killing 15, including themselves(April 20).NATO bombs mistakenly hit Chinese embassy in Belgrade(May 7).Citadel graduates its first woman(May 8).Crime rate in U.S. falls for seventh consecutive year(May 16).Ehud Barak defeats Benjamin Netanyahu in Israeli prime minister election(May 17).U.S. inspects suspected nuclear weapons site in North Korea, finds nothing(May 20–24).Serbs sign agreement to pull troops out of Kosovo after 11 weeks of NATO air attacks(June 9).Nelson Mandela retires as president of South Africa; succeeded by Thabo Mbeki(June 16).Britain's Prince Edward marries Sophie Rhys-Jones(June 19). Kurdleader Abdullah Ocalan sentenced to death for treason in Turkey(June 29).White supremacist goes on shooting spree in Midwest, killing three including self and wounding eight(July 2–5).U.S. soccer team tops China for women's World Cup(July 10).Taiwanese leader Lee Teng-hui challenges “One China” policy(July 11).Serial killer Rafael Reséndez-Ramirez surrenders himself to U.S. authorities(July 13). John F. Kennedy, Jr., wife Carolyn Bessette Kennedy, and sister-in-law Lauren Bessette killed in plane crash off coast of Martha's Vineyard(July 16).Col. Eileen Collins becomes first female to head a space shuttle mission(July 16).Falun Gong meditation sect banned by Chinese government(July 22).Day-trader kills 9 and wounds 13 in two Atlanta brokerage offices before committing suicide(July 29).Yeltsin replaces Prime Minister Stepashin with Vladimir Putin in fourth government shakeup in 17 months(Aug. 9).Islamic militants declare independence for Dagestanand announce holy war against Russia(Aug. 10).White supremacist opens fire at Jewish community center in LA, wounding five and killing one as he flees(Aug. 10).More than 17,000 people die in 7.4 earthquake in Turkey(Aug. 17).Attorney General Janet Reno reopens investigation of 1993 Waco, Tex., stand-off(Aug. 25).People of East Timorvote for independence from Indonesia(Aug. 31).Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and PLO leader Yasir Arafat announce peace accord(Sept. 4).Larry Gene Ashbrook goes on rampage in Tex. church, killing seven and himself(Sept. 15).NASA accidentally loses $125 million spacecraft as it orbits Mars(Sept. 23).Dozens of people exposed to radiation in Japan's worst nuclear accident(Sept. 30).Russia sends ground troops to Chechnya as conflict with Islamic militants intensifies(Oct. 1).World population reaches six billion milestone(Oct. 11).Military coup led by Gen. Pervez Musharraf overthrows Pakistani government(Oct. 12).Tobacco companies admit to harm caused by cigarette smoking(Oct. 13).Senate rejects 1996 nuclear test-ban treaty; international leaders upset by U.S. stand(Oct. 13).Indonesia elects Muslim leader Abdurrahman Wahidpresident(Oct. 20).Pro golfer Payne Stewart and five others killed in plane crash(Oct. 25).EgyptAir flight crashes over Atlantic, killing all 217 on board(Oct. 31).Judge finds Microsoft to be a monopoly(Nov. 5).U.S. and China reach landmark trade agreement(Nov. 15).China launches first spacecraft(Nov. 21).Five-year-old Cuban refugee Elián González gets caught in politically charged custody battle(Nov. 25).World Trade Organization conference disrupted by violent protests in Seattle (Nov. 29et seq.). New Northern Ireland government begins self-rule for first time in 25 years(Dec. 2).Muslim terrorists hijack Indian Airlines jet with 189 on board(Dec. 24).

1998 World History 1998 Ramzi Ahmed Yousef sentenced to life for 1993 World Trade Center bombing(Jan. 9).Pope John Paul II visits Cuba(Jan. 21–25).President accused in White House sex scandal; denies allegations of affair with White House intern, Monica Lewinsky (Jan. 21et seq.). President outlines first balanced budget in 30 years(Feb. 3).U.S. plane cuts ski cable in Italy and sends car plunging; 20 killed(Feb. 3).Thousands dead in Afghanistan quake (Feb. 4et seq.). U.S. court rules line-item veto unconstitutional(Feb. 12).Serbs battle ethnic Albanians in Kosovo(March 5et seq.). U.S. drops condemnation of China's human rights record(March 13).Hindu nationalist Vajpayee becomes India's prime minister(March 19).FDA approves Viagra, male impotence drug(March 27).Federal judge in Arkansas throws out Paula Jones case(April 1).Landmark peace settlement, the Good Friday Accord, reached in Northern Ireland(April 10).U.S. trade deficit biggest in decade(April 17).Europeans agree on single currency, the euro(May 3).Unabomber, Theodore Kaczynski, sentenced to four life terms(May 4).India conducts three atomic tests despite worldwide disapproval(May 11, 13).Indonesian dictator Suhartosteps down after 32 years in power(May 21).Pakistan stages five nuclear tests in response to India's(May 29, 30).Serbs renew attack on Kosovo rebels(June 1).Life sentence meted out to Terry Nichols, convicted in Oklahoma City bombing fatal to 168(June 4).Nigerian dictator Sani Abacha dies(June 8).Congress votes to overhaul IRS(July 9).Iraq ends cooperation with UN arms inspectors(Aug. 5).U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzaniabombed(Aug. 7).Clinton admits to affair with White House intern in televised address to nation(Aug. 17).Russia fights to avert financial collapse(Aug. 17).U.S. cruise missiles hit suspected terrorist bases in Sudan and Afghanistan(Aug. 20).North Korea fires missile across Japan(Aug. 31).Swissair jet crashes; kills 229(Sept. 2).Starr Report by independent counsel outlines case for impeachment proceedings against president(Sept. 11).Senate sustains veto of bill to outlaw late-term abortions(Sept. 18).Iran lifts death threat against Salman Rushdie(Sept. 24).German chancellor Helmut Kohl defeated by Gerhard Schröder(Sept. 27).U.S. budget surplus largest in three decades(Oct. 5).Matthew Shepard, gay Wyoming student, fatally beaten in hate crime(Oct. 6).NATO, on verge of air strikes, reaches settlement with Milosevic on Kosovo(Oct. 12).Former Chilean dictator Pinochet arrested in London(Oct. 16). Wye Mills Agreementbetween Netanyahu and Arafat moves Middle East peace talks forward(Oct. 23).More than 10,000 die in Central American hurricane, Mitch(Nov. 1).Democrats unexpectedly gain five House seats in national election; Republicans keep control of House and Senate(Nov. 3).House Speaker Gingrich to step down(Nov. 9).House panel drafts impeachment charges; votes along party lines to approve four articles(Dec. 11–12).Clinton orders air strikes on Iraq(Dec. 16–19).House impeaches President Clinton along party lines on two charges, perjury and obstruction of justice(Dec. 19).

1997 World History Hale-Bopp Comet NASA Mother Teresa (1910–1997) Archive Photos Princess Diana (1961–1997) Archive Photos 1997 Two Hutu sentenced to death in Rwandan genocide(Jan. 3).Floods cause wide damage in U.S. West(Jan. 5).Newt Gingrich reelected as House Speaker(Jan. 7).Hebron agreement signed; Israel gives up large part of West Bank city of Hebron(Jan. 16).U.S. shuttle joins Russian space station(Jan. 17).Gingrich found guilty of ethics violations(Jan. 17).President Clinton starts second term(Jan. 20).U.S., U.K., and France agree to freeze Nazis' gold loot(Feb. 3).O. J. Simpson found liable in civil suit(Feb. 5).Deng Xiaoping, Chinese leader, dead at 92(Feb. 19).Israeli government approves establishment of Jewish settlement in East Jerusalem, a setback in Middle East peace process(Feb. 26). Tornadoeswreak havoc in Arkansas, Ohio, and Kentucky(March 3).State of anarchy in Albania when third of population loses savings because of pyramid schemes(March 13). Hale-Bopp cometis the closest it will be to Earth until 4397(March 22). Heaven's Gatecult members commit mass suicide in California(March 27).U.S. Appeals Court upholds California ban on affirmative action(April 8).U.S. judge upholds California marijuana law(April 11). Tiger Woodsbreaks multiple records in Masters golf tournament(April 13).Fire kills 300 pilgrims outside Mecca(April 15).Senate, 74–26, approves chemical-weapons treaty(April 24).Thousands flee North Dakota flood(April 27).Sergeant Major of the Army, Gene C. McKinney, charged in sex cases(May 7).Russian president Yeltsin signs Chechnya peace treaty(May 12).U.S.-Russian spaceship linkup in orbit ends(May 21).U.S. jobless rate for May reported 4.8%, lowest since 1973(June 6).European Union bolsters currency merger(June 16).Congress votes major tax cuts(June 26).Hong Kong returns to Chinese rule(June 30).U.S. spacecraft begins exploration of Mars(July 4).Andrew Cunanan murders fashion designer Gianni Versace(July 15). Khmer Rougehold trial of longtime leader Pol Pot(July 25).White House and GOP agree on measure to balance budget(July 28).U.S. spacecraft transmits thousands of pictures from Mars(Aug. 8).Clinton exercises new line-item veto(Aug. 11).Timothy J. McVeigh sentenced to death for Oklahoma City bombing(Aug. 14).Princess Diana, 36, killed with two others in Paris car crash(Aug. 31).Three Islamic suicide bombers kill four persons in Jerusalem(Sept. 4). Mother Teresadead at 87(Sept. 5).Swiss plan first payment to Holocaust victims(Sept. 17).Militant Taliban leaders seize Kabul(Sept. 27).Iraq expels all U.S. members of UN arms-inspection team(Oct. 29).GOP victorious in off-year elections(Nov. 4).Pakistani convicted in 1993 CIA killings(Nov. 10).Two convicted in New York World Trade Center bombing(Nov. 12).Egyptian Islamic militants kill 62 at Luxor tourist site(Nov. 17).FBI ends 16-month investigation of crash of Flight 800 off Long Island; denies sabotage(Nov. 18).European Union plans to admit six nations(Dec. 13).U.S. company launches first commercial spy satellite(Dec. 24).Paris court convicts “Carlos the Jackal” of murder(Dec. 24).

1995 World History Seamus Heaney (1939– ) Archive Photos William J. Clinton (1946– ) The White House Yitzhak Rabin (1922–1995) Archive Photos 1995 Republicans take control of Congress(Jan. 4).More than 5,000 dead in Japanese earthquake(Jan. 17et seq.). Criminal trial of O. J. Simpsonopens in California(Jan. 24).U.S. rescues Mexico's economy with $20-billion aid program(Feb. 21).Senate rejects balanced-budget amendment(March 2).Nerve gas attack in Tokyo subway kills eight and injures thousands. The Aum Shinrikyo(“Supreme Truth”) cult is to blame(March 20).Major League Baseball strike ends(April 2).Appeals court upholds woman's plea to enter Citadelmilitary academy(April 13).UN Council votes easier sanctions for Iraq(April 14).Scores killed as terrorist's car bombblows up block-long Oklahoma City federal building(April 19); Timothy McVeigh, 27, Army veteran, arrested as suspect(April 21);authorities seek second suspect, link right-wing paramilitary groups to bombing(April 22).Death toll 2,000 in Rwandamassacre(April 22).Fighting escalates in Bosniaand Croatia(May 1).U.S. shuttle docks with Russian space station(June 27).F.B.I. suspends four in Idaho siege inquiry(Aug. 11).France explodes nuclear device in Pacific; wide protests ensue(Sept. 5).Senator Bob Packwood of Oregon resigns under pressure for sexual and official misconduct(Sept. 6).Israelis and Palestinians agree on transferring West Bank to Arabs(Sept. 24).Los Angeles jury finds O. J. Simpson not guilty of murder charges(Oct. 3).Pope John Paul IIvisits U.S. on whirlwind tour(Oct. 4–8).Warring parties agree on cease-fire in Bosnia(Oct. 5).Million Man March draws hundreds of thousands of black men to capital(Oct. 16).Quebec narrowly rejects independence from Canada(Oct. 30).Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabinslain by Jewish extremist at peace rally(Nov. 4).U.S. servicemen admit rape of Japanese schoolgirl in Okinawa(Nov. 7). Nigeriahangs writer Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other minority rights advocates(Nov. 10).Irish voters approve end to constitutional ban on divorce(Nov. 24).Combatants sign Bosnia peace treaty(Dec. 14).House move stalls Congress–White House negotiations to avert government shutdown(Dec. 20). Seamus Heaneywins Nobel prizefor literature.

1996 World History Ella Fitzgerald (1918–1996) Archive Photos Madeleine Albright (1937– ) U.S. State Department Kofi Annan (1938– ) United Nations 1996 U.S. budget crisis in fourth month(Jan. 3).Clinton approves resumption of many government operations(Jan. 6).Senate ratifies major arms reduction treaty(Jan. 26). Franceannounces end to nuclear tests(Jan. 29).At least 73 dead in Sri Lankan suicide bombing(Feb. 1).Suicide bombers kill 59 in Israel(March 4).Bob Dole sweeps Republican primaries(March 5).Britain alarmed by deadly cow disease (March 20et seq.). UN tribunal charges war crimes by Bosnian Muslims and Croats(March 22).Commerce Secretary Ronald H. Brown killed in plane crash(April 3).FBI arrests suspected Unabomber(April 3).Clinton signs line-item veto bill(April 9).President blocks ban on late-term abortions(April 10).ValuJet crashes in Everglades; all 110 aboard killed(May 11). Chechnyapeace treaty signed(May 27).Israel elects Benjamin Netanyahuas prime minister(May 31). Chinaagrees to world ban on atomic testing(June 6).Leaders in Balkans sign accord on arms limits(June 14).Jazz great Ella Fitzgeralddies(June 15).Truck bomb kills 19 at U.S. base in Saudi Arabia(June 25). Boris Yeltsinis reelected in Russian election(July 3).Prince Charlesand Princess Dianaagree on divorce(July 12).747 airliner crashesin Atlantic off Long Island; all 230 aboard perish(July 17).Bomb mars Summer Olympic games in Atlanta(July 25).Clinton signs bill to raise minimum wage(Aug. 2).Congress passes welfare reform bill(Aug. 2);approved by Clinton(Aug. 22).Republican convention opens in San Diego(Aug. 12);Bob Dole and Jack Kemp nominated(Aug. 14).Democrats convene in Chicago(Aug. 26).Iraqis strike at Kurdish enclave(Aug. 31);after warning, U.S. attacks Iraq's southern air defenses(Sept. 2–3);Iraq halts attacks on U.S. planes enforcing flight exclusion zones in north and south(Sept. 13).Violence flares in Jerusalem over Israel opening tourist tunnel(Sept. 24).Taliban Muslim fundamentalists capture Afghancapital(Sept. 27).Ethnic violence breaks out in Zairian refugee camps(Oct. 13);thousands of refugees from Rwanda and Burundi abandon camps(Oct. 21).Clinton-Gore ticket wins national election; Republicans retain control of Congress(Nov. 5).Mid-air collision in India kills 342(Nov. 12).Texaco settles racial bias suit(Nov. 15).Hundreds of thousands of Hutu refugees return to Rwanda(Nov. 15–18).Clinton appoints Madeleine Albrightas first female U.S. secretary of state(Dec. 5). Kofi Annannamed UN secretary-general(Dec. 13).FBI agent charged with spying for Moscow(Dec. 18).Thousands march in Belgrade in continuing protest against president's annulment of election results(Dec. 26).

1993 World History Toni Morrison (1931– ) Archive Photos Ruth Bader Ginsburg (1933– ) U.S. Supreme Court 1993 Vaclav Havelelected as Czechpresident(Jan. 26).Clinton agrees to compromise on military's ban on homosexuals(Jan. 29).U.S. begins airlift of supplies to besieged Bosniatowns(Feb. 28).Federal agents besiege Texas Branch Davidianreligious cult after six are killed in raid (March 1et seq.). Five arrested, sixth sought in bombing of World Trade Center in New York(March 29).Two police officers convicted on federal civil rights charges in Rodney King beating(April 17);sentenced(Aug. 4).Fire kills 72 as cult standoff in Texas ends with federal assault(April 19).President of Sri Lankaassassinated(May 1).British Commons approves European unity pact(May 20).Twenty-two UN troops killed in Somalia(June 5). Ruth Bader Ginsburgappointed to Supreme Court(June 14).Iraq accepts UN weapons monitoring(July 19).Vincent W. Foster, Jr., senior White House lawyer, commits suicide(July 22).Midwest flood damage expected to exceed $10 billion(July 24). Israeli-Palestinianaccord reached(Aug. 28).U.S. agents blamed in Waco, Tex., siege(Oct. 1). Yeltsin's forces crush revolt in Russian Parliament (Oct. 4et seq.). Chinabreaks nuclear test moratorium(Oct. 5). Canada's opposition Liberal Party regains power in landslide(Oct. 25).Europe's Maastricht Treaty takes effect, creating European Union(Nov. 1).Jean Chretien sworn in as Canada's 20th prime minister(Nov. 4).House of Representatives approves North American Free Trade Agreement(Nov. 17);Senate follows(Nov. 21). South Africaadopts majority rule constitution(Nov. 18).Clinton signs Brady bill regulating firearms purchases(Nov. 30). Toni Morrisonwins Nobel prizefor literature.

1994 World History Nelson Mandela (1918– ) AMW Pressedienst/Archive Photos Jean-Bertrand Aristide (1953– ) Consolidated News/Archive Photos 1994 Serbs' heavy weapons pound Sarajevo(Jan. 5–6).Olympic figure skater Nancy Kerriganattacked(Jan. 6);three arrested in attack(Jan. 13).Major earthquake jolts Los Angeles; 51 dead(Jan. 17et seq.). Clintonends trade embargo on Vietnam(Feb. 9). Aldrich Ames, high C.I.A. official, charged with spying for Soviets(Feb. 22).Four convicted in World Trade Center bombing(March 4). Mexicanpresidential candidate assassinated(March 23). Rwandangenocide of Tutsis by Hutus begins; estimated 800,000 slaughtered in c. 100 days(April 6). South Africaholds first interracial national election(April 29); Nelson Mandelaelected president. Israel and Palestinianssign accord(May 4).Clinton accused of sexual harassment while governor of Arkansas(May 6).Congress votes protection for women's health clinics(May 12). O. J. Simpsonarrested in killings of wife, Nicole Brown Simpson, and friend, Ronald Goldman(June 18).Supreme Court approves limit on abortion protests(June 30).Senate confirms Stephen G. Breyerfor Supreme Court(July 29).Women's health clinic doctor shot dead outside Florida clinic(July 29).Major league baseball players strike(Aug. 13).“Carlos the Jackal,” international terrorist, captured(Aug. 15). IRAdeclares cease-fire in Northern Ireland(Aug. 31).Small plane crashes into White House(Sept. 12).Baseball owners end season and cancel World Series(Sept. 14).Powerful earthquakestrikes Japan(Oct. 4). Aristidereturns to joyous Haiti(Oct. 4).U.S. sends forces to Persian Gulf(Oct. 7).Ulster Protestants declare cease-fire(Oct. 13).Israel and Jordan sign peace treaty(Oct. 17). Reagan, 83, reveals he has Alzheimer's disease(Nov. 6).G.O.P. wins control of House and Senate(Nov. 8).Aristide forms Haitian government with prime minister and full cabinet(Nov. 9).Clinton orders Bosnian arms embargo ended(Nov. 10).Newt Gingrich named House Speaker(Dec. 5). Bentsenresigns as Treasury Secretary(Dec. 6).Russians attack secessionist Republic of Chechnya(Dec. 11et seq.). John Salvi kills two at Massachusetts Planned Parenthood clinic(Dec. 30).

1991 World History Boris Yeltsin (1931–2007) Imapress/Archive Photos 1991 U.S. and Allies at war with Iraq(Jan. 15). Warsaw Pactdissolves military alliance(Feb. 25).Cease-fire ends Persian Gulf War; UN forces are victorious(April 3).Europeans end sanctions on South Africa(April 15).Supreme Court limits death row appeals(April 16).Winnie Mandela sentenced in kidnapping(May 13).William H. Webster retires as director of CIA; Robert H. Gates succeeds him(May 14).France agrees to sign 1968 treaty banning spread of atomic weapons(June 3).Communist government of Albaniaresigns(June 4). Jiang Qing, widow of Mao, commits suicide(June 4).South African Parliament repeals apartheidlaws(June 5).Warsaw Pact dissolved(July 1).Boris N. Yeltsininaugurated as first freely elected president of Russian Republic(July 10).Bush-Gorbachev summit negotiates strategic arms reduction treaty(July 31).China accepts nuclear nonproliferation treaty(Aug. 10). Lithuania, Estonia, and Latviawin independence(Aug. 25);Bush recognizes them(Sept. 2).Haitian troops seize president in uprising(Sept. 30).U.S. suspends assistance to Haiti(Oct. 1).Professor Anita Hill accuses Judge Clarence Thomasof sexual harassment(Oct. 6);Senate, 52–48, confirms Thomas for Supreme Court after stormy hearings(Oct. 15). Israeland Soviet Union resume relations after 24 years(Oct. 18).U.S. indicts two Libyans in 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland(Nov. 15).Anglican envoy Terry Waite and U.S. Prof. Thomas M. Sutherland freed by Lebanese(Nov. 18).Last three U.S. hostages freed in Lebanon(Dec. 2–4). Soviet Unionbreaks up after President Gorbachev's resignation; constituent republics form Commonwealth of Independent States(Dec. 25).

1992 World History 1992 Yugoslav Federationbroken up(Jan. 15). Bushand Yeltsinproclaim formal end to cold war(Feb. 1).U.S. lifts trade sanctions against China(Feb. 21).U.S. recognizes three former Yugoslav republics(April 7).Gen. Noriega, former Panama leader, convicted in U.S. court(April 9).Four police officers acquitted in Los Angeles beating of Rodney King; rioting erupts in South-Central Los Angeles (April 29et seq.). Caspar W. Weinberger indicted in Iran-Contraaffair(June 16).Last Western hostages freed in Lebanon(June 17).Supreme Court reaffirms right to abortion(June 29).Democrats nominate Bill Clintonand Al Gore(July 1).Gen. Noriega sentenced to 40 years on drug charges(July 10).Court clearsExxon Valdezskipper(July 10).Israeli Parliament approves Yitzhak Rabin's coalition government, dominated by Labor Party(July 13).Police officers acquitted in April on criminal charges in Rodney King beating are indicted on federal civil rights charges(Aug. 5).North American trade compact announced(Aug. 12).Republicans renominate Bush and Quayle(Aug. 20).UN expels Serbian-dominated Yugoslavia(Sept. 22).Senate ratifies second Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty(Oct. 1).Top Japanese leader, Shin Kanemaru, resigns in scandal(Oct. 14).Bill Clinton elected president, Al Gore vice president; Democrats keep control of Congress(Nov. 3).Russian Parliament approves START treaty(Nov. 4).U.S. forces leave Philippines, ending nearly a century of American military presence(Nov. 24). CzechoslovakParliament approves separation into two nations(Nov. 25).UN approves U.S.-led force to guard food for Somalia(Dec. 3). Princeand Princess of Walesagree to separate(Dec. 9).Bush pardons former Reagan administration officials involved in Iran-Contra affair(Dec. 24).

1988 World History François Mitterrand (1916–1996) The French Consulate, Boston Benazir Bhutto (1953–2007) Muzammil Paha/Reuters/Archive Photos 1988 U.S. and Canada reach free trade agreement(Jan. 2).Robert C. McFarlane, former National Security Adviser, pleads guilty in Iran-Contracase(March 11).U.S. Navy ship shoots down Iranian airliner in Persian Gulf, mistaking it for jet fighter; 290 killed(July 3).Terrorists kill nine tourists on Aegean cruise(July 11).Democratic convention nominates Gov. Michael Dukakisof Massachusetts for president and Texas senator Lloyd Bentsenfor vice president (July 17et seq.). Republicans nominate George Bushfor president and Indiana senator Dan Quaylefor vice president (Aug. 15et seq.). Plane blast kills Pakistani president Mohammad Zia ul-Haq(Aug. 17).Republicans sweep 40 states in election. Bush beats Dukakis(Nov. 8). Benazir Bhutto, first Islamic woman prime minister, chosen to lead Pakistan(Dec. 2).Pan-Am 747 explodes from terrorist bomband crashes in Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 aboard and 11 on ground(Dec. 21).

1989 World History General Colin Powell (1937– ) U.S. Army Photos Dalai Lama (1935– ) Priscilla Lee Mikhail S. Gorbachev (1931– ) Novosti Photos George Bush (1924– ) The Republican National Committee 1989 U.S. planes shoot down two Libyan fighters over international waters in Mediterranean(Jan. 4).Emperor Hirohitoof Japan dead at 87(Jan. 7). George Herbert Walker Bushinaugurated as 41st U.S. president(Jan. 20).Iran's Ayatollah Khomeinideclares author Salman Rushdie's bookThe Satanic Versesoffensive and sentences him to death(Feb. 14).Ruptured tankerExxon Valdezsends 11 million gallons of crude oil into Alaska's Prince William Sound(March 24).Tens of thousands of Chinese students take over Beijing's Tiananmen Squarein rally for democracy (April 19et seq.). U.S. jury convicts Oliver Northin Iran-Contraaffair(May 4).More than one million in Beijing demonstrate for democracy; chaos spreads across nation (mid-Mayet seq.). Mikhail S. Gorbachevnamed Soviet president(May 25).Thousands killed in Tiananmen Square as Chinese leaders take hard line toward demonstrators (June 4et seq.). Army general Colin R. Powellis first black chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff(Aug. 9). P. W. Bothaquits as South Africa's president(Aug. 14).Voyager 2spacecraft speeds by Neptuneafter making startling discoveries about the planet and its moons(Aug. 29). Deng Xiaopingresigns from China's leadership(Nov. 9).After 28 years, Berlin Wallis open to West(Nov. 11).Czech Parliament ends Communists' dominant role(Nov. 30).Romanian uprising overthrows Communist government (Dec. 15et seq.); President Ceausescuand wife executed(Dec. 25).U.S. troops invade Panama, seeking capture of Gen. Manuel Noriega(Dec. 20);resistance to U.S. collapses(Dec. 24). Dalai Lamawins Nobel Peace Prize.

1990 World History Lech Walesa (1943– ) Archive Photos Hubble Space Telescope NASA 1990 World Wide Web debuts, popularizes Internet. Gen. Manuel Noriegasurrenders in Panama(Jan. 3). YugoslavCommunists end 45-year monopoly of power(Jan. 22). Soviet Communistsrelinquish sole power(Feb. 7). South Africafrees Nelson Mandela, imprisoned 271/2 years(Feb. 11). Violeta Barrios de Chamorroinaugurated as Nicaraguan president. Hubble Space Telescopelaunched(April 25).U.S.-Soviet summit reaches accord on armaments(June 1).Western Alliance ends cold warand proposes joint action with Soviet Union and Eastern Europe(July 6).U.S. Appeals Court overturns Oliver North's Iran-Contraconviction(July 20).Iraqi troops invade Kuwait and seize petroleum reserves, setting off Persian Gulf War(For detailed chronology, see The Persian Gulf War.) (Aug. 2et seq.). East and West Germanyreunited(Oct. 3).Republicans set back in midterm elections(Nov. 8). Gorbachevassumes emergency powers(Nov. 17).Leaders of 34 nations in Europe and North America proclaim a united Europe(Nov. 21).Margaret Thatcherresigns as British prime minister(Nov. 22); John Majorsucceeds her(Nov. 28).Lech Walesawins Poland's runoff presidential election(Dec. 9). Haitielects leftist priest as president in first democratic election(Dec. 17).

1986 World History Corazon Aquino (1933– ) Embassy of the Philippines William Rehnquist (1924–2005) Archive Photos Yoweri Museveni (1944– ) Archive Photos 1986 Spain and Portugal join European Economic Community(Jan. 1).President freezes Libyan assets in U.S.(Jan. 8).Supreme Court bars racial bias in trial jury selection(Jan. 14). Voyager 2spacecraft reports secrets of Uranus(Jan. 26).Space shuttle Challengerexplodes after launch at Cape Canaveral, Fla., killing all seven aboard(Jan. 28).Haiti president Jean-Claude Duvalierflees to France(Feb. 7).President Marcosflees Philippines after ruling 20 years, as newly elected Corazon Aquinosucceeds him(Feb. 26).Prime Minister Olof Palmeof Sweden shot dead(Feb. 28).Austrian president Kurt Waldheim's service as Nazi army officer revealed(March 3).Union Carbide agrees to settlement with victims of Bhopalgas leak in India(March 22).Halley's cometyields information on return visit(April 10).U.S. planes attack Libyan “terrorist centers”(April 14).Desmond Tutuelected archbishop in South Africa(April 14).Major nuclear accident at Soviet Union's Chernobylpower station alarms world (April 26et seq.). Ex-Navy analyst, Jonathan Jay Pollard, 31, guilty as spy for Israel(June 4).Supreme Court reaffirms abortion rights(June 11). World Courtrules U.S. broke international law in mining Nicaraguan waters(June 27).Supreme Court voids automatic provisions of budget-balancing law(July 7).Jerry A. Whitworth, ex-Navy radioman, convicted as spy(July 24);he is also part of Walker family spy ring. Muslim captors release Rev. Lawrence Martin Jenco(July 26).Senate Judiciary Committee approves William H. Rehnquistas chief justice of U.S.(Aug. 14).House votes arms appropriations bill rejecting administration's “Star Wars” policy(Aug. 15).Three Lutheranchurch groups in U.S. set to merge(Aug. 29).Congress overrides Reagan veto of stiff sanctions against South Africa(Sept. 29andOct. 2).Congress approves immigration bill barring hiring of illegal aliens, with amnesty provision(Oct. 17).Reagan signs $11.7-billion budget reduction measure(Oct. 21).He approves sweeping revision of U.S. tax code(Oct. 22).Democrats triumph in elections, gaining eight seats to win Senate majority(Nov. 4).Secret initiative to send arms to Iran revealed (Nov. 6et seq.); Reagan denies exchanging arms for hostages and halts arms sales(Nov. 19);diversion of funds from arms sales to Nicaraguan Contrasrevealed(Nov. 25).

1987 World History Margaret Thatcher (1925– ) British Information Service 1987 William Buckley, U.S. hostage in Lebanon, reported slain(Jan. 20).Supreme Court rules Rotary Clubsmust admit women(May 4).Iraqi missiles kill 37 in attack on U.S. frigateStarkin Persian Gulf(May 17);Iraqi president apologizes(May 18).Prime Minister Thatcherwins rare third term in Britain(June 11).Supreme Court justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr., retires(June 26).Klaus Barbie, 73, Gestapowartime chief in Lyon, sentenced to life by French court for war crimes(July 4). Oliver North, Jr., tells congressional inquiry higher officials approved his secret Iran-Contraoperations(July 7–10).Admiral John M. Poindexter, former National Security Adviser, testifies he authorized use of Iran arms sale profits to aid Contras(July 15–22).Secretary of State George P. Shultztestifies he was deceived repeatedly on Iran-Contra affair(July 23–24).Defense Secretary Caspar W. Weinberger tells inquiry of official deception and intrigue(July 31, Aug. 3).Reagan says Iran-Contra arms policy went astray and accepts responsibility(Aug. 12).Severe earthquakestrikes Los Angeles, leaving 100 injured and six dead(Oct. 1).Senate, 58–42, rejects Robert H. Borkas Supreme Court justice(Oct. 23).

1984 World History Indira Gandhi (1917–1984) The Permanent Mission of India to the UN 1984 Bell System broken up(Jan. 1).France gets first deliveries of Soviet natural gas(Jan. 1).Syria frees captured U.S. Navy pilot, Lieut. Robert C. Goodman, Jr.(Jan. 3).U.S. and Vatican exchange diplomats after 116-year hiatus(Jan. 10).Reagan orders U.S. Marines withdrawn from Beirut international peacekeeping force(Feb. 7). Yuri V. Andropovdies at 69; Konstantin U. Chernenko, 72, named Soviet Union leader(Feb. 9).Italy and Vatican agree to end Roman Catholicism as state religion(Feb. 18).Reagan ends U.S. role in Beirut by relieving Sixth Fleet from peacekeeping force(March 30).Congress rebukes President Reagan on use of federal funds for mining Nicaraguan harbors(April 10).Soviet Union withdraws from summer Olympic games in U.S., and other bloc nations follow (May 7et seq.). José Napoleón Duarte, moderate, elected president of El Salvador(May 11).Three hundred slain as Indian Army occupies Sikh Golden Temple in Amritsar(June 6).Thirty-ninth Democratic National Convention, in San Francisco, nominates Walter F. Mondale and Geraldine A. Ferraro(July 16–19).Thirty-third Republican National Convention, at Dallas, renominates President Reagan and Vice President Bush(Aug. 20–25). Brian Mulroneyand Conservative party win Canadian election in landslide(Sept. 4).Indian prime minister Indira Gandhiassassinated by two Sikh bodyguards; 1,000 killed in anti-Sikh riots; son Rajivsucceeds her(Oct. 31).President Reagan re-elected in landslide with 59% of vote(Nov. 6).Toxic gas leaks from Union Carbide plant in Bhopal, India, killing 2,000 and injuring 150,000(Dec. 3).

1985 World History 1985 Ronald Reagan, 73, takes oath for second term as 40th president(Jan. 20).General Westmorelandsettles libel action against CBS(Feb. 18).Prime Minister Margaret Thatcheraddresses Congress, endorsing Reagan's policies(Feb. 20).USSR leader Chernenko dies at 73 and is replaced by Mikhail Gorbachev, 54(March 11).Two Shi'ite Muslimgunmen capture TWA airliner with 133 aboard, 104 of them Americans(June 14);39 remaining hostages freed in Beirut(June 30).Supreme Court, 5–4, bars public school teachers from parochial schools(July 1).Arthur James Walker, 50, retired naval officer, convicted by federal judge of participating in Soviet spy ring operated by his brother, John Walker(Aug. 9). P.L.O.terrorists hijackAchille Lauro,Italian cruise ship, with 80 passengers, plus crew(Oct. 7);American, Leon Klinghoffer, killed(Oct. 8); Italian government toppled by political crisis over hijacking(Oct. 16).John A. Walker and son, Michael I. Walker, 22, sentenced in Navy espionage case(Oct. 28).Reagan and Gorbachev meet at summit(Nov. 19);agree to step up arms control talks and renew cultural contacts(Nov. 21).Terrorists seize Egyptian Boeing 737 airliner after takeoff from Athens(Nov. 23);59 dead as Egyptian forces storm plane on Malta(Nov. 24).U.S. budget-balancing bill enacted(Dec. 12).

1980 World History Ronald Reagan (1911–2004) The Republican National Committee 1980 Six U.S. embassy aides escape from Iran with Canadian help(Jan. 29).F.B.I.'s undercover operation “Abscam” (for Arab scam) implicates public officials(Feb. 2).U.S. breaks diplomatic ties with Iran(April 7).Eight U.S. servicemen are killed and five are injured as helicopter and cargo plane collide in abortive desert raid to rescue American hostagesin Tehran(April 25).Supreme Court upholds limits on federal aid for abortions(June 30). Shah of Irandies at 60(July 27). Anastasio Somoza Debayle, ousted Nicaragua ruler, and two aides assassinated in Asunción, Paraguay capital(Sept. 17).Iraq troops hold 90 square miles of Iran after invasion; 8-year Iran-Iraq warbegins(Sept. 19). Ronald Reaganelected president in Republican sweep(Nov. 4).Three U.S. nuns and lay worker found shot in El Salvador(Dec. 4). John Lennonof the Beatles shot dead in New York City(Dec. 8).Smallpox eradicated.

1981 World History Sandra Day O'Connor (1930– ) U.S. Supreme Court 1981 Ronald Reagantakes oath as 40th president(Jan. 20).U.S.-Iran agreement frees 52 hostages held in Tehransince 1979(Jan. 20);hostages welcomed back in U.S.(Jan. 25).President Reagan wounded by gunman, with press secretary and two law-enforcement officers(March 30).Pope John Paul IIwounded by gunman(May 14).Reagan nominates Judge Sandra Day O'Connor, 51, of Arizona, as first woman on Supreme Court(July 7).More than 110 die in collapse of aerial walkways in lobby of Hyatt Regency Hotel in Kansas City; 188 injured(July 18).Air controllers strike, disrupting flights(Aug. 3);government dismisses strikers(Aug. 11). AIDSis first identified.

1982 World History 1982 British overcome Argentina in Falklandswar(April 2–June 15). Israel invades Lebanonin attack on P.L.O.(June 4).John W. Hinckley, Jr., found not guilty because of insanity in shooting of President Reagan(June 21). Alexander M. Haig, Jr., resigns as secretary of state(June 25).Equal Rights Amendment fails ratification(June 30). Princess Grace, 52, dies of injuries when car plunges off mountain road; daughter Stephanie, 17, suffers serious injuries(Sept. 14).Lebanese Christian Phalangists kill hundreds of people in two Palestinian refugee camps in West Beirut(Sept. 15). Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet leader, dies at 75(Nov. 10). Yuri V. Andropov, 68, chosen as successor(Nov. 15).Permanent artificial heart implanted in human for first time in Dr. Barney B. Clark, 61, at University of Utah Medical Center in Salt Lake City(Dec. 2).

1983 World History 1983 Pope John Paul II signs new Roman Catholic code incorporating changes brought about by Second Vatican Council(Jan. 25).Second space shuttle,Challenger,makes successful maiden voyage, which includes the first U.S. space walk in nine years(April 4).U.S. Supreme Court declares many local abortion restrictions unconstitutional(June 15). Sally K. Ride, 32, first U.S. woman astronaut in space as a crew member aboard space shuttleChallenger(June 18).U.S. admits shielding former Nazi Gestapo chief Klaus Barbie, 69, the “butcher of Lyon,” wanted in France for war crimes(Aug. 15).Benigno S. Aquino, Jr., 50, political rival of Philippines president Marcos, slain in Manila(Aug. 21).South Korean Boeing 747 jetliner bound for Seoul apparently strays into Soviet airspace and is shot down by a Soviet SU-15 fighter after it had tracked the airliner for two hours; all 269 aboard are killed, including 61 Americans(Aug. 30).Terrorist explosion kills 237 U.S. Marines in Beirut(Oct. 23).U.S. and Caribbean allies invade Grenada(Oct. 25).

1970 – 1979 World History Richard Nixon (1913–1994) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Mao Zedong (1893–1976) Agence France Press/Archive Photos Ingmar Bergman (1918–2007) Archive Photos Lyndon B. Johnson (1908–1973) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Duke Ellington (1899–1974) Archive Photos Anwar Sadat (1918–1981) Archive Photos Pope John Paul II (1920–2005) Archive Photos Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (1900–1989) Permanent Mission of Islamic Republic of Iran to the UN Tennessee Williams (1911–1983) Archive Photos 1970 Biafra surrenders after 32-month fight for independence from Nigeria(Jan. 15).Rhodesia severs last tie with British crown and declares itself a racially segregated republic(March 1).U.S. troops invade Cambodia(May 1).Four students at Kent State University in Ohio slain by National Guardsmen at demonstration protesting incursion into Cambodia(May 4).Senate repeals Gulf of Tonkin resolution(June 24). 1971 Supreme Court rules unanimously that busing of students may be ordered to achieve racial desegregation(April 20).Anti-war militants attempt to disrupt government business in Washington(May 3)—police and military units arrest as many as 12,000; most are later released. Pentagon Paperspublished(June).Twenty-sixth Amendment to U.S. Constitution lowers voting age to 18. UN seats Communist China and expels Nationalist China(Oct. 25). 1972 President Nixonmakes unprecedented eight-day visit to Communist China and meets with Mao Zedong(Feb. 21–27).Britain takes over direct rule of Northern Irelandin bid for peace(March 24).Gov. George C. Wallaceof Alabama is shot by Arthur H. Bremer at Laurel, Md., political rally(May 15).Five men are apprehended by police in attempt to bug Democratic National Committee headquarters in Washington, D.C.'s Watergatecomplex—start of the Watergate scandal(June 17).Supreme Court rules that death penalty is unconstitutional(June 29).Eleven Israeli athletes at Olympic Games in Munich are killed after eight members of an Arab terrorist group invade Olympic Village; five guerrillas and one policeman are also killed(Sept. 5).“Christmas bombing” of North Vietnam(Dec. 25). 1973 Great Britain, Ireland, and Denmark enter European Economic Community(Jan. 1).Supreme Court rules on Roe v. Wade(Jan. 22).Vietnam War ends with signing of peace pacts(Jan. 27).Nixon, on national TV, accepts responsibility, but not blame, for Watergate; accepts resignations of advisers H. R. Haldeman and John D. Ehrlichman, fires John W. Dean III as counsel(April 30).Greek military junta abolishes monarchy and proclaims republic(June 1).U.S. bombing of Cambodiaends, marking official halt to 12 years of combat activity in Southeast Asia(Aug. 15).Chile's Marxist president, Salvadore Allende, is overthrown(Sept. 11).Fourth and biggest Arab-Israeliconflict begins as Egyptian and Syrian forces attack Israel as Jews mark Yom Kippur, holiest day in their calendar(Oct. 6). Spiro T. Agnewresigns as vice president and then, in federal court in Baltimore, pleads no contest to charges of evasion of income taxes on $29,500 he received in 1967, while governor of Maryland. He is fined $10,000 and put on three years' probation(Oct. 10).In the “Saturday Night Massacre,” Nixon fires special Watergate prosecutor Archibald Cox and Deputy Attorney General William D. Ruckelshaus; Attorney General Elliot L. Richardson resigns(Oct. 20).Egypt and Israel sign U.S.-sponsored cease-fire accord(Nov. 11). Duke Ellington's autobiography,Music Is My Mistress,is published. 1974 Patricia Hearst, 19-year-old daughter of publisher Randolph Hearst, kidnapped by Symbionese Liberation Army(Feb. 5).House Judiciary Committee adopts three articles of impeachment charging President Nixon with obstruction of justice, failure to uphold laws, and refusal to produce material subpoenaed by the committee(July 30).Richard M. Nixon announces he will resign the next day, the first president to do so(Aug. 8).Vice President Gerald R. Fordof Michigan is sworn in as 38th president of the U.S.(Aug. 9).Ford grants “full, free, and absolute pardon” to ex-president Nixon(Sept. 8). 1975 John N. Mitchell, H. R. Haldeman, John D. Ehrlichman found guilty of Watergatecover-up(Jan. 1);sentenced to 30 months to 8 years in jail(Feb. 21).Pol Pot and Khmer Rougetake over Cambodia(April).American merchant shipMayaguez,seized by Cambodian forces, is rescued in operation by U.S. Navy and Marines, 38 of whom are killed(May 15).ApolloandSoyuzspacecraft take off for U.S.-Soviet link-up in space(July 15). President Fordescapes assassination attempt in Sacramento, Calif.(Sept. 5).President Ford escapes second assassination attempt in 17 days(Sept. 22). 1976 Supreme Court rules that blacks and other minorities are entitled to retroactive job seniority(March 24).Ford signs Federal Election Campaign Act(May 11).

1960 – 1969 World History Robert Frost (1874–1963) Archive Photos John H. Glenn, Jr. (1921– ) The Library of Congress Picture Collection William Faulkner (1897–1962) Archive Photos Malcolm X (1925–1965) Archive Photos John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library, Boston James H. Meredith (1933–) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Betty Friedan (1921–2006) The Library of Congress Picture Collection The Beatles Archive Photos Thurgood Marshall (1908–1993) U.S. Supreme Court 1960 American U-2 spy plane, piloted by Francis Gary Powers, shot down over Russia(May 1).Khrushchev kills Paris summit conference because of U-2(May 16).Top Nazi murderer of Jews, Adolf Eichmann, captured by Israelis in Argentina(May 23)—executed in Israel in1962.Powers sentenced to prison for 10 years(Aug. 19)—freed inFebruary 1962in exchange for Soviet spy. Communist China and Soviet Union split in conflict over Communist ideology. Senegal, Ghana, Nigeria, Madagascar, and Zaire(Belgian Congo) gain independence. Cuba begins confiscation of $770 million of U.S. property(Aug. 7).There are 900 U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam. 1961 U.S. breaks diplomatic relations with Cuba(Jan. 3). Robert Frostrecites “The Gift Outright” at John F. Kennedy's inauguration as president of U.S.(Jan. 20).Moscow announces putting first man in orbit around Earth, Maj. Yuri A. Gagarin(April 12).Cuba invaded at Bay of Pigsby an estimated 1,200 anti-Castro exiles aided by U.S.; invasion crushed(April 17).First U.S. spaceman, Navy Cmdr. Alan B. Shepard, Jr., rockets 116.5 miles up in 302-mile trip(May 5).Virgil Grissom becomes second American astronaut, making 118-mile-high, 303-mile-long rocket flightover Atlantic(July 21).Gherman Stepanovich Titov is launched in Soviet spaceshipVostok II:makes 171/2 orbits in 25 hours, covering 434,960 miles before landing safely(Aug. 6).East Germans erect Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin to halt flood of refugees(Aug. 13).USSR fires 50-megaton hydrogen bomb, biggest explosion in history(Oct. 29).There are 2,000 U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam. 1962 Lt. Col. John H. Glenn, Jr., is first American to orbit Earth—three times in 4 hr 55 min(Feb. 20).France transfers sovereignty to new republic of Algeria(July 3). Cuban missile crisis> USSR to build missile bases in Cuba; Kennedy orders Cuban blockade, lifts blockade after Russians back down(Aug.–Nov.).James H. Meredith, escorted by federal marshals, registers at University of Mississippi(Oct. 1). Pope John XXIIIopens Second Vatican Council(Oct. 11)—Council holds four sessions, finally closingDec. 8, 1965.Cuba releases 1,113 prisoners of 1961 invasion attempt(Dec. 24).Burundi, Jamaica, Western Samoa, Uganda, and Trinidad and Tobago become independent. William Faulknerwins Pulitzer forThe Reivers. Rachel Carson'sSilent Spring. 1963 France and West Germany sign treaty of cooperation ending four centuries of conflict(Jan. 22).Michael E. De Bakeyimplants artificial heart in human for first time at Houston hospital; plastic device functions and patient lives for four days(April 21).Pope John XXIII dies(June 3)—succeededJune 21by Cardinal Montini, who becomes Paul VI. U.S. Supreme Court rules no locality may require recitation of Lord's Prayer or Bible verses in public schools(June 17).U.K.'s Profumoscandal(June).Civil rights rally held by 200,000 blacks and whites in Washington, D.C.; Martin Luther Kingdelivers “I have a dream” speech(Aug. 28).Washington-to-Moscow “hot line” communications link opens, designed to reduce risk of accidental war(Aug. 30).President Kennedyshot and killed by sniper in Dallas, Tex. Lyndon B. Johnsonbecomes president same day(Nov. 22). Lee Harvey Oswald, accused assassinof President Kennedy, is shot and killed by Jack Ruby, Dallas nightclub owner(Nov. 24).Kenya achieves independence. Betty FriedanpublishesThe Feminine Mystique.There are 15,000 U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam. 1964 U.S. Supreme Court rules that congressional districts should be roughly equal in population(Feb. 17).Jack Ruby convicted of murder in slaying of Lee Harvey Oswald; sentenced to death by Dallas jury(March 14)—conviction reversedOct. 5, 1966;Ruby diesJan. 3, 1967,before second trial can be held. Three civil rights workers—Schwerner, Goodman, and Cheney—murdered in Mississippi(June).Twenty-one arrests result in trial and conviction of seven by federal jury. Nelson Mandelasentenced to life imprisonment(June 11).Congress approves Gulf of Tonkin resolution(Aug. 7).President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy issues Warren Reportconcluding that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone. The Beatlesappear onThe Ed Sullivan Show. 1965 Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and more than 2,600 other blacks arrested in Selma, Ala., during three-day demonstrations against voter-registration rules(Feb. 1). Malcolm X, black-nationalist leader, shot to death at Harlem rally in New York City(Feb. 21).

1950 – 1959 World History Atomic Bomb National Archives and Records Admin. Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969) National Archives and Records Admin. Dag Hammarskjöld (1905–1961) United Nations Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929–1968) N.A.R.A Fidel Castro (1926– ) United Nations 1950 Brink's robbery in Boston; almost $3 million stolen(Jan. 17). Trumanorders development of hydrogen bomb(Jan. 31).Robert Schuman proposes Schuman Plan to pool European coal and steel(May 9). Korean Warbegins when North Korean Communist forces invade South Korea(June 25).(For detailed chronology, see Korean War.) Assassination attempt on President Truman by Puerto Rican nationalists(Nov. 1). McCarthyismbegins. 1951 Julius and Ethel Rosenbergsentenced to death for passing atomic secrets to Russians(March).Spurred by Schuman Plan, six nations form European Coal and Steel Community(April);effective 1952. Japanese peace treaty signed in San Francisco by 49 nations(Sept. 8).Color television introduced in U.S. Libyagains independence(Dec. 24). 1952 George VI dies; his daughter becomes Elizabeth II(Feb. 6). AECannounces “satisfactory” experiments in hydrogen-weapons research; eyewitnesses tell of blasts near Enewetak(Nov.). Ralph Ellison'sThe Invisible Man. 1953 Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhowerinaugurated president of United States(Jan. 20). Stalindies(March 5). Malenkovbecomes Soviet premier; Beria, minister of interior; Molotov, foreign minister(March 6). Dag Hammarskjöldbegins term as UN secretary-general(April 10).James Watsonand Francis Crickpublish their discovery of the molecular model of DNA(April–May).Edmund Hillaryof New Zealand and Tenzing Norgay of Nepal reach top of Mt. Everest(May 29).East Berliners rise against Communist rule; quelled by tanks(June 17). Egyptbecomes republic ruled by military junta(June 18).Julius and Ethel Rosenbergexecuted in Sing Sing prison(June 19).Korean armistice signed(July 27).Moscow announces explosion of hydrogen bomb(Aug. 20). Titobecomes president of Yugoslavia. James Watson, Francis Crick, and Rosalind Franklin discover structure of DNA. Ernest Hemingwaywins Pulitzer forThe Old Man and the Sea. 1954 First atomic submarineNautiluslaunched(Jan. 21).Five U.S. congressmen shot on floor of House as Puerto Rican nationalists fire from spectators' gallery; all five recover(March 1).Soviet Union grants sovereignty to East Germany(March 23). Army v. McCarthyinquiry—Senate subcommittee report blames both sides(April 22–June 17). Dien Bien Phu, French military outpost in Vietnam, falls to Vietminh army(May 7).(For detailed chronology, see Vietnam War.) U.S. Supreme Court (in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka) unanimously bans racial segregation in public schools(May 17).Eisenhower launches world atomic pool without Soviet Union(Sept. 6).Eight-nation Southeast Asia defense treaty ( SEATO) signed at Manila(Sept. 8).Dr. Jonas Salkstarts inoculating children against polio. Algerian War of Independence against France begins(Nov.);France struggles to maintain colonial rule until 1962 when it agrees to Algeria's independence. William Faulkner'sA Fablewins Pulitzer. 1955 Nikolai A. Bulganinbecomes Soviet premier, replacing Malenkov(Feb. 8). Churchillresigns; Anthony Edensucceeds him(April 6).West Germany becomes a sovereign state(May 5).Western European Union (WEU) comes into being(May 6). Warsaw Pact, east European mutual defense agreement, signed(May 14). Argentinaousts Perón(Sept. 19).President Eisenhower suffers coronary thrombosis in Denver(Sept. 24). Rosa Parksrefuses to sit at the back of the bus. Martin Luther King, Jr., leads black boycott of Montgomery, Ala., bus system(Dec. 1);desegregated service beginsDec. 21, 1956.AFL and CIO become one organization— AFL-CIO(Dec. 5). Tennessee Williams'sCat on a Hot Tin Roofwins Pulitzer. 1956 Nikita Khrushchev, First Secretary of USSR Communist Party, denounces Stalin's excesses(Feb. 24).First aerial H-bomb tested over Namu islet, Bikini Atoll> 10 million tons TNT equivalent(May 21).Workers' uprising against Communist rule in Poznan, Poland, is crushed(June 28–30);rebellion inspires Hungarian students to stage a protest against Communism in Budapest(Oct. 23).Egypt takes control of Suez Canal(July 26).Hungarian rebellion forces Soviet troops to withdraw from Budapest(Oct.).Israel launches attack on Egypt's Sinai peninsula and drives toward Suez Canal(Oct. 29).Imre Nagy announces Hungary's withdrawal from Warsaw Pact(Nov. 1);Soviet troops enter and reclaim Budapest(Nov. 4).British and French invade Port Said on the Suez Canal(Nov. 5).Cease-fire forced by U.S. pressure stops British, French, and Israeli advance(Nov. 6). Moroccogains independence. Ingmar Bergman'sThe Seventh Seal. Allen Ginsberg'sHowl. 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine calls for aid to Mideast countries which resist armed aggression from Communist-controlled nations(Jan. 5).The “Little Rock Nine” integrate Arkansas high school.

1940 – 1949 World History Winston Churchill (1874–1965) National Archives and Records Admin. Yalta Conference U.S. Army Photos Anne Frank (1929–1945) Archive Photos Harry S. Truman (1884–1972) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Woody Guthrie (1912–1967) Archive Photos 1940 Hitlerinvades Norway, Denmark(April 9),the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg(May 10),and France(May 12). Churchillbecomes Britain's prime minister. Trotsky assassinated in Mexico(Aug. 20).Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania annexed by USSR. U.S. trades 50 destroyers for leases on British bases in Western Hemisphere. Selective ServiceAct signed. The first official network television broadcast is put out by NBC. 1941 Germany attacks the Balkans and Russia. Japanese surprise attack on U.S. fleet at Pearl Harborbrings U.S. into World War II; U.S. and Britain declare war on Japan. Manhattan Project(atomic bomb research) begins. Roosevelt enunciates “four freedoms,”signs Lend-LeaseAct, declares national emergency, promises aid to USSR. Orson Welles'sCitizen Kane. 1942 Declaration of United Nationssigned in Washington(Jan. 1). Nazileaders attend Wannsee Conference to coordinate the “final solution to the Jewish question,” the systematic genocide of Jews known as the Holocaust. (For detailed chronology of the Holocaust,see The Holocaust.) Women's military services established. Enrico Fermiachieves nuclear chain reaction. More than 120,000 Japanese and persons of Japanese ancestry living in western U.S. moved to “relocation centers,” some for the duration of the war (Executive Order 9066). Coconut Grove nightclub fire in Boston kills 492(Nov. 28). 1943 Churchill and Roosevelt hold Casablanca Conference(Jan. 14–23). Mussolinideposed. President freezes prices, salaries, and wages to prevent inflation. Income tax withholding introduced. 1944 Allies invade Normandy on D-Day(June 6).G.I. Bill of Rights enacted. Bretton Woods Conferencecreates International Monetary Fundand World Bank(July 1–22).Dumbarton Oaks Conference—U.S., British Commonwealth, and USSR propose establishment of United Nations(Aug. 21–Oct. 7). Battle of the Bulge(Dec. 16). Woody Guthrierecords “This Land is Your Land.” Gunnar Myrdal'sAn American Dilemma. 1945 Yalta Conference(Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin) plans final defeat of Germany(Feb. 4–11). FDRdies(April 12). Hitlercommits suicide(April 30);Germany surrenders(May 7);May 8is declared V-E Day. Potsdam Conference (Truman, Churchill, Stalin) establishes basis of German reconstruction(July–Aug.).U.S. drops atomic bombson Japanese cities of Hiroshima(Aug. 6)and Nagasaki(Aug. 9).Japan signs official surrender on V-J Day(Sept. 2).United Nations established(Oct. 24).First electronic computer, ENIAC, built. 1946 First meeting of UNGeneral Assembly opens in London(Jan. 10).Winston Churchill's “Iron Curtain” speech warns of Soviet expansion(March 5).League of Nations dissolved(April).Italy abolishes monarchy(June).Verdict in Nuremberg war trial: 12 Nazileaders (including 1 tried in absentia) sentenced to hang; 7 imprisoned; 3 acquitted(Oct. 1). Goeringcommits suicide a few hours before 10 other Nazis are executed(Oct. 15). Juan Perónbecomes president of Argentina. Benjamin Spock's childcare classic published. 1947 Britain nationalizescoal mines(Jan. 1).Peace treaties for Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Finland signed in Paris(Feb. 10).Soviet Union rejects U.S. plan for UN atomic-energy control(March 4). Trumanproposes Truman Doctrine, which was to aid Greece and Turkey in resisting communist expansion(March 12). Marshall Planfor European recovery proposed—a coordinated program to help European nations recover from ravages of war(June).(By the time it ended in 1951, this “European Recovery Program” had cost $13 billion.) Indiaand Pakistangain independence from Britain(Aug. 15).U.S. Air Force pilot Chuck Yeagerbecomes first person to break the sound barrier(Oct. 14). Jackie Robinsonjoins the Brooklyn Dodgers. Anne Frank'sThe Diary of a Young Girlpublished. 1948 Gandhiassassinated in New Delhi by Hindu fanatic(Jan. 30). Burma(Jan. 4)and Ceylon(Feb. 4)granted independence by Britain. Communists seize power in Czechoslovakia(Feb. 23–25). Organization of American States(OAS) Charter signed at Bogotá, Colombia(April 30).Nation of Israelproclaimed; British end mandate at midnight; Arab armies attack(May 14). Berlin blockadebegins(June 24),prompting Allied airlift(June 26).(Blockade endsMay 12, 1949;airlift continues untilSept. 30, 1949.) Stalinand Titobreak(June 28).Independent Republic of Koreais proclaimed, following election supervised by UN(Aug. 15).Verdict in Japanese war trial: 18 imprisoned(Nov. 12); Tojoand six others hanged(Dec. 23).United States of Indonesiaestablished as Dutch and Indonesians settle conflict(Dec. 27). Alger Hiss, former U.S. State Department official, indicted on perjury charges after denying passing secret documents to communist spy ring;

1930 – 1939 World History Amelia Earhart (1897–1937) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882–1945) National Archives and Records Admin. Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) National Archives and Records Admin. Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) Archive Photos 1930 Britain, U.S., Japan, France, and Italy sign naval disarmament treaty. Nazisgain in German elections. Cyclotrondeveloped by Ernest O. Lawrence, U.S. physicist. Pluto discovered by astronomers. 1931 Spain becomes a republic with overthrow of King Alfonso XIII. German industrialists finance 800,000-strong Nazi party. British parliament enacts statute of Westminster, legalizing dominion equality with Britain. Mukden Incidentbegins Japanese occupation of Manchuria. In U.S., Hooverproposes one-year moratorium of war debts. Harold C. Ureydiscovers heavy hydrogen. Gangster Al Caponesentenced to 11 years in prison for tax evasion (freed in1939;dies in 1947). Notorious Scottsboro trialbegins, exposing depth of Southern racism. “The Star Spangled Banner”officially becomes national anthem. 1932 Nazislead in German elections with 230 Reichstagseats. Famine in USSR. In U.S., Congress sets up Reconstruction Finance Corporationto stimulate economy. Veterans march on Washington—most leave after Senate rejects payment of cash bonuses; others removed by troops under Douglas MacArthur. U.S. protests Japanese aggression in Manchuria. Amelia Earhartis first woman to fly Atlantic solo. Charles A. Lindbergh's baby son kidnapped, killed. ( Bruno Richard Hauptmannarrested in1934,convicted in1935,executed in1936.) 1933 Hitlerappointed German chancellor, gets dictatorial powers. Reichstag fire in Berlin; Naziterror begins. Germany and Japan withdraw from League of Nations. Giuseppe Zangara executed for attempted assassinationof president-elect Roosevelt in which Chicago mayor Cermak is fatally shot. Rooseveltinaugurated (“the only thing we have to fear is fear itself”); launches New Deal. Prohibitionrepealed. USSRrecognized by U.S. 1934 Chancellor Dollfussof Austria assassinated by Nazis. Hitlerbecomes führer. USSR admitted to League of Nations. Dionne sisters, first quintuplets to survive beyond infancy, born in Canada. Mao Zedongbegins the Long Marchnorth with 100,000 soldiers. 1935 Saarincorporated into Germany after plebiscite. Nazis repudiate Versailles Treaty, introduce compulsory military service. Mussoliniinvades Ethiopia; League of Nations invokes sanctions. Roosevelt opens second phase of New Dealin U.S., calling for social security, better housing, equitable taxation, and farm assistance. Huey Longassassinated in Louisiana. 1936 Germans occupy Rhineland. Italy annexes Ethiopia. Rome-Berlin Axisproclaimed (Japan to join in 1940). Trotskyexiled to Mexico. King George Vdies; succeeded by son, Edward VIII, who soon abdicates to marry an American-born divorcée, and is succeeded by brother, George VI. Spanish civil warbegins. Hundreds of Americans join the “Lincoln Brigades.” ( Franco's fascist forces defeat Loyalist forces by1939,when Madrid falls.) War between China and Japanbegins, to continue through World War II. Japan and Germany sign anti- Cominternpact; joined by Italy in1937. 1937 Hitlerrepudiates war guilt clause of Versailles Treaty; continues to build German power. Italy withdraws from League of Nations. U.S. gunboatPanaysunk by Japanese in Yangtze River. Japan invades China, conquers most of coastal area. Amelia Earhartlost somewhere in Pacific on round-the-world flight. Picasso'sGuernicamural. 1938 Hitlermarches into Austria; political and geographical union of Germany and Austria proclaimed. Munich Pact> Britain, France, and Italy agree to let Germany partition Czechoslovakia. Douglas “Wrong-Way” Corrigan flies from New York to Dublin. Fair Labor Standards Act establishes minimum wage. Orson Welles's radio broadcastWar of the Worlds. 1939 Germany invades Poland; occupies Bohemia and Moravia; renounces pact with England and concludes 10-year non-aggression pact with USSR. Russo- Finnish Warbegins; Finns to lose one-tenth of territory in 1940peace treaty. World War II begins.(For detailed chronology, see World War II.) In U.S., Rooseveltsubmits $1,319-million defense budget, proclaims U.S. neutrality, and declares limited emergency. Einsteinwrites FDR about feasibility of atomic bomb. New York World's Fair opens. DAR refuses to allow Marian Anderson to perform.Gone with the Windpremieres.

1920 – 1929 World History Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) National Archives and Records Admin. Bessie Smith (1894–1937) The Library of Congress Picture Collection William Butler Yeats (1865–1939) Archive Photos Joseph Stalin (1879–1953) U.S. Army Photos Dorothea Lange's photo “Migrant Mother” (1936) documented the Great Depression (1929–1940) The Library of Congress Picture Collection 1920 League of Nationsholds first meeting at Geneva, Switzerland. U.S. Dept. of Justice “red hunt” nets thousands of radicals; aliens deported. Women's suffrage(19th) amendment ratified. Treaty of Sèvres dissolves Ottoman Empire. First Agatha Christiemystery. Sinclair Lewis'sMain Street. 1921 Reparations Commission fixes German liability at 132 billion gold marks. German inflation begins. Major treaties signed at Washington Disarmament Conference limit naval tonnage and pledge to respect territorial integrity of China. In U.S., Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, Italian-born anarchists, convicted of armed robbery murder; case stirs worldwide protests; they are executed in1927. 1922 Mussolinimarches on Rome; forms Fascistgovernment. Irish Free State, a self-governing dominion of British Empire, officially proclaimed. Kemal Atatürk, founder of modern Turkey, overthrows last sultan. James Joyce'sUlysses. 1923 Adolf Hitler's “Beer Hall Putsch” in Munich fails; in 1924he is sentenced to five years in prison where he writesMein Kampf;released after eight months. Occupation of Ruhr by French and Belgian troops to enforce reparations payments. Widespread Ku Klux Klanviolence in U.S. Earthquake destroys third of Tokyo. George Gershwin'sRhapsody in Blue. Bessie Smith, known as “the Empress of the Blues,” makes her first record. Irish poet William Butler Yeatswins Nobel Prize in Literature. 1924 Death of Lenin; Stalinwins power struggle, rules as Soviet dictator until death in1953.Italian Fascists murder Socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti. Interior Secretary Albert B. Fall and oilmen Harry Sinclair and Edward L. Doheny are charged with conspiracy and bribery in the Teapot Domescandal, involving fraudulent leases of naval oil reserves. In1931,Fall is sentenced to year in prison; Doheny and Sinclair acquitted of bribery. Nathan Leopold and Richard Loeb convicted in “thrill killing” of Bobby Franks in Chicago; defended by Clarence Darrow; sentenced to life imprisonment. (Loeb killed by fellow convict in1936;Leopold paroled in1958,dies in1971.) Robert Frostwins first of four Pulitzers. 1925 Nellie Tayloe Ross elected governor of Wyoming; first woman governor elected in U.S. Locarno conferencesseek to secure European peace by mutual guarantees. John T. Scopesconvicted and fined for teaching evolution in a public school in Tennessee “Monkey Trial”; sentence set aside. John Logie Baird, Scottish inventor, transmits human features by television. Hitlerpublishes Volume I ofMein Kampf. 1926 General strike in Britain brings nation's activities to standstill. U.S. marines dispatched to Nicaragua during revolt; they remain until1933. Gertrude Ederleof U.S. is first woman to swim English Channel. Ernest Hemingway'sThe Sun Also Rises. 1927 German economy collapses. Socialists riot in Vienna; general strike follows acquittal of Nazisfor political murder. Trotsky expelled from Russian Communist Party. Charles A. Lindberghflies first successful solo nonstop flight from New York to Paris. Ruth Snyder and Judd Gray convicted of murder of Albert Snyder; they are executed at Sing Sing prison in1928.Philo T. Farnsworth demonstrates working television model. Georges Lemaître proposes Big Bang Theory. Babe Ruthhits 60 home runs in the season; record stands for next 34 years.The Jazz Singer,with Al Jolson, first part-talking motion picture. 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact, outlawing war, signed in Paris by 65 nations. Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin. Richard E. Byrdstarts expedition to Antarctic; returns in1930.Anthropologist Margaret MeadpublishesComing of Age in Samoa.Final volume ofOxford English Dictionarypublished after 44 years of research. 1929 Trotskyexpelled from USSR Lateran Treatyestablishes independent VaticanCity. In U.S., stock market prices collapse, with U.S. securities losing $26 billion—first phase of Depressionand world economic crisis. St. Valentine's Day gangland massacre in Chicago. Edwin Powell Hubble proposes theory of expanding universe. Information Please® Database, © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1910 – 1919 World History 1900–1999 (A.D.) World History 1930 – 1939 World History More on1920 8211 1929 World Historyfrom Infoplease: Hitler: meaning and definitions- Hitler: Definition and Pronunciation woman suffrage: meaning and definitions- woman suffrage: Definition and Pronunciation Adolf Hitler- Hitler, Adolf Hitler, Adolf , 1889–1945, founder and leader of National Socialism (Nazism), ... Hitlerism: meaning and definitions- Hitlerism: Definition and Pronunciation

1910 – 1919 World History Albert Einstein (1879–1955) AIP Niels Bohr Library Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) Novosti Photos Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) The Library of Congress Picture Collection 1910 Boy Scouts of Americaincorporated. Angel Island, in San Francisco Bay, becomes immigration center for Asians entering U.S. 1911 First use of aircraft as offensive weapon in Turkish-Italian War. Italy defeats Turks and annexes Tripoliand Libya. Chinese Republic proclaimed after revolution overthrows Manchudynasty. Sun Yat-sennamed president. Mexican Revolution: Porfirio Diaz, president since 1877, replaced by Francisco Madero. Triangle Shirtwaist Company fire in New York; 146 killed. Amundsenreaches South Pole. Ernest Rutherford discovers the structure of the atom. Richard Strauss'sDer Rosenkavalier. Irving Berlin'sAlexander's Ragtime Band. 1912 Balkan Wars(1912–1913)resulting from territorial disputes: Turkey defeated by alliance of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro; London peace treaty(1913)partitions most of European Turkey among the victors. In second war(1913),Bulgaria attacks Serbia and Greece and is defeated after Romania intervenes and Turks recapture Adrianople. Titanicsinks on maiden voyage; over 1,500 drown. New Mexico and Arizona admitted as states. 1913 Suffragists demonstrate in London. Garment workers strike in New York and Boston; win pay raise and shorter hours. Henry Ford develops first moving assembly line. 16th Amendment (income tax)and 17th (popular election of U.S. senators) adopted. Bill creating U.S. Federal Reserve Systembecomes law. Stravinsky'sThe Rite of Spring. Woodrow Wilsonbecomes 28th U.S. president. Armory Show introduces modern art to U.S.; Duchamp'sNude Descending a Staircaseshocks public. 1914 World War Ibegins: Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinandand wife Sophie are assassinated; Austria declares war on Serbia, Germany on Russia and France, Britain on Germany. (For detailed chronology see, World War I.) Panama Canalofficially opened. Congress sets up Federal Trade Commission, passes Clayton Antitrust Act. U.S. Marines occupy Veracruz, Mexico, intervening in civil war to protect American interests. 1915 Lusitaniasunk by German submarine. Second Battle of Ypres. U.S. banks lend $500 million to France and Britain. Genocide of estimated 600,000 to 1 million Armenians by Turkish soldiers. D. W. Griffith's filmBirth of a Nation. Albert Einstein'sGeneral Theory of Relativity. 1916 Congress expands armed forces. Battle of Verdun. Battle of the Somme. Tom Mooney arrested for San Francisco bombing (pardoned in 1939). Pershingfails in raid into Mexico in quest of rebel Pancho Villa. U.S. buys Virgin Islands from Denmark for $25 million. President Wilson re-elected with “he kept us out of war” slogan. “Black Tom”explosion at munitions dock in Jersey City, N.J., $40,000,000 damages; traced to German saboteurs. Margaret Sangeropens first birth control clinic. Easter Rebellion in Irelandput down by British troops. Jeannette Rankinbecomes first woman elected to Congress. 1917 First U.S. combat troops in France as U.S. declares war on Germany(April 6).Third Battle of Ypres. Russian Revolutionof 1917—climax of long unrest under czars. February Revolution—Nicholas II forced to abdicate, liberal government created. Kerensky becomes prime minister and forms provisional government(July).In October Revolution, Bolsheviks seize power in armed coup d'état led by Leninand Trotsky. Kerenskyflees. BalfourDeclaration promises Jewish homeland in Palestine. U.S. declares war on Austria-Hungary(Dec. 7).Armistice between new Russian Bolshevik government and Germans(Dec. 15). Sigmund Freud'sIntroduction to Psychoanalysis. 1918 Russian revolutionaries execute the former czar and his family. Russian Civil Warbetween Reds (Bolsheviks) and Whites (anti-Bolsheviks); Reds win in1920.Allied troops (U.S., British, French) intervene(March);leave in1919.Second Battle of the Marne(July–Aug.)German Kaiser abdicates(Nov.);hostilities cease on the Western Front. Japanese hold Vladivostokuntil1922.Worldwide influenzaepidemic strikes; by1920,nearly 20 million are dead. In U.S. alone, 500,000 perish. 1919 Third International ( Comintern) establishes Soviet control over international Communist movements. Paris peace conference. Versailles Treaty, incorporating Woodrow Wilson's draft Covenant of League of Nations, signed by Allies and Germany; rejected by U.S. Senate. Congress formally ends war in1921.18th ( Prohibition) Amendment adopted. Alcock and Brown make first trans-Atlantic nonstop flight. Mahatma Gandhiinitiates satyagraha (“truth force”) campaigns, beginning his nonviolent resistance movement against British rule in India.

1900 – 1909 World History Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) Leo Baeck Inst./Archive Photos Henri Matisse (1869–1954) The Library of Congress Picture Collection W.E.B. Du Bois (1868–1963) The Library of Congress Picture Collection 1900 Hurricane ravages Galveston, Tex.; 6,000–8,000 dead. Fauvist movement in painting begins, led by Henri Matisse. Sigmund Freud'sThe Interpretation of Dreams. Carrie Chapman Cattsucceeds Susan B. Anthonyas president of National Woman Suffrage Association. 1901 Queen Victoriadies, and is succeeded by her son, Edward VII. As President McKinleybegins second term, he is shot fatallyby anarchist Leon Czolgosz. Theodore Rooseveltsworn in as successor. 1902 Enrico Caruso's first gramophone recording. Aswan Damcompleted. 1903 Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, fly first powered, controlled, heavier-than-air plane at Kitty Hawk, N.C. Henry Fordorganizes Ford Motor Company. The Boston Red Sox win the first World Seriesagainst the Pittsburgh Pirates. W.E.B. Du BoispublishesThe Souls of Black Folk. 1904 Russo-Japanese War begins—competition for Korea and Manchuria.Entente Cordiale:Britain and France settle their international differences. General theory of radioactivity by Rutherford and Soddy. New York City subway opens. 1905 In Russo-Japanese War, Port Arthur surrenders to Japanese; Russia suffers other defeats. President Roosevelt mediates Treaty of Portsmouth, N.H., which recognizes Japan's control of Korea and restores southern Manchuria to China. The Russian Revolutionof 1905 begins on “Bloody Sunday” when troops fire onto a defenseless group of demonstrators in St. Petersburg. Strikes and riots follow. Sailors on battleshipPotemkinmutiny; reforms, including first Duma (parliament), established by Czar Nicholas II's “October Manifesto.” Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity and other key theories in physics. Franz Lehar'sMerry Widow. 1906 San Francisco earthquakeand three-day fire; more than 500 dead. Roald Amundsen, Norwegian explorer, fixes magnetic North Pole. 1907 Second Hague Peace Conference, of 46 nations, adopts 10 conventions on rules of war. Financial panic of 1907in U.S. Mahlerbegins work on “Song of the Earth.” Oklahoma becomes 46th state. Picasso'sLes Demoiselles d'Avignonintroduces cubism. 1908 Earthquake kills 150,000 in southern Italy and Sicily. U.S. Supreme Court, in Danbury Hatters' case, outlaws secondary union boycotts. Model T produced by Ford Motor Company. 1909 North Pole reportedly reached by American explorers Robert E. Pearyand Matthew Henson. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored Peopleis founded in New York by prominent black and white intellectuals and led by W.E.B. Du Bois.

1800–1899(A.D.)World History (part 3 of 3): 1865 Gen. Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox; the Civil War is over. Lincoln fatally shot at Ford's Theater by John Wilkes Booth. Vice President Johnson sworn as successor. Booth caught and dies of gunshot wounds; four conspirators are hanged. Joseph Listerbegins antiseptic surgery. Gregor Mendel'sLaw of Heredity. Lewis Carroll'sAlice's Adventures in Wonderland. 1866 Alfred Nobelinvents dynamite (patented in Britain,1867). Seven Weeks' War: Austria defeated by Prussia and Italy. 1867 Austria-Hungary Dual Monarchy established. French leave Mexico; Maximilian executed. Dominion of Canada established. U.S. buys Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000. South African diamond field discovered. Japan ends 675–year shogun rule. Volume I of Marx'sDas Kapital. Strauss'sBlue Danube. 1868 Revolution in Spain; Queen Isabella deposed, flees to France. In U.S., Fourteenth Amendmentgiving civil rights to blacks is ratified. Georgia under military government after legislature expels blacks. 1869 First U.S. transcontinental rail route completed. James Fiskand Jay Gould's attempt to control gold market causes Black Friday panic. Suez Canalopens. Mendeleev's periodic table of elements. 1870 Franco-Prussian War(to1871): Napoleon III capitulates at Sedan. Revolt in Paris; Third Republic proclaimed. 1871 France surrenders Alsace-Lorraine to Germany; war ends. German Empire proclaimed with Prussian King as Kaiser Wilhelm I. Fighting with Apaches begins in American West. Boss Tweedcorruption exposed in New York. The Chicago Fire, with 250 deaths and $196-million damage. Stanleymeets Livingstonein Africa. 1872 Congress gives amnesty to most Confederates. Jules Verne'sAround the World in 80 Days. 1873 Economic crisis in Europe. U.S. establishes gold standard. 1875 First Kentucky Derby. 1876 Sioux kill Gen. George A. Custerand 264 troopers at Little Big Horn River. Alexander Graham Bellpatents the telephone. 1877 After presidential election of1876,electoral commission gives disputed electoral college votes to Rutherford B. Hayes despite Tilden's popular majority. Russo-Turkish war(ends in1878with power of Turkey in Europe broken). Reconstructionends in the American South. Thomas Edisonpatents phonograph. The Nez Perce leader Chief Josephis forced to surrender. Tchaikovsky'sSwan Lake. 1878 Congress of Berlinrevises Treaty of San Stefano, ending Russo-Turkish War; makes extensive redivision of southeast Europe. First commercial telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Conn. 1879 Thomas A. Edison invents practical electric light. 1880 U.S.-China treaty allows U.S. to restrict immigration of Chinese labor. 1881 President Garfieldfatally shot by assassin; Vice President Arthur succeeds him. Charles J. Guiteau convicted and executed (1882). 1882 Terrorism in Ireland after land evictions. Britain invades and conquers Egypt. Germany, Austria, and Italy form Triple Alliance. In U.S., Congress adopts Chinese Exclusion Act. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Trust is first industrial monopoly. In Berlin, Robert Kochannounces discovery of tuberculosis germ. 1883 Congress creates Civil Service Commission. Brooklyn Bridge and Metropolitan OperaHouse completed. 1884 Berlin West Africa Conference held in Berlin (lasting untilFeb. 1885), at which the major European nations discuss expansion in Africa. 1885 British general Charles G. “Chinese” Gordonkilled at Khartoum in Egyptian Sudan. World's first skyscraper built in Chicago. 1886 Bombing at Haymarket Square, Chicago, kills seven policemen and injures many others. Eight alleged anarchists accused—three imprisoned, one commits suicide, four hanged. (In1893,Illinois governor Altgeld, critical of trial, pardons three survivors.) Statue of Libertydedicated. Geronimo, Apache Indian chief, surrenders. 1887 Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's first Sherlock Holmes story,A Study in Scarlet. 1888 Historic March blizzard in northeast U.S.—many perish, property damage exceeds $25 million. George Eastman's box camera (the Kodak). J. B. Dunlop invents pneumatic tire. Jack the Ripper murders in London. 1889 Second (Socialist) International founded in Paris. Indian Territory in Oklahoma opened to settlement. Thousands die in Johnstown, Pa. flood. Eiffel Tower built for the Paris exposition. Mark Twain'sA Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. 1890 Congress votes to pass Sherman Antitrust Act. Sioux chief Sitting Bullarrested and killed by police on Pine Ridge reservation; two weeks later, U.S. troops kill over 200 Sioux at Battle of Wounded Knee. 1892 Battle between steel strikers and Pinkerton guards at Homestead, Pa.; union defeated after militia intervenes. Silver mine strikers in Idaho fight non-union workers; U.S. troops dispatched. Diesel enginepatented. 1893 New Zealand becomes first country in the world to grant women the vote.

1800–1899(A.D.)World History (part 2 of 3): 1836 Boerfarmers start “Great Trek”—Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State founded in South Africa. Mexican army besieges Texans in Alamo. Entire garrison, including Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie, wiped out. Texans gain independence from Mexico after winning Battle of San Jacinto. Dickens'sPickwick Papers. 1837 Victoriabecomes queen of Great Britain. Mob kills Elijah P. Lovejoy, Illinois abolitionist publisher. 1839 First Opium War(to1842) between Britain and China, over importation of drug into China. 1840 Lower and Upper Canada united. 1841 U.S. President Harrison dies (April 4) one month after inauguration; John Tyler becomes first vice president to succeed to presidency. 1842 Crawford Long uses first anesthetic (ether). 1843 Wagner's operaThe Flying Dutchman. 1844 Democratic convention calls for annexation of Texas and acquisition of Oregon (“Fifty-four-forty-or-fight”). Five Chinese ports opened to U.S. ships. Samuel F. B. Morsepatents telegraph. 1845 Congress adopts joint resolution for annexation of Texas. Edgar Allan PoepublishesThe Raven and Other Poems. 1846 U.S. declares war on Mexico. California and New Mexico annexed by U.S. Brigham Young leads Mormons to Great Salt Lake. W. T. Morton uses ether as anesthetic. Sewing machine patented by Elias Howe. Frederick Douglasslaunches abolitionist newspaperThe North Star.Failure of potato crop causes famine in Ireland. 1848 Revolt in Paris: Louis Philippe abdicates; Louis Napoleon elected president of French Republic. Revolutions in Vienna, Venice, Berlin, Milan, Rome, and Warsaw. Put down by royal troops in1848–1849.U.S.-Mexico War ends; Mexico cedes claims to Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada. U.S. treaty with Britain sets Oregon Territory boundary at 49th parallel. Karl Marxand Friedrich Engels'sCommunist Manifesto.Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery and joins the Underground Railroad. Women's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, N.Y. 1849 California gold rush begins. 1850 Henry Clayopens great debate on slavery, warns South against secession. 1851 Herman Melville'sMoby-Dick. 1852 South African Republic established. Louis Napoleon proclaims himself Napoleon III (“Second Empire”). Harriet Beecher Stowe'sUncle Tom's Cabin. 1853 Crimean Warbegins as Turkey declares war on Russia. Commodore Perryreaches Tokyo. 1854 Britain and France join Turkey in war on Russia. In U.S., Kansas- Nebraska Actpermits local option on slavery; rioting and bloodshed. Japanese allow American trade. Antislavery men in Michigan form Republican Party. Tennyson'sCharge of the Light Brigade. Thoreau'sWalden. 1855 Armed clashes in Kansas between pro- and anti-slavery forces. Florence Nightingalenurses wounded in Crimea. Walt Whitman'sLeaves of Grass. 1856 Flaubert'sMadame Bovary. 1857 Supreme Court, in Dred Scottdecision, rules that a slave is not a citizen. Financial crisis in Europe and U.S. Great Mutiny ( Sepoy Rebellion) begins in India. India placed under crown rule as a result. 1858 Pro-slavery constitution rejected in Kansas. Abraham Lincolnmakes strong antislavery speech in Springfield, Ill.: “This Government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free.” Lincoln-Douglas debates. First trans-Atlantic telegraph cable completed by Cyrus W. Field. 1859 John Brownraids Harpers Ferry; is captured and hanged. Work begins on Suez Canal. Unification of Italy starts under leadership of Count Cavour, Sardinian premier. Joined by France in war against Austria. Jean-Joseph-Étienne Lenoir builds first practical internal-combustion engine. Edward Fitzgerald's translation ofThe Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. Charles Darwin'sOrigin of Species. J. S. Mill'sOn Liberty. 1860 South Carolina secedes from the Union. 1861 U.S. Civil Warbegins as attempts at compromise fail. Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas secede; with South Carolina, they form the Confederate States of America, with Jefferson Davis as president. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina secede and join Confederacy. First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas).(For detailed chronology, see The Civil War.) Congress creates Colorado, Dakota, and Nevada territories; adopts income tax; Lincoln inaugurated. Serfs emancipated in Russia. Pasteur's theory of germs. Independent Kingdom of Italy proclaimed under Sardinian king Victor Emmanuel II. 1862 Several major Civil War battles: Battle of Shiloh, Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), Battle of Antietam. Salon des Refusés introduces impressionism. 1863 French capture Mexico City; proclaim Archduke Maximilianof Austria emperor. Battle of Gettysburg. 1864 Gen. Sherman's Atlanta campaign and “march to the sea.”

1800–1899(A.D.)World History (part 1 of 3): War of 1812 The Civil War Spanish-American War (1898–1899) Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) Richard Wagner (1813–1883) Archive Photos Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Frederick Douglass (1817–1895) National Archives and Records Admin. Harriet Tubman (c. 1820–1913) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811–1896) National Archives and Records Admin. Walt Whitman (1819–1892) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Dred Scott (1795?–1858) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865) National Archives and Records Admin. Charles Darwin (1809–1882) Robert E. Lee (1807–1870) National Archives and Records Admin. William Tecumseh Sherman (1820–1891) National Archives and Records Admin. Chief Joseph (c. 1840–1904) National Archives and Records Admin. Statue of Liberty Tasha Vincent Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) (1835–1910) The Library of Congress Picture Collection The Eiffel Tower Tasha Vincent Marie Curie (1867–1934) AIP Niels Bohr Library 1800 Napoleon conquers Italy, firmly establishes himself as First Consul in France. In the U.S., federal government moves to Washington, D.C. Robert Owen's social reforms in England. William Herschel discovers infrared rays. Alessandro Volta produces electricity. 1801 Austria makes temporary peace with France. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland established with one monarch and one parliament; Catholics excluded from voting. 1803 U.S. negotiates Louisiana Purchasefrom France: for $15 million, U.S. doubles its domain, increasing its territory by 827,000 sq mi (2,144,500 sq km), from Mississippi River to Rockies and from Gulf of Mexico to British North America. 1804 Haiti declares independence from France; first black nation to gain freedom from European colonial rule. Napoleon transforms the Consulate of France into an empire, proclaims himself emperor of France, systematizes French law underCode Napoleon.In the U.S., Alexander Hamiltonis mortally wounded in duel with Aaron Burr. Lewis and Clark expeditionbegins exploration of what is now northwest U.S. 1805 Lord Nelsondefeats the French-Spanish fleets in the Battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon victorious over Austrian and Russian forces at the Battle of Austerlitz. 1807 Robert Fulton makes first successful steamboat trip onClermontbetween New York City and Albany. 1808 French armies occupy Rome and Spain, extending Napoleon's empire. Britain begins aiding Spanish guerrillas against Napoleon in Peninsular War. In the U.S., Congress bars importation of slaves. Beethoven'sFifthandSixth Symphoniesperformed. 1812 Napoleon's Grand Army invades Russia in June. Forced to retreat in winter, most of Napoleon's 600,000 men are lost. In the U.S., war with Britain declared over freedom of the seas for U.S. vessels (War of 1812). USSConstitution(For detailed chronology, see War of 1812.) sinks British frigate. 1814 French defeated by allies (Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Portugal) in War of Liberation. Napoleon exiled to Elba, off Italian coast. Bourbon king Louis XVIII takes French throne. George Stephenson builds first practical steam locomotive. 1815 Napoleon returns: “Hundred Days” begin. Napoleon defeated by Wellington at Waterloo, banished again to St. Helena in South Atlantic. Congress of Vienna: victorious allies change the map of Europe. War of 1812 ends with Treaty of Ghent. 1819 Simón Bolívarliberates New Granada (now Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador) as Spain loses hold on South American countries; named president of Colombia. 1820 Missouri Compromise> Missouri admitted as slave state but slavery barred in rest of Louisiana Purchase north of 36°30' N. 1821 Guatemala, Panama, and Santo Domingo proclaim independence from Spain. 1822 Greeks proclaim a republic and independence from Turkey. Turks invade Greece. Russia declares war on Turkey(1828).Greece also aided by France and Britain. War ends and Turks recognize Greek independence(1829).Brazil becomes independent of Portugal. Schubert'sEighth Symphony(“The Unfinished”). 1823 U.S. Monroe Doctrinewarns European nations not to interfere in Western Hemisphere. 1824 Mexico becomes a republic, three years after declaring independence from Spain. Bolívar liberates Peru, becomes its president. Beethoven'sNinth Symphony. 1825 First passenger-carrying railroadin England. 1826 Joseph-Nicéphore Niepce takes the world's first photograph. 1830 French invade Algeria. Louis Philippe becomes “Citizen King” as revolution forces Charles X to abdicate. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- day Saintsformed in U.S. by Joseph Smith. 1831 Polish revolt against Russia fails. Belgium separates from the Netherlands. In U.S., Nat Turnerleads unsuccessful slave rebellion. 1833 Slavery abolished in British Empire. 1834 Charles Babbage invents “analytical engine,” precursor of computer. McCormick patents reaper.

1700–1799(A.D.)World History French Revolution (1789–1799) Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) Frederick the Great (1712–1786) Samuel Johnson (1709–1784) George Washington (1732–1799) Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804) Napoléon Bonaparte (1769–1821) 1701 War of the Spanish Successionbegins—the last of Louis XIV's wars for domination of the continent. The Peace of Utrecht (1714) will end the conflict and mark the rise of the British Empire. Called Queen Anne's War in America, it ends with the British taking New Foundland, Acadia, and Hudson's Bay Territory from France, and Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain. 1704 Deerfield (Mass.) Massacre of English colonists by French and Indians. Bach's first cantata. Jonathan Swift'sTale of a Tub.Boston News Letter—first newspaper in America. 1707 United Kingdom of Great Britain formed—England, Wales, and Scotland joined by parliamentary Act of Union. 1729 Bach'sSt. Matthew Passion. Isaac Newton'sPrincipiatranslated from Latin into English. 1732 Benjamin Franklinbegins publishingPoor Richard's Almanack.James Oglethorpe and others found Georgia. 1735 John Peter Zenger, New York editor, acquitted of libel in New York, establishing press freedom. 1740 Capt. Vitus Bering, Dane employed by Russia, discovers Alaska. Frederick II “the Great” crowned king of Prussia. 1746 British defeat Scots under Stuart Pretender Prince Charles at Culloden Moor. Last battle fought on British soil. 1751 Publication of theEncyclopédiebegins in France, the “bible” of the Enlightenment. 1755 Samuel Johnson'sDictionaryfirst published. Great earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal—over 60,000 die. U.S. postal service established. 1756 Seven Years' War(French and Indian Wars in America) (to1763), in which Britain and Prussia defeat France, Spain, Austria, and Russia. France loses North American colonies; Spain cedes Florida to Britain in exchange for Cuba. In India, over 100 British prisoners die in “Black Hole of Calcutta.” 1757 Beginning of British Empirein India as Robert Clive, British commander, defeats Nawab of Bengal at Plassey. 1759 British capture Quebec from French. Voltaire'sCandide. Haydn'sSymphony No. 1. 1762 Catherine II(“the Great”) becomes czarina of Russia. Jean Jacques Rousseau'sSocial Contract. Mozarttours Europe as six-year-old prodigy. 1765 James Watt invents the steam engine. Britain imposes the Stamp Act on the American colonists. 1769 Sir William Arkwright patents a spinning machine—an early step in the Industrial Revolution. 1770 The Boston Massacre. 1772 Joseph Priestleyand Daniel Rutherford independently discover nitrogen. Partition of Poland—in1772, 1793,and1795,Austria, Prussia, and Russia divide land and people of Poland, end its independence. 1773 The Boston Tea Party. 1774 First Continental Congressdrafts “Declaration of Rights and Grievances.” 1775 The American Revolutionbegins with battle of Lexington and Concord. Second Continental Congress. Priestley discovers hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. 1776 Declaration of Independence. Gen. George Washingtoncrosses the Delaware Christmas night. Adam Smith'sWealth of Nations.Edward Gibbon'sDecline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Thomas Paine'sCommon Sense.Fragonard'sWasherwoman.Mozart'sHaffner Serenade. 1778 Capt. James Cookdiscovers Hawaii. Franz Mesmer uses hypnotism. 1781 Immanuel Kant'sCritique of Pure Reason.Herschel discovers Uranus. 1783 Revolutionary War ends with Treaty of Paris. William Blake's poems. Beethoven's first printed works. 1784 Crimea annexed by Russia. John Wesley'sDeed of Declaration,the basic work of Methodism. 1785 Russians settle Aleutian Islands. 1787 The Constitution of the United Statessigned. Lavoisier's work on chemical nomenclature. Mozart'sDon Giovanni. 1788 FrenchParlementpresents grievances to Louis XVI who agrees to convening of Estates-General in1789—not called since1613. Goethe'sEgmont.Laplace'sLaws of the Planetary System. 1789 French Revolutionbegins with the storming of the Bastille. (For detailed chronology, see French Revolution (1789–1799).) In U.S., Washington elected president with all 69 votes of the Electoral College, takes oath of office in New York City. Vice President: John Adams. Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson. Secretary of Treasury: Alexander Hamilton. 1790 H.M.S.Bountymutineers settle on Pitcairn Island. Aloisio Galvani experiments on electrical stimulation of the muscles. Philadelphia temporary capital of U.S. as Congress votes to establish new capital on Potomac. U.S. population about 3,929,000, including 698,000 slaves. Lavoisier formulatesTable of 31 chemical elements. 1791 U.S. Bill of Rights ratified. Boswell'sLife of Johnson. 1792 Mary Wollstonecraft'sVindication of the Rights of Woman. 1793 Louis XVIand Marie Antoinetteexecuted. Reign of Terror begins in France. Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin, spurring the growth of the cotton industry and helping to institutionalize slavery in the U.S. South.

1600–1699(A.D.)World History The Revolutionary War Pocahontas (c. 1595–1617) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Galileo (1564–1642) Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) Taj Mahal The Library of Congress Picture Collection John Milton (1608–1674) 1600 Giordano Bruno burned as a heretic. English East India Company established. 1603 Ieyasu rules Japan, moves capital to Edo (Tokyo). Shakespeare'sHamlet. 1605 Cervantes'sDon Quixote de la Mancha,the first modern novel. 1607 Jamestown, Virginia, established—first permanent English colony on American mainland. Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, saves life of John Smith. 1609 Samuel de Champlain establishes French colony of Quebec. TheRelation,the first newspaper, debuts in Germany. 1610 Galileosees the moons of Jupiter through his telescope. 1611 Gustavus Adolphus elected King of Sweden. King James Version of the Bible published in England. Rubens paints hisDescent from the Cross. 1614 John Napier discovers logarithms. 1618 Start of the Thirty Years' War> Protestants revolt against Catholic oppression; Denmark, Sweden, and France will invade Germany in later phases of war. Kepler proposes last of three laws of planetary motion. 1619 A Dutch ship brings the first African slaves to British North America. 1620 Pilgrims, after three-month voyage inMayflower,land at Plymouth Rock. Francis Bacon'sNovum Organum. 1623 New Netherland founded by Dutch West India Company. 1630 Massachusetts Bay Colony. 1632 Maryland founded by Lord Baltimore. 1633 Inquisition forces Galileo (astronomer) to recant his belief in Copernican theory. 1642 English Civil War. Cavaliers, supporters of Charles I, against Roundheads, parliamentary forces. Oliver Cromwell defeats Royalists(1646).Parliament demands reforms. Charles I offers concessions, brought to trial(1648),beheaded(1649).Cromwell becomes Lord Protector(1653).Rembrandt paints hisNight Watch. 1643 Taj Mahal completed. 1644 End of Ming Dynasty in China—Manchus come to power. Descartes'sPrinciples of Philosophy. 1648 End of the Thirty Years' War. German population about half of what it was in1618because of war and pestilence. 1658 Cromwell dies; son Richard resigns and Puritan government collapses. 1660 English Parliament calls for the restoration of the monarchy; invites Charles II to return from France. 1661 Charles II is crowned King of England. Louis XIV begins personal rule as absolute monarch; starts to build Versailles. 1664 British take New Amsterdam from the Dutch. English limit “Nonconformity” with reestablished Anglican Church. Isaac Newton's experiments with gravity. 1665 Great Plague in London kills 75,000. 1666 Great Fire of London. Molière'sMisanthrope. 1667 Milton'sParadise Lost,widely considered the greatest epic poem in English. 1682 Pennsylvania founded by William Penn. 1683 War of European powers against the Turks (to1699). Vienna withstands three-month Turkish siege; high point of Turkish advance in Europe. 1684 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's calculus published. 1685 James II succeeds Charles II in England, calls for freedom of conscience(1687).Protestants fear restoration of Catholicism and demand “Glorious Revolution.” William of Orange invited to England and James II escapes to France(1688).William III and his wife, Mary, crowned. In France, Edict of Nantes of1598,granting freedom of worship to Huguenots, is revoked by Louis XIV; thousands of Protestants flee. 1689 Peter the Greatbecomes Czar of Russia—attempts to westernize nation and build Russia as a military power. Defeats Charles XII of Sweden at Poltava(1709).Beginning of the French and Indian Wars(to1763), campaigns in America linked to a series of wars between France and England for domination of Europe. 1690 William III of England defeats former king James II and Irish rebels at Battle of the Boyne in Ireland. John Locke'sHuman Understanding.

1600–1699(A.D.)World History The Revolutionary War Pocahontas (c. 1595–1617) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Galileo (1564–1642) Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) Taj Mahal The Library of Congress Picture Collection John Milton (1608–1674) 1600 Giordano Bruno burned as a heretic. English East India Company established. 1603 Ieyasu rules Japan, moves capital to Edo (Tokyo). Shakespeare'sHamlet. 1605 Cervantes'sDon Quixote de la Mancha,the first modern novel. 1607 Jamestown, Virginia, established—first permanent English colony on American mainland. Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, saves life of John Smith. 1609 Samuel de Champlain establishes French colony of Quebec. TheRelation,the first newspaper, debuts in Germany. 1610 Galileosees the moons of Jupiter through his telescope. 1611 Gustavus Adolphus elected King of Sweden. King James Version of the Bible published in England. Rubens paints hisDescent from the Cross. 1614 John Napier discovers logarithms. 1618 Start of the Thirty Years' War> Protestants revolt against Catholic oppression; Denmark, Sweden, and France will invade Germany in later phases of war. Kepler proposes last of three laws of planetary motion. 1619 A Dutch ship brings the first African slaves to British North America. 1620 Pilgrims, after three-month voyage inMayflower,land at Plymouth Rock. Francis Bacon'sNovum Organum. 1623 New Netherland founded by Dutch West India Company. 1630 Massachusetts Bay Colony. 1632 Maryland founded by Lord Baltimore. 1633 Inquisition forces Galileo (astronomer) to recant his belief in Copernican theory. 1642 English Civil War. Cavaliers, supporters of Charles I, against Roundheads, parliamentary forces. Oliver Cromwell defeats Royalists(1646).Parliament demands reforms. Charles I offers concessions, brought to trial(1648),beheaded(1649).Cromwell becomes Lord Protector(1653).Rembrandt paints hisNight Watch. 1643 Taj Mahal completed. 1644 End of Ming Dynasty in China—Manchus come to power. Descartes'sPrinciples of Philosophy. 1648 End of the Thirty Years' War. German population about half of what it was in1618because of war and pestilence. 1658 Cromwell dies; son Richard resigns and Puritan government collapses. 1660 English Parliament calls for the restoration of the monarchy; invites Charles II to return from France. 1661 Charles II is crowned King of England. Louis XIV begins personal rule as absolute monarch; starts to build Versailles. 1664 British take New Amsterdam from the Dutch. English limit “Nonconformity” with reestablished Anglican Church. Isaac Newton's experiments with gravity. 1665 Great Plague in London kills 75,000. 1666 Great Fire of London. Molière'sMisanthrope. 1667 Milton'sParadise Lost,widely considered the greatest epic poem in English. 1682 Pennsylvania founded by William Penn. 1683 War of European powers against the Turks (to1699). Vienna withstands three-month Turkish siege; high point of Turkish advance in Europe. 1684 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's calculus published. 1685 James II succeeds Charles II in England, calls for freedom of conscience(1687).Protestants fear restoration of Catholicism and demand “Glorious Revolution.” William of Orange invited to England and James II escapes to France(1688).William III and his wife, Mary, crowned. In France, Edict of Nantes of1598,granting freedom of worship to Huguenots, is revoked by Louis XIV; thousands of Protestants flee. 1689 Peter the Greatbecomes Czar of Russia—attempts to westernize nation and build Russia as a military power. Defeats Charles XII of Sweden at Poltava(1709).Beginning of the French and Indian Wars(to1763), campaigns in America linked to a series of wars between France and England for domination of Europe. 1690 William III of England defeats former king James II and Irish rebels at Battle of the Boyne in Ireland. John Locke'sHuman Understanding.

1500–1599(A.D.)World History Michelangelo's David (1504) Tasha Vincent Martin Luther (1483–1546) Henry VIII(1491–1547) Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603) William Shakespeare (1564–1616) Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669) Catherine de Medici (1519–1589) 1501 First black slaves in America brought to Spanish colony of Santo Domingo. c. 1503 Leonardo da Vincipaints theMona Lisa.Michelangelo sculpts theDavid(1504). 1506 St. Peter's Church started in Rome; designed and decorated by such artists and architects as Bramante, Michelangelo, da Vinci, Raphael, and Bernini before its completion in1626. 1509 Henry VIIIascends English throne. Michelangelo paints the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. 1513 Balboa becomes the first European to encounter the Pacific Ocean. Machiavelli writesThe Prince. 1517 Turks conquer Egypt, control Arabia. Martin Lutherposts his 95 theses denouncing church abuses on church door in Wittenberg—start of the Reformationin Germany. 1519 Ulrich Zwingli begins Reformation in Switzerland. Hernando Cortes conquers Mexico for Spain. Charles I of Spain is chosen Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sets out to circumnavigate the globe. 1520 Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X. Suleiman I(“the Magnificent”) becomes Sultan of Turkey, invades Hungary(1521),Rhodes(1522),attacks Austria(1529),annexes Hungary(1541),Tripoli(1551),makes peace with Persia(1553),destroys Spanish fleet(1560),dies(1566).Magellan reaches the Pacific, is killed by Philippine natives(1521).One of his ships under Juan Sebastián del Cano continues around the world, reaches Spain(1522). 1524 Verrazano, sailing under the French flag, explores the New England coast and New York Bay. 1527 Troops of the Holy Roman Empire attack Rome, imprison Pope Clement VII—the end of the Italian Renaissance. Castiglione writesThe Courtier.The Medici family expelled from Florence. 1532 Pizarro marches from Panama to Peru, kills the Inca chieftain, Atahualpa, of Peru(1533).Machiavelli'sThe Princepublished posthumously. 1535 Reformation begins as Henry VIII makes himself head of English Church after being excommunicated by Pope. Sir Thomas Moreexecuted as traitor for refusal to acknowledge king's religious authority. Jacques Cartier sails up the St. Lawrence River, basis of French claims to Canada. 1536 Henry VIII executes second wife, Anne Boleyn. John Calvin establishes Reformed and Presbyterian form of Protestantism in Switzerland, writesInstitutes of the Christian Religion.Danish and Norwegian Reformations. Michelangelo'sLast Judgment. 1541 John Knox leads Reformation in Scotland, establishes Presbyterian church there(1560). 1543 Publication ofOn the Revolution of Heavenly Bodiesby Polish scholar Nicolaus Copernicus—giving his theory that the earth revolves around the sun. 1545 Council of Trent to meet intermittently until1563to define Catholic dogma and doctrine, reiterate papal authority. 1547 Ivan IV(“the Terrible”) crowned as czar of Russia, begins conquest of Astrakhan and Kazan(1552),battles nobles (boyars) for power(1564),kills his son(1580),dies, and is succeeded by his weak and feeble-minded son, Fyodor I. 1553 Roman Catholicism restored in England by Queen Mary I. 1556 Akbar the Great becomes Mogulemperor of India, conquers Afghanistan(1581),continues wars of conquest (until1605). 1558 Queen Elizabeth Iascends the throne (rules to1603). Restores Protestantism, establishes state Church of England (Anglicanism). Renaissance will reach height in England— Shakespeare, Marlowe, Spenser. 1561 Persecution of Huguenotsin France stopped by Edict of Orleans. French religious wars begin again with massacre of Huguenots at Vassy. St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre—thousands of Huguenots murdered(1572).Amnesty granted(1573).Persecution continues periodically until Edict of Nantes(1598)gives Huguenots religious freedom (until1685). 1568 Protestant Netherlands revolts against Catholic Spain; independence will be acknowledged by Spain in1648. 1570 Japan permits visits of foreign ships. Queen Elizabeth I excommunicated by Pope. Turks attack Cyprus and war on Venice. Turkish fleet defeated at Battle of Lepanto by Spanish and Italian fleets(1571).Peace of Constantinople(1572)ends Turkish attacks on Europe. 1580 Francis Drake returns to England after circumnavigating the globe; knighted by Queen Elizabeth I(1581).Montaigne'sEssayspublished. 1582 Pope Gregory XIII implements the Gregorian calendar. 1583 William of Orange rules the Netherlands; assassinated on orders of Philip II of Spain(1584). 1587 Mary, Queen of Scots, executed for treason by order of Queen Elizabeth I. Monteverdi'sFirst Book of Madrigals. 1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada by English. Henry, King of Navarre and Protestant leader, recognized as Henry IV, first Bourbon king of France. Converts to Roman Catholicism in1593in attempt to end religious wars.

1400–1499(A.D.)World History The Duomo in Florence Linda J. Barnes Joan of Arc (1412–1431) 1407 Casa di San Giorgio, one of the first public banks, founded in Genoa. 1415 Henry V defeats French at Agincourt. Jan Hus, Bohemian preacher and follower of Wycliffe, burned at stake in Constance as heretic. 1418–1460 Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigatorsponsors exploration of Africa's coast. 1420 Brunelleschi begins work on the Duomo in Florence. 1428 Joan of Arcleads French against English, captured by Burgundians(1430)and turned over to the English, burned at the stake as a witch after ecclesiastical trial(1431). 1438 Incasrule in Peru. 1450 Florence becomes center of Renaissance arts and learning under the Medicis. 1453 Turks conquer Constantinople, end of the Byzantine empire, beginning of the Ottoman empire. 1455 The Wars of the Roses, civil wars between rival noble factions, begin in England (to1485). Having invented printing with movable type at Mainz, Germany, Johann Gutenberg completes first Bible. 1462 Ivan the Great rules Russia until1505as first czar; ends payment of tribute to Mongols. 1492 Moors conquered in Spain by troops of Ferdinand and Isabella. Columbusbecomes first European to encounter Caribbean islands, returns to Spain(1493).Second voyage to Dominica, Jamaica, Puerto Rico(1493–1496).Third voyage to Orinoco(1498).Fourth voyage to Honduras and Panama(1502–1504). 1497 Vasco da Gama sails around Africa and discovers sea route to India(1498).Establishes Portuguese colony in India(1502).John Cabot, employed by England, reaches and explores Canadian coast. Michelangelo'sBacchussculpture.

1000–1099(A.D.)World History Mesa VerdeCliff Dwellings(c. 1000–1300) Pete Maio Cathedral and Tower at Pisa Tasha Vincent c. 1000–1300 Classic Puebloperiod of Anasazi culture; cliff dwellings. c. 1000 Hungary and Scandinavia converted to Christianity. Viking raider Leif Eriksson discovers North America, calls it Vinland.Beowulf,Old English epic. c. 1008 Murasaki Shikibu finishesThe Tale of Genji,the world's first novel. 1009 Muslims destroy Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. 1013 Danes control England. Canutetakes throne(1016),conquers Norway(1028),dies(1035);kingdom divided among his sons: Harold Harefoot (England), Sweyn (Norway), Hardecanute (Denmark). 1040 Macbeth murders Duncan, king of Scotland. 1053 Robert Guiscard, Norman invader, establishes kingdom in Italy, conquers Sicily(1072). 1054 Final separation between Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman) churches. 1055 Seljuk Turks, Asian nomads, move west, capture Baghdad, Armenia(1064),Syria, and Palestine(1075). 1066 William of Normandy invades England, defeats last Saxon king, Harold II, at Battle of Hastings, crowned William Iof England (“the Conqueror”). 1068 Construction on the cathedral in Pisa, Italy, begins. 1073 Emergence of strong papacy when Gregory VII is elected. Conflict with English and French kings and German emperors will continue throughout medieval period. 1095 At Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II calls for a holy war to wrest control of Jerusalem from Muslims, which launches the First Crusade (1096), one of at least 8 European military campaigns between 1095 and 1291 to regain the Holy Land. (For detailed chronology, see The Crusades.)

1100–1199(A.D.)World History Chartres Cathedral Tasha Vincent 1100–1300 Construction of Cathedral at Chartres, France. 1144 Second Crusade begins. c. 1150 Angkor Watis completed. 1150–1167 Universities of Paris and Oxford founded in France and England. 1162 Thomas á Becketnamed Archbishop of Canterbury, murdered by Henry II's men(1170).Troubadours (wandering minstrels) glorify romantic concepts of feudalism. 1169 Ibn-Rushd begins translating Aristotle's works. 1189 Richard I (“the Lionhearted”) succeeds Henry II in England, killed in France(1199),succeeded by King John. Third Crusade.

1200–1299(A.D.)World History The Crusades King John (1167–1216) Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) 1200–1204 Fourth Crusade. 1211 Genghis Khan invades China, captures Peking(1214),conquers Persia(1218),invades Russia(1223),dies(1227). 1212 Children's Crusade. 1215 King John forced by barons to sign Magna Cartaat Runneymede, limiting royal power. 1217 Fifth Crusade. 1228 Sixth Crusade. 1231 The Inquisitionbegins as Pope Gregory IX assigns Dominicans responsibility for combating heresy. Torture used(1252).Ferdinand and Isabella establish Spanish Inquisition(1478).Tourquemada, Grand Inquisitor, forces conversion or expulsion of Spanish Jews(1492).Forced conversion of Moors(1499).Inquisition in Portugal(1531).First Protestants burned at the stake in Spain(1543).Spanish Inquisition abolished(1834). 1241 Mongols defeat Germans in Silesia, invade Poland and Hungary, withdraw from Europe after Ughetai, Mongol leader, dies. 1248 Seventh Crusade. 1251 Kublai Khan governs China, becomes ruler of Mongols(1259),establishes Yuan dynasty in China(1280),invades Burma(1287),dies(1294). 1260 Chartres cathedral consecrated. 1270 Eighth Crusade. 1271 Marco Poloof Venice travels to China, in court of Kublai Khan(1275–1292),returns to Genoa(1295)and writesTravels. 1273 Thomas Aquinasstops work onSumma Theologica,the basis of all Catholic theological teaching; never completes it. 1295 English King Edward I summons the Model Parliament.

1300–1399(A.D.)World History 1312–1337 Mali Empire reaches its height in Africa under King Mansa Musa. c. 1325 The beginning of the Renaissancein Italy: writers Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio; painter Giotto. Development ofNohdrama in Japan. Aztecsestablish Tenochtitlán on site of modern Mexico City. Peak of Muslim culture in Spain. Small cannon in use. 1337–1453 Hundred Years' War—English and French kings fight for control of France. 1347–1351 At least 25 million people die in Europe's “Black Death” (bubonic plague). 1368 MingDynasty begins in China. 1376–1382 John Wycliffe, pre-Reformation religious reformer, and followers translate Latin Bible into English. 1378 The Great Schism (to1417)—rival popes in Rome and Avignon, France, fight for control of Roman Catholic Church. c. 1387 Chaucer'sCanterbury Tales. 1398 Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, begins last great conquest—Delhi.

World history (801-999): 800–849 Charlemagne crowned first Holy Roman Emperor in Rome(800).Charlemagne dies(814),succeeded by his son, Louis the Pious, who divides France among his sons(817).Arabs conquer Crete, Sicily, and Sardinia(826–827). 850–899 Norsemen attack as far south as the Mediterranean but are thwarted(859),discover Iceland(861).Alfred the Great becomes king of Britain(871),defeats Danish invaders(878).Russian nation founded by Vikings under Prince Rurik, establishing capital at Novgorod(855–879). 900–949 Beginning of Mayan Post-Classical period (900–1519). Vikings discover Greenland(c. 900).Arab Spain under Abd ar-Rahman III becomes center of learning(912–961).Otto I becomes King of Germany (936). 950–999 Mieczyslaw I becomes first ruler of Poland(960).Eric the Red establishes first Viking colony in Greenland(982).Hugh Capet elected King of France in987;Capetian dynasty to rule until1328.Musical notation systematized(c. 990).Vikings and Danes attack Britain(988–999).Otto I crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII(962).

World History 1–800(A.D.)World History Roman AqueductMontpellier, France Tina Diodati Christ Celtic Cross Renée Scott Mayan Pyramid at Chichén Itzá Renée Scott Japanese Pagoda Erik Hjortshoj Viking Ship (c. 900) 1–49 Birth of Jesus Christ (variously given from4B.C.toA.D.7).After Augustus, Tiberius becomes emperor (dies,A.D.37), succeeded by Caligula (assassinated,A.D.41), who is followed by Claudius. Crucifixion of Jesus (probablyA.D.30). Han dynasty in China founded by Emperor Kuang Wu Ti. Buddhism introduced to China. 50–99 Claudius poisoned(A.D.54),succeeded by Nero (commits suicide,A.D.68). Missionary journeys of Paul the Apostle(A.D.34–60).Jews revolt against Rome; Jerusalem destroyed(A.D.70).Roman persecutions of Christians begin(A.D.64).Colosseum built in Rome(A.D.71–80).Trajan (rulesA.D.98–116); Roman empire extends to Mesopotamia, Arabia, Balkans. First Gospels of St. Mark, St. John, St. Matthew. 100–149 Hadrian rules Rome(A.D.117–138);codifies Roman law, rebuilds Pantheon, establishes postal system, builds wall between England and Scotland. Jews revolt under Bar Kokhba(A.D.122–135);final Diaspora (dispersion) of Jews begins. 150–199 Marcus Aurelius rules Rome(A.D.161–180). Oldest Mayan temples in Central America(c.A.D.200). 200–249 Goths invade Asia Minor(c.A.D.220).Roman persecutions of Christians increase. Persian (Sassanid) empire re-established. End of Chinese Han dynasty. 250–299 Increasing invasions of the Roman empire by Franks and Goths. Buddhism spreads in China. Classic period of Mayan civilization (A.D.250–900); develop hieroglyphic writing, advances in art, architecture, science. 300–349 Constantine the Great (rulesA.D.312–337) reunites eastern and western Roman empires, with new capital (Constantinople) on site of Byzantium(A.D.330);issues Edict of Milan legalizing Christianity(A.D.313);becomes a Christian on his deathbed(A.D.337).Council of Nicaea(A.D.325)defines orthodox Christian doctrine. First Gupta dynasty in India(c.A.D.320). 350–399 Huns (Mongols) invade Europe(c.A.D.360).Theodosius the Great (rulesA.D.392–395)—last emperor of a united Roman empire. Roman empire permanently divided inA.D.395:western empire ruled from Rome; eastern empire ruled from Constantinople. 400–449 Western Roman empire disintegrates under weak emperors. Alaric, king of the Visigoths, sacks Rome(A.D.410).Attila, Hun chieftain, attacks Roman provinces(A.D.433).St. Patrick returns to Ireland(A.D.432) and brings Christianity to the island.St. Augustine'sCity of God(A.D.411). 450–499 Vandals destroy Rome(A.D.455).Western Roman empire ends as Odoacer, German chieftain, overthrows last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and becomes king of Italy(A.D.476).Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy established by Theodoric the Great(A.D.493).Clovis, ruler of the Franks, is converted to Christianity(A.D.496).First schism between western and eastern churches(A.D.484). 500–549 Eastern and western churches reconciled(519).Justinian I, the Great(483–565),becomes Byzantine emperor(527),issues his first code of civil laws(529),conquers North Africa, Italy, and part of Spain. Plague spreads through Europe (542et seq.). Arthur, semi-legendary king of the Britons (killed,c. 537). Boëthius, Roman scholar (executed,524). 550–599 Beginnings of European silk industry after Justinian's missionaries smuggle silkworms out of China(553).Mohammed, founder of Islam(570–632).Buddhism in Japan(c. 560).St. Augustine of Canterbury brings Christianity to Britain(597).After killing about half the population, plague in Europe subsides(594). 600–649 Mohammed flees from Mecca to Medina (theHegira); first year of the Muslim calendar(622).Muslim empire grows(634).Arabs conquer Jerusalem(637),conquer Persians(641). 650–699 Arabs attack North Africa(670),destroy Carthage(697).Venerable Bede, English monk(672–735). 700–749 Arab empire extends from Lisbon to China (by716). Charles Martel, Frankish leader, defeats Arabs at Tours/Poitiers, halting Arab advance in Europe(732).Charlemagne(742–814).Introduction of pagodas in Japan from China. 750–799 Charlemagne becomes king of the Franks(771).Caliph Harun al-Rashid rules Arab empire(786–809):the “golden age” of Arab culture. Vikings begin attacks on Britain(790),land in Ireland(795).City of Machu Picchu flourishes in Peru.

Ancient History (part 2 of 2): Before Christ(B.C.)or Before the Common Era(B.C.E.) 700–600B.C. End of Assyrian Empire(616B.C.)—Nineveh destroyed by Chaldeans (Neo-Babylonians) and Medes(612B.C.).Founding of Byzantium by Greeks(c. 660B.C.).Building of the Acropolis in Athens. Solon, Greek lawgiver(640–560B.C.).Sappho of Lesbos, Greek poet(fl. c. 610–580B.C.). Lao-tse, Chinese philosopher and founder of Taoism (bornc. 604B.C.). 600–500B.C. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar builds empire, destroys Jerusalem(586B.C.).Babylonian Captivity of the Jews (starting587B.C.).Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Cyrus the Great of Persia creates great empire, conquers Babylon(539B.C.),frees the Jews. Athenian democracy develops. Aeschylus, Greek dramatist(525–465B.C.).Pythagoras, Greek philosopher and mathematician(582?–507?B.C.). Confucius(551–479B.C.)develops ethical and social philosophy in China. TheAnalectsor Lun-yü (“collected sayings”) are compiled by the second generation of Confucian disciples. Buddha(563?–483?B.C.)founds Buddhism in India. 500–400B.C. Greeks defeat Persians: battles of Marathon(490B.C.),Thermopylae(480B.C.),Salamis(480B.C.).Peloponnesian Wars between Athens and Sparta(431–404B.C.)—Sparta victorious. Pericles comes to power in Athens(462B.C.).Flowering of Greek culture during the Age of Pericles(450–400B.C.).The Parthenon is built in Athens as a temple of the goddess Athena (447–432B.C.). Ictinus and Callicrates are the architects and Phidias is responsible for the sculpture. Sophocles, Greek dramatist(496?–406B.C.).Hippocrates, Greek “Father of Medicine” (born460B.C.).Xerxes I, king of Persia (rules485–465B.C.). 400–300B.C. Pentateuch—first five books of the Old Testament evolve in final form. Philip of Macedon, who believed himself to be a descendant of the Greek people, assassinated(336B.C.)after subduing the Greek city-states; succeeded by son, Alexander the Great(356–323B.C.), who destroys Thebes(335B.C.),conquers Tyre and Jerusalem(332B.C.),occupies Babylon(330B.C.),invades India, and dies in Babylon. His empire is divided among his generals; one of them, Seleucis I, establishes Middle East empire with capitals at Antioch (Syria) and Seleucia (in Iraq). Trial and execution of Greek philosopher Socrates(399B.C.).Dialogues recorded by his student, Plato(c. 427–348 or 347B.C.).Euclid's work on geometry(323B.C.). Aristotle, Greek philosopher(384–322B.C.).Demosthenes, Greek orator(384–322B.C.).Praxiteles, Greek sculptor(400–330B.C.). 300–251B.C. First Punic War(264–241B.C.):Rome defeats the Carthaginians and begins its domination of the Mediterranean. Temple of the Sun at Teotihuacán, Mexico(c. 300B.C.).Invention of Mayan calendar in Yucatán—more exact than older calendars. First Roman gladiatorial games(264B.C.).Archimedes, Greek mathematician(287–212B.C.). 250–201B.C. Second Punic War(219–201B.C.):Hannibal, Carthaginian general(246–142B.C.),crosses the Alps(218B.C.),reaches gates of Rome(211B.C.),retreats, and is defeated by Scipio Africanus at Zama(202B.C.).Great Wall of China built(c. 215B.C.). 200–151B.C. Romans defeat Seleucid King Antiochus III at Thermopylae(191B.C.)—beginning of Roman world domination. Maccabean revolt against Seleucids(167B.C.). 150–101B.C. Third Punic War(149–146B.C.):Rome destroys Carthage, killing 450,000 and enslaving the remaining 50,000 inhabitants. Roman armies conquer Macedonia, Greece, Anatolia, Balearic Islands, and southern France. Venus de Milo(c. 140B.C.).Cicero, Roman orator(106–43B.C.). 100–51B.C. Julius Caesar(100–44B.C.)invades Britain(55B.C.)and conquers Gaul (France)(c. 50B.C.).Spartacus leads slave revolt against Rome(71B.C.).Romans conquer Seleucid empire. Roman general Pompey conquers Jerusalem(63B.C.).Cleopatra on Egyptian throne(51–31B.C.).Chinese develop use of paper(c. 100B.C.).Virgil, Roman poet(70–19B.C.).Horace, Roman poet(65–8B.C.). 50–1B.C. Caesar crosses Rubicon to fight Pompey(50B.C.).Herod made Roman governor of Judea(37B.C.).Caesar murdered(44B.C.).Caesar's nephew, Octavian, defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Battle of Actium(31B.C.),and establishes Roman empire as Emperor Augustus; rules27B.C.–A.D.14.Pantheon built for the first time under Agrippa, 27B.C.Ovid, Roman poet(43B.C.–A.D.18).

Ancient History (part 1 of 2): Before Christ(B.C.)or Before the Common Era(B.C.E.) 4.5 billion – 1B.C.World History Some Ancient Civilizations Ra, Egyptian Sun God (3000–2000B.C.) See also Egyptian Mythology The Great Pyramid at Giza (c. 2680B.C.) Kim Storm Stonehenge (c. 3000–1500B.C.) Peter F. Harrington Pythagoras (582?–507?B.C.) Buddha (563?–483?B.C.) Confucius(551–479B.C.) Parthenon(447–432B.C.) See also Greek and Roman Mythology Tina Diodati Plato (427?–348 or 347B.C.) Augustus Caesar (63B.C.–A.D.14) Mayan Hieroglyphics (c. 200B.C.) Pantheon in Rome(27B.C.; c.A.D.118–128) See also Greek and Roman Mythology Elaine Ouellette 4.5 billionB.C. Planet Earth formed. 3 billionB.C. First signs of primeval life (bacteria and blue-green algae) appear in oceans. 600 millionB.C. Earliest date to which fossils can be traced. 4.4 millionB.C. Earliest known hominid fossils (Ardipithecus ramidus) found in Aramis, Ethiopia, 1994. 4.2 millionB.C. Australopithecus anamensisfound in Lake Turkana, Kenya, 1995. 3.2 millionB.C. Australopithecus afarenis(nicknamed “Lucy”) found in Ethiopia, 1974. 2.5 millionB.C. Homo habilis(“Skillful Man”). First brain expansion; is believed to have used stone tools. 1.8 millionB.C. Homo erectus(“Upright Man”). Brain size twice that ofAustralopithecinespecies. 1.7 millionB.C. Homo erectusleaves Africa. 100,000B.C. First modernHomo sapiensin South Africa. 70,000B.C. Neanderthal man (use of fire and advanced tools). 35,000B.C. Neanderthal man replaced by later groups ofHomo sapiens(i.e., Cro-Magnon man, etc.). 18,000B.C. Cro-Magnons replaced by later cultures. 15,000B.C. Migrations across Bering Straits into the Americas. 10,000B.C. Semi-permanent agricultural settlements in Old World. 10,000–4,000B.C. Development of settlements into cities and development of skills such as the wheel, pottery, and improved methods of cultivation in Mesopotamia and elsewhere. 5500–3000B.C. Predynastic Egyptian cultures develop(5500–3100B.C.);begin using agriculture(c. 5000B.C.). Earliest known civilization arises in Sumer(4500–4000B.C.).Earliest recorded date in Egyptian calendar(4241B.C.).First year of Jewish calendar(3760B.C.).First phonetic writing appears(c. 3500B.C.).Sumerians develop a city-state civilization(c. 3000B.C.).Copper used by Egyptians and Sumerians. Western Europe is neolithic, without metals or written records. 3000–2000B.C. Pharaonic rule begins in Egypt. King Khufu (Cheops), 4th dynasty(2700–2675B.C.),completes construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza (c. 2680B.C.). The Great Sphinx of Giza (c. 2540B.C.) is built by King Khafre. Earliest Egyptian mummies. Papyrus. Phoenician settlements on coast of what is now Syria and Lebanon. Semitic tribes settle in Assyria. Sargon, first Akkadian king, builds Mesopotamian empire. The Gilgamesh epic(c. 3000B.C.).Systematic astronomy in Egypt, Babylon, India, China. 3000–1500B.C. The most ancient civilization on the Indian subcontinent, the sophisticated and extensive Indus Valley civilization, flourishes in what is today Pakistan. In Britain, Stonehenge erected according to some unknown astronomical rationale. Its three main phases of construction are thought to span c. 3000–1500B.C. 2000–1500B.C. Hyksos invaders drive Egyptians from Lower Egypt(17th centuryB.C.).Amosis I frees Egypt from Hyksos(c. 1600B.C.).Assyrians rise to power—cities of Ashur and Nineveh. Twenty-four-character alphabet in Egypt. Cuneiform inscriptions used by Hittites. Peak of Minoan culture on Isle of Crete—earliest form of written Greek. Hammurabi, king of Babylon, develops oldest existing code of laws(18th centuryB.C.). 1500–1000B.C. Ikhnaton develops monotheistic religion in Egypt(c. 1375B.C.).His successor, Tutankhamen, returns to earlier gods. Greeks destroy Troy(c. 1193B.C.).End of Greek civilization in Mycenae with invasion of Dorians. Chinese civilization develops under Shang Dynasty. Olmec civilization in Mexico—stone monuments; picture writing. 1000–900B.C. Solomon succeeds King David, builds Jerusalem temple. After Solomon's death, kingdom divided into Israel and Judah. Hebrew elders begin to write Old Testament books of Bible. Phoenicians colonize Spain with settlement at Cadiz. 900–800B.C. Phoenicians establish Carthage(c. 810B.C.).TheIliadand theOdyssey,perhaps composed by Greek poet Homer. 800–700B.C. Prophets Amos, Hosea, Isaiah. First recorded Olympic games(776B.C.).Legendary founding of Rome by Romulus(753B.C.).Assyrian king Sargon II conquers Hittites, Chaldeans, Samaria (end of Kingdom of Israel). Earliest written music. Chariots introduced into Italy by Etruscans.

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES: US GOVERNMENT—A SYSTEM OF CHECKS AND BALANCES Native peoples lived throughout the Americas for centuries—arriving from Asia by a land bridge—and they developed complex, diverse cultures. The arrival of Europeans completely changed their way of life. Soon after Columbus landed in North America, other European explorers followed. Within a century, European countries were planning permanent colonies in North America. c. AD 1000Leif Eriksson is the first European to set foot in North America c. 1400Native tribes move into the southwest 1492Christopher Columbus sails west from Spain for Asia and lands in the West Indies 1513Ponce de León claims Florida for Spain 1519–21Hernán Cortés conquers the Aztec Empire 1532Francisco Pizarro conquers the Inca Empire 1585–87Two unsuccessful attempts are made to colonize Roanoke Island 1607Jamestown founded 1620Mayflower compact; Pilgrims found Plymouth 1621First Thanksgiving 1660King Charles II of England assigns land to be sold to colonists 1692Salem witch trials 1754Outbreak of French and Indian War 1763Treaty of Paris ends French claims in North America 1779Boston Massacre 1773Tea Act; Rebellious colonists stage the Boston Tea Party 1774The 13 colonies form First Continental Congress 1775–83American Revolution begins at Lexington and Concord; ends after British surrender at Yorktown July 4, 1776Declaration of Independence signed 1781Articles of Confederation ratified 1787Constitution signed 1789George Washington elected first US president 1791Bill of Rights ratified 1803Louisiana Purchase doubles land area of US 1812–14US at war with Great Britain; British burn Washington, D.C.; “Star-Spangled Banner” written 1820Missouri Compromise signed in attempt to avoid crisis over slavery 1823Monroe Doctrine 1830Indian Removal Act creates “Indian territories” 1840Telegraph first used 1841Oregon trail opens 1846US war against Mexico; US borders extended to Pacific Ocean 1849California Gold Rush 1861Civil War erupts when southern states secede from Union, forming Confederate States of America 1863Battle of Gettysburg; Gettysburg Address; Emancipation Proclamation 186513th Amendment abolishes slavery 1865Lee surrenders to Grant; President Lincoln assassinated 1867Reconstruction Act 186814th Amendment grants citizenship to African Americans 1869Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads meet at Promontory Point 187015th Amendment gives African Americans the right to vote 1876Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone 1879Thomas Edison makes the electric light bulb 1882Chinese Exclusion Act 1886Haymarket riot; American Federation of Labor organized 1890Frontier closes; massacre of American Indians at Wounded Knee 1898Spanish-American War; US acquires the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii 1903First flight by Wright brothers at Kitty Hawk 191316th Amendment places federal tax on income 1914Panama Canal opens 1915German U-boat sinks theLusitania 1916Child Labor Act 1917US enters World War I; end of Progressivism 1918End of World War I 191918th Amendment begins Prohibition 192019th Amendment gives women the vote 1927Charles Lindbergh makes flight across Atlantic; first “talkie” released 1929Stock market crashes; Great Depression 1933Great Plains become the “Dust Bowl”; President Roosevelt launches the New Deal 1939Germany invades Czechoslovakia and Poland; Great Britain and France declare war on Germany Dec. 7, 1941Pearl Harbor attacked; US enters war 1942Relocation of Japanese-Americans begins; Bataan Death March; Battles of Coral Sea and Midway June 6, 1944D-Day May 8, 1945Germany surrenders Aug. 6, 1945US drops atomic bomb on Hiroshima Aug. 9, 1945US drops atomic bomb on Nagasaki Aug. 15, 1945Japan surrenders 1948Marshall Plan implemented; Berlin airlift 1950McCarthy hearings begin; start of Korean War 1954Supreme Court ruling onBrown v. Board of Education 1955Montgomery bus boycott 1957Sputnik Ilaunched 1958First American satellite goes into orbit 1961Bay of Pigs fiasco 1962Cuban Missile Crisis 1963March on Washington, D.C.; Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. delivers “I Have a Dream” speech Nov. 22, 1963President Kennedy assassinated 1965American troops sent to Vietnam 1968My Lai massacre Apr. 4, 1968Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. assassinated; violence erupts in 125 cities 1969Apollo 11crew lands on the Moon 1972Watergate break-in 1974President Nixon resigns 1975US personnel evacuated from Saigon; South Vietnam surrenders 1979Global oil shortage; gas rationing 1979Iranian rebels seize US Embassy 1981Scientists identify Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) Jan. 28, 1986Space shuttleChallengerexplodes 1986Iran-Contra scandal 1989Berlin Wall torn down; fall of communism in eastern Europe begins 1991US leads coalition in Operation Desert Storm 1992US troops join UN mission in Somalia 1995Oklahoma City bombing 1998President Clinton impeached, later acquitted

HISTORY OF CANADA (part 1 of 2): CANADA’S PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES FIND OUT MORE The first people in Canada came from Asia 70,000 to 12,000 years ago, via a land bridge now covered by the Bering Sea. The “First Nations” spread across Canada, obtaining food by hunting, gathering, and farming. Around 6000 BC, the Inuit settled in the north. By the time Europeans reached Canada, the native peoples had well-developed trading patterns, societies, and cultures. 70,000–10,000 BCNomadic hunters arrive in Canada c. 6000 BCInuit arrive in Canada c. AD 1000Leif Eriksson and other Vikings visit Labrador and L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland 1003Vikings establish a colony in Labrador (Vinland), but it is abandoned two years later 1497John Cabot’s first voyage to North America; Cape Breton Island claimed for Henry VII of England 1534Jacques Cartier visits the Strait of Belle Isle (Newfoundland) and charts the Gulf of St. Lawrence 1608Samuel de Champlain, “Father of New France,” founds Quebec City, the first permanent European settlement in Canada 1610Henry Hudson explores Hudson Bay 1642Montreal is founded 1670The Hudson Bay Company is founded by royal charter and granted trade rights over all territory draining into Hudson Bay 1713The Treaty of Utrecht confirms British possession of Newfoundland, Hudson Bay, and Acadia (except Cape Breton Island) 1754Start of French and Indian War in America. Marks the final phase in the struggle between France and Britain in North America 1755Britain expels the Acadians from Nova Scotia, scattering them throughout her North American colonies 1759General Wolfe defeats the French on the Plains of Abraham and takes the city of Quebec for the British 1763France cedes its North American possessions to Britain in the Treaty of Paris 1774The Quebec Act provides for British criminal law but restores French civil law and guarantees religious freedom for Roman Catholics 1775–76American revolutionary forces capture Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point; Quebec City withstands a five-month American siege until the appearance of a British fleet 1791The Constitutional Act divides Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada 1792George Vancouver begins his explorations of the Pacific Coast 1818Canada’s border with the United States is defined as the 49th Parallel from Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains 1841Act of Union unites Upper and Lower Canada as the Province of Canada 184790,000 immigrants, mostly from Ireland, arrive in Canada. 5,000 die of cholera while in quarantine; 15,000 die after moving to Quebec City, Montreal, Toronto, and Kingston 1849The boundary of the 49th Parallel is extended to the Pacific Ocean 1867Britain’s North American colonies are united to become the Dominion of Canada and Sir John A. Macdonald becomes Canada’s first prime minister 1870The Red River Rebellion, in which the Métis (led by Louis Riel) resist Canadian authority in the northwest of the country, is put down 1885Riel leads the Northwest Rebellion. The Métis are defeated at Batoche, and Riel is hanged for treason. The last spike of the transcontinental railway is put in place 1895Gold is discovered in the Klondike River, prompting the biggest gold rush in history. Nearly 2.4 million settlers arrive in the country in several waves of immigration 1899The first Canadian troops ever sent overseas are dispatched to the Boer War 1903Canada loses the Alaska boundary dispute with the US 1914Britain declares war on Germany, automatically drawing Canada into the conflict in Europe. The War Measures Act orders all German and Austro-Hungarian Canadians to carry identity cards 1916The government of Manitoba grants women the right to vote and hold office 1917Munitions ship explodes in Halifax harbor, killing 2,000 and injuring 9,000. Income tax is introduced as a temporary wartime measure 1918Canadians break through the German trenches at Amiens beginning “Canada’s Hundred Days.” Armistice ends World War I 1922Canadians Charles Best, Frederick Banting, and John MacLeod win the Nobel Prize for the discovery of insulin 1929Great Depression

HISTORY OF CANADA (part 2 of 2): 1931The Statute of Westminster grants Canada full legislative authority 1935Ten percent of Canadians rely on welfare or “relief.” The “On to Ottawa Trek” by young men from government work camps ends in a riot at Regina 1939Canada declares war on Germany 1942Canadians of Japanese descent are moved inland from the coast of British Columbia as “security risks”; their property is confiscated 1944Canadian troops push farther inland than any other Allied units on D-Day 1945World War II ends. One million Canadians fought in World War II; 42,042 were killed. Canada joins the UN. Canada’s first nuclear reactor goes online in Chalk River, Ontario 1950Canadian troops participate in the Korean War as part of a UN force 1952Canada’s first television station begins broadcasting in Montreal and Toronto 1960The separation crisis begins in Quebec. Supporters of the Parti Québécois call for independence from a federal Canada 1965Canada’s new flag is inaugurated after a bitter political debate 1967Montreal plays host to Expo ’67 1976The Olympic games are held in Montreal 1980Quebec votes “no” to separatism in a referendum 1982Canada gains a new Constitution and Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The charter entrenches English/French bilingualism within federal institutions and provides for minority language education across the country 1988Calgary hosts the XV Winter Olympics 1989The Free Trade Agreement between Canada and the US goes into effect 1991Canadian forces join the battle to drive Iraqi troops from Kuwait. Yukon First Nations members sign an agreement on land claims and self-government 1995People of Quebec vote by a narrow majority to remain part of Canada 1999The Inuit territory of Nunavut, which covers one-fifth of Canada’s landmass, is established 2000At the largest state funeral in the country’s history, Canada bids farewell to ex-Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau 2003The Parti Québécois is ousted by Quebec’s Liberal party in the provincial elections CANADA’S PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES Table 60. CANADA’S PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES 1867New Brunswick 1867Nova Scotia 1867Ontario 1867Quebec 1870Manitoba 1871British Columbia 1873Prince Edward Island 1898Yukon Territory 1905Alberta 1905Northwest Territories 1905Saskatchewan 1949Newfoundland 1999Nunavut Territory

MIDDLE EAST: WHY HAS THERE BEEN FIGHTING IN ISRAEL? WHO CAME TO POWER IN IRAQ? The Middle East saw much conflict during the last century. Its deserts contain the world’s biggest oil fields, which have brought wealth to the area’s rulers but also colonial interference and wars. Other flashpoints were the creation of Israel and disputes over the role of Islam in government. WHY HAS THERE BEEN FIGHTING IN ISRAEL? In 1948, the UN made part of Palestine the Jewish nation of Israel. Jewish people returned to their traditional homeland, but many displaced Palestinian Arabs became refugees. The struggle between Israelis and Palestinians for this land continues. WHO CAME TO POWER IN IRAQ? In 1963, the Ba’ath party seized power in Iraq with US support. In 1979, Saddam Hussein became president. Iraq fought against Iran, and invaded oil-rich Kuwait, which was liberated by a US-led coalition in 1991. In 2003, the US and Great Britain claimed that Hussein remained an international threat and invaded Iraq.

DECOLONIZATION: WHEN DID WINDS OF CHANGE BLOW? APARTHEID After 1945, European nations began to give up their colonies. In some places, power was handed back to local people peacefully. White South Africans refused to share power, creating a system of APARTHEID. WHEN DID WINDS OF CHANGE BLOW? In 1960, the British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan made a speech in South Africa, declaring that a “wind of change” was blowing through the African continent. He meant that the age of empires and colonies was coming to an end. Today only a few colonies or “overseas territories” still exist. APARTHEID Apartheid is a word from the Afrikaans language that means “staying apart.” It was the South African government’s policy of racial separation from 1948 to 1994. White people, who made up only 14 percent of the population, refused to give the vote to black or Asian people. These peoples were denied basic rights and were not allowed to mix with the whites. WHAT WERE THE EFFECTS OF APARTHEID? Black people were not permitted to live in areas reserved for whites. They were not even allowed to sit on the same benches. Many black people endured bad housing, poverty, and inadequate education. Black and white South Africans who protested against apartheid risked imprisonment or death. WHEN DID APARTHEID END? The end of apartheid came in 1994, when Nelson Mandela won South Africa’s first democratic general election. This occasion marked the end of two centuries in which Europeans had attempted to rule the rest of the world. However, the newly independent nations of Africa still face many problems. BIOGRAPHY: NELSON MANDELA 1918- Nelson Mandela was a black lawyer who campaigned against apartheid. Imprisoned from 1964–1990, he became a symbol of resistance. After his release, he became South Africa’s first black president.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: WHY WAS THE UNITED NATIONS FOUNDED? WHAT OTHER ALLIANCES WERE SET UP? Nations have always formed alliances. In the 20th century, many new international organizations were set up worldwide for economic and political reasons, defense and peacekeeping, and health and welfare. WHY WAS THE UNITED NATIONS FOUNDED? The League of Nations was founded in 1919 to keep the peace after World War I. But it failed to prevent World War II in 1939, so in 1945 the nations of the world set up a new organization, the United Nations (UN). Since then, the UN has encouraged international cooperation and worked to resolve conflict. THE OLIVE BRANCH The United Nations flag shows the world surrounded by olive branches, a symbol of peace. The UN has sent peacekeeping forces around the world. WHAT OTHER ALLIANCES WERE SET UP? Some alliances have been political, such as the Arab League (1945) or the Organization of African Unity (1963). The European Economic Community (1958) grew from a small trading alliance into the European Union. Military alliances included the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949–) and the Warsaw Pact (1955–1991).

COLD WAR: WHAT WAS THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS? WHAT WAS THE VIETNAM WAR? WHAT WAS THE IRON CURTAIN? After World War II, allies who had fought fascism together became rivals for world power. From 1945 to 1990, there was a period of tension called the Cold War. Capitalist countries, led by the US, clashed with the communist countries of the Soviet Union and China. WHAT WAS THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS? Both sides in the Cold War were heavily armed with nuclear weapons. In 1962, the Soviet Union secretly stationed missiles in communist Cuba. The US found out and demanded that the missiles be removed. The Soviet Union gave in, and the world narrowly avoided a nuclear war. WHAT WAS THE VIETNAM WAR? In 1954, the French colonial army in Vietnam was defeated by communist rebels. The country was divided into North and South Vietnam, and the US intervened to support an anticommunist government in the South. During the 1960s, troops were sent to fight the communists. They failed to defeat them, and Vietnam united under communist rule in 1975. WHAT WAS THE IRON CURTAIN? World War II had left communist governments in control of central and eastern Europe. They were opposed by the nations of western Europe and the United States. The two hostile sides, or “blocs,” became isolated from each other. In a speech, British politician Winston Churchill said that it was as if an “iron curtain” had fallen across Europe.

WORLD WAR II: HOW DID THE WAR BEGIN? WHY WAS THIS A WORLD WAR? WAR IN THE PACIFIC WHEN DID THE TIDE TURN? BLITZKRIEG HOLOCAUST ATOM BOMB In 1939, Nazi Germany invaded its neighboring countries, beginning a world war that left about 40 million people dead. Unlike World War I, this was high-speed warfare, or BLITZKRIEG. It ended with the discovery of the terrible truth about the Nazi HOLOCAUSTand the unleashing of the ATOM BOMB. Table 59. A WORLD AT WAR 1939Germany invades Poland; Britain and France declare war 1940Germany invades most of western Europe; Italy enters war 1941Germany invades Yugoslavia, Greece, Soviet Union; Japan attacks US 1942Japan invades southeast Asia and Pacific 1944France liberated 1945Allied victory HOW DID THE WAR BEGIN? The military power of Nazi Germany grew unchecked until its tanks invaded Poland. In 1939, Britain and France declared war against Hitler, but in 1940 he invaded the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Denmark, and Norway. Only a period of air warfare, the Battle of Britain, saved the United Kingdom from invasion. WHY WAS THIS A WORLD WAR? The Allies included British, Australians, New Zealanders, Canadians, and South Africans, as well as exiled French and Poles. They were joined in 1941 by two giants—the Soviet Union and the US. The Axis alliance of Germany and Italy was extended to include Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Japan. WAR IN THE PACIFIC In 1941, Japan launched an unprovoked attack on Pearl Harbor, a US naval base in Hawaii. The US, the world’s most powerful nation, entered the war. The Pacific conflict with Japan lasted nearly four years. WHEN DID THE TIDE TURN? In 1942, the US smashed Japanese naval power at the Battle of Midway. Allied victories in North Africa allowed an advance through Italy in 1943. In heavy fighting on Europe’s Eastern Front, the Russians defeated the Germans at Stalingrad. By 1945, the Allies were invading Germany from east and west. BLITZKRIEG Blitzkrieg means “lightning war” in German. The term was first used in 1939 to describe the tactics of high-speed warfare that launched the Nazi invasion of Europe. It was made possible by new technology and weapons. WHAT WERE THE NEW WAYS OF WAGING WAR? Blitzkrieg used fast tanks and aircraft to bypass ground defenses. Paratroops were dropped behind enemy lines. Civilians died in cities that were bombed. The British shortened blitzkrieg to “blitz” to describe the massive bombing of their cities. The Allies also adopted blitzkrieg tactics and bombed German cities into rubble. This war also saw the development of radar for detecting enemy aircraft, as well as submarine warfare, flying bombs, and rockets. BIOGRAPHY: WINSTON CHURCHILL 1874–1965 Churchill had a long and controversial political career, which most people regarded as over in the years before the war. However, his outspoken opposition to Nazi Germany made him the ideal choice for prime minister in 1940. His determination, eloquence, and sense of humor made him a popular and successful leader. HOLOCAUST The Holocaust (“sacrifice by burning”) was an attempt to murder the entire Jewish people. German concentration camps had existed since the 1930s, but this act of genocide was accelerated by Nazi leaders at the Wannsee Conference in 1942. About six million Jews died. WHO DISCOVERED THE CONCENTRATION CAMPS? In 1945, as Allied forces advanced, they found evidence of this monstrous crime. Jews from all over Europe had been rounded up, forced into cattle cars on trains, and taken to prison camps, along with other peoples the Nazis despised, such as Roma. Some victims were forced to work as slave labor; others were killed immediately in gas chambers. ATOM BOMB Throughout the war, the US had secretly been developing the most destructive weapon ever known—the atom bomb. This produced energy by nuclear fission. In August 1945, US planes dropped two atom bombs on Japan. Japan surrendered. WHY DID THE US DROP THE BOMB? The United States government wished to bring the war to a rapid end and prevent the loss of any more troops. Critics of the bomb believed that the extent of its power, and the resulting loss of so many civilian lives, was morally unacceptable.

FASCISM: FASCIST DICTATOR WERE THERE FASCISTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES? WHO WERE THE NAZIS? BIOGRAPHY: ADOLF HITLER 1889–1945 SPANISH CIVIL WAR In 1922 a political movement called fascism grew up in Italy. It took its name from the fasces, an ax emblem that symbolized state power in Ancient Rome. Fascists believed in the authority of the state. Extremely nationalistic, they opposed democracy and communism. FASCIST DICTATOR Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) marched on Rome in 1922 and became Italian dictator in 1925. WERE THERE FASCISTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES? Fascism found supporters in many Western nations. It attracted people who were more worried about public order and unemployment than personal freedom. The National Socialist German Workers’ Party was founded in 1920. The Falange, a fascist movement founded in 1933, took part in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR. WHO WERE THE NAZIS? Germany’s National Socialists were known as Nazis. Their leader was Adolf Hitler. During the 1930s he provided work for the unemployed and built up Germany’s forces illegally. Nazi thugs bullied, cheated, and murdered their way to power. They were extreme racists, consumed by hatred of the Jewish people. BIOGRAPHY: ADOLF HITLER 1889–1945 Austrian-born Adolf Hitler served in a German regiment during World War I. Embittered by defeat, he organized the Nazis and their seizure of power in Germany. As dictator, Hitler persecuted Jews and crushed opposition. His invasions of neighboring lands led to World War II. SPANISH CIVIL WAR Civil war raged in Spain from 1936 to 1939. An alliance led by General Franco overthrew the elected government of the Spanish Republic. Franco’s supporters were Falangists, conservatives, monarchists, and Catholics. Fighting for the government were socialists, communists, and regionalists. WHO JOINED THE WAR? Franco was backed by fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Government forces received help from the Soviet Union and were backed by antifascist volunteers from all over Europe and the Americas. Many of these young idealists died fighting for Republican International Brigades. But the Republic fell, and Franco ruled Spain as dictator until his death in 1975.

ASIAN CONFLICT: HOW DID GANDHI FIGHT FOR FREEDOM? WHEN DID JAPAN BECOME POWERFUL? The first half of the 20th century saw Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands being challenged by the peoples they ruled in south and southeast Asia. At the same time, Japan was trying to take the place of the Europeans and create its own Asian empire. Table 58. ASIA 1920–1942 1920–1922Gandhi leads Indian National Congress Campaign 1926–1942Nationalist agitation in Indochina 1940Japan occupies French Indochina 1942The Vietminh founded HOW DID GANDHI FIGHT FOR FREEDOM? When Indian nationalists were demanding self-rule, one of the leading campaigners against the British was Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948). Instead of calling for an uprising, Gandhi used nonviolent methods of protest. He lived very simply and called for India to return to the traditional values of village life. He became known as Mahatma or “great soul.” This man of peace was assassinated in 1948. WHEN DID JAPAN BECOME POWERFUL? After 1868, Japan turned itself into an industrial nation. It defeated Russia in 1904–1905 and annexed Korea in 1910. In 1919, it gained former German territories in the Far East. During the 1930s, extreme nationalists and the military planned Japan’s invasion of China. In the 1940s, during World War II, Japanese armies finally swept through southeast Asia.

THE DEPRESSION: WHAT WAS THE WALL STREET CRASH? HOW WIDESPREAD WAS THE DEPRESSION? An economic depression is a period of falling prices, low production of goods, and high unemployment. The Great Depression of 1929–1934 caused hardship in the United States, in the countries of Europe, and in their overseas empires. Banks closed and firms went out of business. WHAT WAS THE WALL STREET CRASH? In 1929, US investors found that their shares of stock had become worthless. All trading ceased on Wall Street, New York City’s financial district, as the New York Stock Exchange crashed. Fortunes were lost overnight and factories laid off workers. HOW WIDESPREAD WAS THE DEPRESSION? The 1920s and 1930s were already desperate times in Australia and New Zealand, in Great Britain, and across Europe. When an Austrian bank collapsed, chaos spread to central Europe. Germany was struggling, too, as it tried to recover from World War I and pay money to France as reparation for the war.

REVOLUTIONARY RUSSIA: WHEN WAS BLOODY SUNDAY IN ST. PETERSBURG? WHO OVERTHREW THE CZAR? WHEN WAS THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION? COMMUNISM By the 1890s, many European nations were bringing in democratic reforms, but not Russia. Angry about social injustice, many Russians looked to socialism, anarchism, or COMMUNISMfor an answer. WHEN WAS BLOODY SUNDAY IN ST. PETERSBURG? In 1905, troops in St. Petersburg gunned down workers who wished to present a petition to the czar. This action resulted in strikes, mutinies, and uprisings all over Russia. As a result, a Duma, or parliament, was set up. However, the reforms it demanded were rejected by the czar. WHO OVERTHREW THE CZAR? In March 1917, strikes, mutinies, and protests brought Russia to a standstill. Russian troops fighting in World War I deserted the Eastern Front. The czar was forced from power and Russia became a republic. This became known as the February Revolution (Russia followed a different calendar than Western countries). WHEN WAS THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION? The republican Duma failed to bring the chaos in Russia under control. A communist group known as the “Bolsheviks” rejected attempts at liberal reform. They appealed directly to workers to rise up in a communist revolution. The Bolsheviks seized power in “October” (that is, November) 1917. LENIN’S CALL Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870–1924) returned from exile in 1917. He called for power to be handed over to soviets (councils of revolutionary workers). After the October Revolution, he led the governing Communist Party. COMMUNISM Communists around the world were inspired by the writings of Karl Marx (1818–1883). Marx believed history was driven by economic forces and that a just and progressive society could only be created if the workers took control of the economic system. WHEN WAS THE SOVIET UNION FOUNDED? In 1918–1920, civil war raged through Russia as the communist Red Army fought opponents of the revolution (“the Whites”). The communists won, and a Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (“Soviet Union”) was founded in 1922. Only the Communist Party held power. Most industries came under state ownership, and the economy was centrally controlled. WHO WAS STALIN? Lenin’s successor was Joseph Stalin (1879–1953). His secret police murdered many of his opponents and millions were sent to forced labor camps. Stalin was criticized after his death, but the Soviet system failed to reform and collapsed in 1991.

REVOLUTIONARY CHINA: WHO CONTROLLED CHINA AFTER THE REVOLUTION? WHO WON THE STRUGGLE? WHAT WAS “NEW CHINA”? CULTURAL REVOLUTION By the late 19th century, the Chinese Empire was growing weak, and foreign nations were controlling its trade. In 1911 the last emperor, Puyi, was overthrown in a nationalist revolution. Many years of turmoil followed. Table 57. CHINA 1912–1949 1912Chinese republic founded 1919Japan gains Shandong 1931Japan occupies Manchuria 1934–1935The Long March 1937–1945Japan invades China 1949Communist victory WHO CONTROLLED CHINA AFTER THE REVOLUTION? Many forces fought to control China. First there were the nationalists, who founded a republic in 1912. Then there were the generals and regional warlords and, in 1921, the Chinese Communist Party. Finally, there was Japan, which gained Chinese territory in 1919. WHO WON THE STRUGGLE? After 1925, Chiang Kai-Shek became nationalist leader. Nationalists and communists became rivals but were forced into alliances as Japan overran China. Japan’s defeat in 1945 was followed by civil war. By 1949, the communists had defeated the nationalists. WHAT WAS “NEW CHINA”? The nationalists fled to Taiwan, and the communist leader Mao Zedong proclaimed a people’s republic. Its successes in the 1950s included better education, literacy, and health. However, unrealistic agricultural and industrial reforms caused hardship, leading to political chaos during the CULTURAL REVOLUTION. CULTURAL REVOLUTION Economic failures caused dispute within the Chinese Communist Party. Fearing that the ideals of the revolution would be lost, Mao Zedong called for a “cultural revolution,” a change in public attitudes. WHO WERE THE RED GUARDS? Students and young people took up Mao’s ideas with fervor. They declared themselves “Red Guards,” dedicated to never-ending revolution. They tore down temples, denounced their teachers, and rooted out “traitors.” The suffering was immense. By 1967, the regular army was clashing with the Red Guards, and Mao had little choice but to disband them in 1968. DID CHINA REMAIN COMMUNIST? When Mao died in 1976 there was a struggle for power. In the years that followed, China was still governed by the Communist Party, but it started to adopt some capitalist economic policies.

WORLD WAR I: WHY DID WAR BREAK OUT? WHAT NEW WEAPONS WERE USED IN ACTION? WHAT WAS TOTAL WAR? BIOGRAPHY: WILFRED OWEN 1893–1918 TRENCH WARFARE ARMISTICE World War I (1914–1918) was the first war in history to be fought by many different nations around the world. About eight million men were killed, many in horrific TRENCH WARFARE, before the ARMISTICEin 1918. Table 56. WAR AND PEACE 1914Germany invades Belgium in order to attack France 1915Gallipoli offensive in Turkey; Italy joins the Entente 1916Naval battle off Jutland, Denmark 1917US enters the war on the side of the Entente; Russia leaves the war; Italy defeated by the Austrians; Arabs revolt against Turks 1918Armistice ends the war WHY DID WAR BREAK OUT? In the 20th century, European nations formed competing military alliances. War finally broke out in 1914 when a Serbian nationalist assassinated the heir to the throne of Austria. Austria went to war against Serbia, and many other countries joined in. On one side were the British, the French and Russian empires, Italy, and Japan (the Entente Powers). On the other side were the Germans, Austrians, Hungarians, Bulgarians, and Turks (the Central Powers). WHAT NEW WEAPONS WERE USED IN ACTION? Various new technologies were available. In 1915, the German army used poison gas for the first time in warfare, and it was soon in general use. The British were the first to introduce the battle tank. Submarines were now able to torpedo enemy shipping, forcing ships to travel across the ocean in convoys. Aircraft and airships were used to drop bombs, spy on enemy positions, and attack enemy pilots. Tanks were a British invention. They first appeared in 1916 and were used in battle at Cambrai, France, in 1917. Tanks were armor-plated. Their treads could cross muddy trenches and crash through barbed wire. WHAT WAS TOTAL WAR? This was war on a scale never experienced before. It was not just fought by professional soldiers. Most of the troops were civilian conscripts, called up to serve in the armed forces. Ordinary homes in cities such as London were bombed from the air. Even ocean liners carrying passengers from neutral countries came under attack. Entire national economies were geared to the war effort. BIOGRAPHY: WILFRED OWEN 1893–1918 Many young men on both sides of the conflict, who had been idealists in 1914, became horrified by the war and its cruelty. One of them was the English war poet Wilfred Owen, killed just a week before the Armistice. TRENCH WARFARE In World War I, both sides dug long trenches as lines of defense, which stretched across Western Europe. These trenches filled up with stinking mud. Any order to go “over the top” and attack the enemy resulted in thousands of deaths. DEATH IN GALLIPOLI The Gallipoli campaign between the Entente Powers and Turkey in 1915 included some of the worst trench fighting of the war. The campaign was a failure and cost the lives of many Australians and New Zealanders. WHERE WAS NO MAN’S LAND? The territory between the two front lines was called “no man’s land.” It was a sea of mud, with broken stumps of trees and barbed wire entanglements. The area was raked by machine gun fire and pounded by heavy artillery, leaving craters big enough for soldiers to drown in. ARMISTICE An armistice is a laying down of weapons. The guns of World War I finally fell silent at 11am on the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918. DID PEACE FOLLOW WAR? No; in Germany there was street fighting and starvation. In 1919, the terms of the peace were agreed upon at Versailles, in France. The settlement was harsh on Germany, and this resulted in a sense of grievance that undermined any lasting peace.

NEW ZEALAND: WHEN DID NEW ZEALAND GAIN SELF-RULE? WHAT BECAME OF THE MAORIS? New Zealand is known to the Maoris as Aotearoa. Dutch and English navigators charted these islands, and by the 19th century, traders and whaling crews were landing there. The islands came under British rule in 1840. WHEN DID NEW ZEALAND GAIN SELF-RULE? Britain granted the colonists self-rule in 1852. The country prospered from sheep farming and from the discovery of gold in 1862. In 1893, New Zealand became the first country to give women the vote. In 1907, it became a Dominion, a fully independent nation within the British Empire. WHAT BECAME OF THE MAORIS? The Maoris had possessed firearms since the arrival of the first foreigners. After 1840, the settlers seized more and more land, so between 1845 and 1847, the Maoris rose up in revolt. A second war took place from 1860 to 1872. This won the Maoris representation in the New Zealand Parliament. TREATY OF WAITANGI In 1840, the British signed a treaty with a gathering of Maori chiefs on North Island. It guaranteed Maori rights to the land, but these were ignored by the settlers.

AUSTRALIA: WHY WERE CONVICTS SENT TO AUSTRALIA? WHAT HAPPENED TO THE ABORIGINALS? WHEN DID AUSTRALIA BECOME A NATION? BIOGRAPHY: JAMES COOK 1728–1779 The coasts of Australia were first mapped by Dutch explorers in the 17th century and by the British in the 18th. In 1788, the British founded a colony in New South Wales and went on to settle the rest of this vast land. WHY WERE CONVICTS SENT TO AUSTRALIA? From 1788 until 1852, the British sent criminals to Australia for punishment. The new country was built with forced labor. Free settlers were soon arriving also, to seek their fortune—especially after gold was discovered in 1851. WHAT HAPPENED TO THE ABORIGINALS? About two million Aboriginals lived in Australia in 1788. By 1900 only 50,000 survived. Many died of diseases introduced by the settlers. Others were murdered or driven off their land. Some worked as police trackers, or as laborers on sheep stations. WHEN DID AUSTRALIA BECOME A NATION? The various colonies founded in Australia by the British were mostly granted self-rule in the 1850s. There was great rivalry between them, but they finally agreed to unite as states within a single federal Commonwealth in 1901. BIOGRAPHY: JAMES COOK 1728–1779 Captain Cook was a brilliant English navigator who explored the coasts of Australia and New Zealand. He landed at Botany Bay in New South Wales in 1778 and claimed the land for Britain. Cook was killed in Hawaii by natives of the islands.

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR: WHY DID THE STATES FIGHT EACH OTHER? HOW MANY PEOPLE DIED? WHAT WAS THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD? DID THE CIVIL WAR END SLAVERY IN THE US? BIOGRAPHY: ABRAHAM LINCOLN 1809–1865 In 1860 and 1861, a group of southern states, known as the Confederacy, withdrew from the United States. A civil war began when the Confederates attacked a federal fort in Charleston, South Carolina. In 1865, the Union defeated the Confederacy in this fierce conflict. WHY DID THE STATES FIGHT EACH OTHER? The northern states were building an industrial economy. The agricultural southern states still relied on slave labor. They resented the increasing power of the north and feared that the federal government in Washington would impose reforms and end slavery. HOW MANY PEOPLE DIED? The US was reunited at a terrible cost. The northern troops lost 359,000 soldiers, while the southerners lost 258,000. Civilians suffered from looting and from the devastation of railroads, towns, and cotton plantations. GRANT VERSUS LEE In 1864, the Union general Ulysses S. Grant clashed with the Confederate general Robert E. Lee in a bid to capture Spotsylvania Court House in northern Virginia. Casualties were heavy. The battle was a draw. WHAT WAS THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD? This was a secret network of escape routes and hideouts for African American slaves. Between 1786 and 1861, activists such as Harriet Tubman (c.1820–1913) helped about 50,000 slaves escape to freedom in the northern states and Canada. DID THE CIVIL WAR END SLAVERY IN THE US? Abraham Lincoln proclaimed an end to slavery in 1863, and it was finally abolished in the southern states after the war. African Americans remained poor, and the southern states passed laws that prevented them from voting or gaining equal status despite constitutional amendments guaranteeing these rights. BIOGRAPHY: ABRAHAM LINCOLN 1809–1865 Lincoln was elected President in 1860 and again in 1864. He supported strong federal government and opposed slavery. Having led the Union to victory in the Civil War, he was assassinated at a theater in Washington, D.C., in 1865.

AGE OF EMPIRE: THE WORLD IN 1900 WHY DID EUROPEANS WANT TO RULE THE WORLD? HOW WERE PEOPLE TREATED BY THEIR RULERS? BRITISH RAJ SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA FRENCH FOREIGN LEGION From the 19th century until the early 20th, much of the world was governed by a few very powerful European nations. The BRITISH RAJcontrolled the riches of India. The FRENCH FOREIGN LEGIONdefended remote forts in the Sahara desert, and there was a SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICAby empire-builders. Table 55. EMPIRE 1800–1918 1824Dutch and British divide southeast Asian territories 1883–1885Germany gains colonies in Africa and Pacific 1885Belgian rule in the Congo 1887French rule Indochina 1899–1902Second South African (“Boer”) War 1904Federation of French West Africa 1918German and Ottoman empires broken up after defeat in World War I THE WORLD IN 1900 The chief empire-builders were the French, British, Germans, Danish, Belgians, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese. The United States and Japan were also gaining overseas territories. The Russian Empire now ruled the whole of northern Asia. However, the Chinese Empire was losing territory to foreign powers. WHY DID EUROPEANS WANT TO RULE THE WORLD? The reasons were many. The factories of the newly industrialized lands needed resources, such as rubber. Some empire-builders wanted land for settlement; others were praying for converts to Christianity. HOW WERE PEOPLE TREATED BY THEIR RULERS? Most empire-builders claimed to be bringing civilization to peoples whom they believed to be inferior. Although the ruling countries did build towns, ports, and railroads, in some colonies the local peoples were treated little better than slaves. BRITISH RAJ By the 19th century, real power in India was held by the British East India Company. Following an uprising by Indian soldiers in 1857, British government rule, or Raj, was imposed on India in 1858. WHO BECAME EMPRESS OF INDIA? Queen Victoria (1819–1901) was declared Empress of India in 1876. Under her rule, Great Britain became the world’s most powerful nation. Victoria had a shrewd grasp of politics and took a close interest in her government’s foreign policy. India was believed to be one of the most important parts of the British Empire. The two countries had a great cultural influence on each other. SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA As explorers discovered new lands in Africa, European powers rushed in to take them over. The French clashed with the British in Sudan, and the Germans gained lands in East and West Africa. WHAT HAPPENED IN BERLIN IN 1884? In 1884–1885, the world’s most powerful nations held a conference in Berlin, the capital of Germany. They divided between themselves vast regions of Africa. They knew little of these distant lands and did not consult the peoples living there. Borders were drawn up to serve their own political needs. FRENCH FOREIGN LEGION Empires needed large armies to suppress rebellions or fight rival powers. The Foreign Legion was formed by the French in 1831 to fight in colonial wars. It was recruited from foreigners and gained a reputation for tough discipline. WHERE DID THE LEGIONNAIRES FIGHT? They fought wherever France needed them in their empire. The Legion was most famously associated with desert campaigns in North Africa. French territory stretched all the way from Algeria south to the Congo River. France also ruled Madagascar, French Guiana, and islands in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, and South Pacific.

SOUTH AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE: WHO WAS KNOWN AS THE LIBERATOR? WHO ENDED PORTUGUESE RULE IN BRAZIL? WHEN DID ARGENTINA BECOME INDEPENDENT? WHAT WERE SOUTH AMERICA’S NEW ECONOMIES? The American empires founded by Spain and Portugal broke up in the 19th century. These European countries were no longer powerful, and their colonies struggled to break away. Wars brought liberation, but independence was often followed by strife between the new nations. Table 53. LIBERATION 1816Argentina declares independence 1818San Martín liberates Chile 1819Gran Colombia is founded 1820Brazil annexes Uruguay 1821Peru gains independence Venezuela and Ecuador are liberated 1822Brazil breaks away from Portugal 1825Bolivia is liberated WHO WAS KNOWN AS THE LIBERATOR? Simón Bolívar, “the Liberator,” helped to free much of South America. He fought in Venezuela and ruled Colombia and Ecuador. He freed Peru, and Bolivia was renamed in his honor. Other freedom fighters included Bernardo O’Higgins and José de San Martín, who fought in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. THE TURNING POINT Bolívar was born in Venezuela. He defeated the Spanish at Carabobo in 1821. Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama all became part of an independent republic called Gran Colombia. Venezuela withdrew from this in 1829. WHO ENDED PORTUGUESE RULE IN BRAZIL? When Portugal was invaded by the French emperor Napoleon in 1807, the Portuguese royal family fled to their colony of Brazil. King John VI returned home in 1821, leaving his son Pedro to rule Brazil for him, but in 1822, Pedro declared himself to be emperor of an independent Brazil. WHEN DID ARGENTINA BECOME INDEPENDENT? The capital city of Argentina, Buenos Aires (meaning “fair winds”), was founded by the Spanish in the 16th century. In 1810, its people rose up against Spanish rule, gaining their independence in 1816. There followed a civil war between the city-dwellers and the ranchers of the provinces. The country was finally united in 1861. GAUCHOS OF ARGENTINA The Gauchos were Argentine cowboys of part Spanish, part Indian descent. These daring, hard-living rogues opposed the new Buenos Aires government, backing their own leaders in a struggle for power. WHAT WERE SOUTH AMERICA’S NEW ECONOMIES? In the 19th century, South America’s gold and silver mines began to run out. A new source of wealth was needed. In Brazil, plantations of coffee and rubber were set up, while Argentina’s grasslands supported sheep and cattle. When refrigeration was invented, huge amounts of beef were exported from Buenos Aires.

NATIONALISM: WHY WAS POLAND IN REVOLT? WHEN DID GERMANY COME INTO BEING? WHO WERE THE REDSHIRTS? BIOGRAPHY: OTTO VON BISMARCK 1815–1898 Nationalism means the wish of a people to govern themselves as a nation. This ideal reshaped the map of Europe in the 19th century. Later in the century, nationalism took on a second meaning—an exaggerated belief in the superiority of one’s own nation. Table 54. NEW NATIONS 1830–1831Nationalist agitation; calls for democratic reform across Europe 1832Greece recognized as independent from Turkey 1848Nationalist and liberal uprisings across Europe 1871Germany unites as an empire 1871Italy becomes a single nation WHY WAS POLAND IN REVOLT? Between 1772 and 1795, Poland was divided among Russia, Prussia, and Austria. There were nationalist uprisings against the Russians in 1830 and 1863, but independence was not regained until 1918. WHEN DID GERMANY COME INTO BEING? Since the Middle Ages, Germany had been a patchwork of free cities and small states within the Holy Roman Empire. In the 1800s, these gradually came together, economically, then politically. In 1871, Wilhelm I of Prussia became emperor of a united Germany. WHO WERE THE REDSHIRTS? Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) dreamed of uniting Italy and freeing it from foreign rule. In 1860 he assembled 1,000 volunteers, who wore red shirts as a uniform. They sailed from Genoa to Sicily and joined an uprising against that kingdom’s French rulers. They then crossed to southern Italy. Garibaldi later tried to march on Rome, and fought against Austria. BIOGRAPHY: OTTO VON BISMARCK 1815–1898 Bismarck was a Prussian politician, a conservative and a royalist. He opposed the liberal nationalists who demanded democratic change in Germany in 1848, but played a major role in creating the German Empire of 1871.

INDIAN WARS: WHAT WAS THE TRAIL OF TEARS? WHAT WAS CUSTER’S LAST STAND? For much of the 19th century, especially between 1860 and 1890, a tragic conflict took place in the United States. Settlers and soldiers fought against American Indians. They seized their lands and herded the American Indians onto parcels of land known as reservations. WHAT WAS THE TRAIL OF TEARS? In the 1830s, gold was found in Cherokee territory in the southeastern US. About 16,000 Cherokees from the region were rounded up by the US army and forced to travel west in 1838 on a “Trail of Tears.” Over 4,000 Cherokees died on the journey. WHAT WAS CUSTER’S LAST STAND? In 1876, General George Custer led the United States Seventh Cavalry into the prairie lands around the Little Bighorn River in Montana. Stumbling upon a big assembly of Sioux and Cheyenne warriors, Custer’s force was defeated and killed. It was the last American Indian victory.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: HOW WERE FACTORIES POWERED? WHY WERE GOODS MASS PRODUCED? HOW DID WORKING CONDITIONS CHANGE? BIOGRAPHY: ISAMBARD KINGDOM BRUNEL 1806–1859 TRANSPORTATION URBANIZATION The Industrial Revolution changed the way things were made as new machines invented in the 1700s and 1800s meant it was possible to mass produce goods in factories. Starting in Britain and spreading through Europe and North America, a period of rapid social and economic change began, with widespread URBANIZATION. HOW WERE FACTORIES POWERED? During the 18th century, water was an important source of power for industry, and many machines were driven by waterwheels. Steam power was also developed at this time. Steam engines were used to pump water out of mine shafts and to power new TRANSPORTATIONsystems. Engines and furnaces were all fueled by coal. By the 19th century, coal was being transported to the factories by ship or rail. WHY WERE GOODS MASS PRODUCED? Before the Industrial Revolution, most goods were produced in small workshops or at home. Mass production in factories made it possible to manufacture goods more cheaply and quickly. Huge markets for these goods were opening up in the new cities, and in the lands that the European nations were conquering and settling overseas. HOW DID WORKING CONDITIONS CHANGE? The factory age meant that workers no longer owned the means by which they made a living. Some factory owners pushed up their own profits by pushing down the wages of their workers. Men, women, and children worked long hours for little pay, often in dangerous conditions. It took many years for wages and working environments to improve. BIOGRAPHY: ISAMBARD KINGDOM BRUNEL 1806–1859 Brunel was born of a French father in Portsmouth, England. An engineering genius, he helped to shape the industrial age. He built tunnels, docks, and suspension bridges. He was appointed chief engineer of England’s Great Western Railway and also designed steamships for crossing the Atlantic Ocean. TRANSPORTATION The Industrial Revolution depended on transportation to move materials, goods, and people. Canals were dug in the 18th century. In the 19th, it was the turn of the railroads. WHEN DID THE RAILROAD AGE BEGIN? The first steam locomotive to run on rails was seen in Wales in 1804. Designs were greatly improved in the 1820s by English rail pioneer George Stephenson. Railroads were soon opening up the world. URBANIZATION Urbanization means the spread of towns. Between 1700 and 1900 the world’s population grew from 679 million to 1.633 billion. Many people were city-dwellers. WHAT KINDS OF CITIES WERE BUILT? Cities grew up around coalfields or factories, at important seaports and railroad crossings. They provided cheap housing for the industrial workers. New British cities were often rows of row houses built of brick and slate, with small yards and alleys.

NAPOLEONIC WARS: WHERE DID NAPOLEON’S ARMIES MARCH? WHAT WAS NAPOLEON’S LEGACY? During the French Revolution, France was at war with its neighbors in Europe. These wars resumed in 1800 under the leadership of Napoleon, who was crowned French emperor in 1804. A series of great victories soon brought much of Europe under his control. Table 52. EUROPE AT WAR 1805French victory at Austerlitz 1805British victory at Trafalgar 1808–1814Peninsular War 1812France invades Russia 1815Napoleon defeated WHERE DID NAPOLEON’S ARMIES MARCH? Napoleon was a brilliant soldier. He defeated Austria. He invaded Spain in 1808 and his armies reached Moscow in 1812, only to be beaten back by the harsh winter weather. He made his relatives rulers in Spain, Italy, and Westphalia. He was finally defeated by Britain and Prussia at Waterloo, Belgium, in 1815. WHAT WAS NAPOLEON’S LEGACY? Napoleon (1769–1821) died in exile. He is remembered as the man who brought the French Revolution to a close and as a military genius. He was a skilled administrator whose system of law, theCode Napoléon, gave the poor people of France some of the rights they had demanded in the revolution. The Code was also welcomed in many of the lands he invaded.

CANADA: WHO FOUGHT TO CONTROL CANADA? WHEN DID CANADA BECOME A NATION? BIOGRAPHY: JACQUES CARTIER 1491–1557 European fishermen and fur traders visited Canada from the 16th century onward. They bought furs from the local people, who were related to the other native peoples of North America. France established colonies in Canada in 1608 (Quebec) and 1642 (Montreal), while the British claimed a vast territory around Hudson Bay after 1670. WHO FOUGHT TO CONTROL CANADA? The French and British fought each other for Canada. Both wanted its furs, lumber, and rich fishing grounds. The French were defeated in 1759, and Canada became a British colony four years later. Many American colonists who had remained loyal to Britain during the American Revolution fled to Canada in the 1780s. WHEN DID CANADA BECOME A NATION? In 1791, the areas of Canada settled by Europeans were divided between Upper (English-speaking) and Lower (French-speaking) Canada. These were reunited in 1841. Canada became a self-governing dominion of the British Empire in 1867. Settlement spread westward as Europeans arrived. BIOGRAPHY: JACQUES CARTIER 1491–1557 This French navigator made three voyages to North America between 1534 and 1541. He was the first European to see the St. Lawrence River and claimed the land for France.

FRENCH REVOLUTION: WHY DID THE FRENCH RISE UP? WHAT HAPPENED ON JULY 14? BIOGRAPHY: MAXIMILIEN DE ROBESPIERRE 1758–1794 REIGN OF TERROR The years 1789 to 1799 marked a turning point in European history. In France, calls for political reform were overtaken by a revolution that swept away the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the power of the Church. The revolution was followed by a REIGN OF TERROR. WHY DID THE FRENCH RISE UP? In 1789, the French aristocracy and leading churchmen led privileged lives and had great power. However, the middle classes wanted more power for themselves. Taxes were high, the country was bankrupt, and the poor were starving. King Louis XVI failed to bring in reforms in time to stop a revolution. WHAT HAPPENED ON JULY 14? On July 14, 1789, the people of Paris were afraid that the army had been ordered to attack them. They armed themselves and marched to the Bastille, a royal fort used as a prison, in search of gunpowder. They attacked and captured the fort. The revolution had begun. BIOGRAPHY: MAXIMILIEN DE ROBESPIERRE 1758–1794 Robespierre became one of the most radical leaders of the revolution. He whipped up a climate of fear, and soon his opponents were being sent to the guillotine. He himself was seized and beheaded without trial in 1794. REIGN OF TERROR The French Revolution succeeded in overthrowing a corrupt and unjust system of government, but it soon ran out of control. First, aristocrats were executed, and then the revolutionaries turned on each other in a bloodbath. The Reign of terror had begun, in which the state governed by fear. HOW MANY PEOPLE DIED? During the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), about 40,000 people were executed or murdered. A guillotine was set up in the Place de la Révolution in Paris. This wooden frame contained a sharp blade that dropped onto the victim’s neck. Although it was supposed to be a humane method of execution, its efficiency meant that hundreds were dying every day. WHEN DID THE TERROR END? The creator of the Reign of Terror, Robespierre, was seized by his opponents in the National Convention and beheaded in 1794. In 1795 there were major uprisings. Order was restored by a soldier named Napoleon Bonaparte. Power passed to a five-man group called the Directory, and by 1799 Napoleon had seized power for himself. The revolution was over.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT: WHO PUT TOGETHER A GREAT BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE? WHO ABOLISHED GOD? Scientific advances of the 17th and 18th centuries encouraged new ideas, and this led European philosophers to declare that humans progressed by using reason and logic, rather than faith or superstition. This period became known as the Enlightenment, or Age of Reason. WHO PUT TOGETHER A GREAT BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE? New information systems were needed for this new age. Dictionaries began to appear, and a 17-volume encyclopedia, edited by Denis Diderot, was published in France in 1751–1772. Its contributors included thinkers such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire. WHO ABOLISHED GOD? In 1793, the French National Convention abolished the worship of God and forbade what it regarded as superstitious festivals. A new calendar was drawn up, one that began not with the birth of Christ but with a current human event, the French Revolution.

SLAVE TRADE: HOW WAS THE SLAVE TRADE ORGANIZED? HOW WERE SLAVES TREATED IN THE NEW WORLD? BIOGRAPHY: TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE 1746–1803 PLANTATIONS People have been bought and sold as slaves around the world through much of history. This trade reached new heights in the 16th to 19th centuries, as Arabs and Europeans plundered Africa. In the 18th century, it is believed that up to eight million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic Ocean. HOW WAS THE SLAVE TRADE ORGANIZED? West African slaves were normally captured by African raiders. At the coast they were exchanged for European guns or textiles. The European traders packed the slaves into ships and sailed for the New World. Once the Africans were sold, the European captains picked up cargoes before sailing home. HOW WERE SLAVES TREATED IN THE NEW WORLD? After the ordeal of the Atlantic crossing, the slaves were prepared for auction. Once sold, they were forced to work long hours on PLANTATIONSfor no pay. Many slaves were treated with cruelty, and were chained and branded. Those who tried to escape were punished by whipping or even hanging. BIOGRAPHY: TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE 1746–1803 Toussaint was a freed slave from the French colony of St. Dominique (Haiti). He joined a slave uprising in 1791. When revolutionary France abolished slavery, Toussaint became a respected leader. However, after a change of government, he was seized and imprisoned. PLANTATIONS Slaves in the Caribbean and the US were forced to work on plantations—estates where sugar cane, cotton, or other crops were grown. The owners paid workers no wages, so their profits were huge. WHY WERE PLANTATIONS CREATED? Plantations in the New World marked the start of farming on an industrial, global scale. Plantations produced “cash crops”—crops grown for sale and export rather than local use. The use of slave labor reduced costs.

AMERICAN REVOLUTION: WHY DID THE COLONISTS REVOLT? WHAT WAS THE BOSTON TEA PARTY? WHO FOUGHT IN THE WAR? DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE The period 1765-1788 saw great changes in North America. The 13 eastern colonies demanded democratic government, and went to war against Britain in 1775. In 1776 they issued a DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, and in 1781 the British command surrendered the fight. WHY DID THE COLONISTS REVOLT? The people who had settled in North America valued personal freedom. Many of them had left Europe because of their strong religious or political views. They protested when the British government imposed taxes on them without consulting the local governing bodies of the colonies. WHAT WAS THE BOSTON TEA PARTY? Taxes paid on imported goods were very unpopular. In 1773, colonists disguised as American Indians boarded an English ship in Boston Harbor and threw its cargo of highly taxed tea overboard. This became known as the Boston Tea Party. WHO FOUGHT IN THE WAR? British troops, including German mercenaries, were supported by colonial loyalists. The rebellious Patriots formed a Continental Army after 1775, defeating the British at Saratoga Springs in 1777. The French sent 6,000 troops to fight the British. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In 1774, Patriots convened the first in a series of Continental Congresses in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to coordinate their struggle against the British. The 1776 Congress issued a Declaration of Independence, laying down its principles of freedom. A full United States government was founded in 1788. WHO CALLED FOR FREEDOM? The 1776 Declaration of Independence was issued in Philadelphia, in the name of John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress. It was written by Thomas Jefferson, who later became the third US president. It declared that “all men are created equal” and have a right to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” These ringing words inspired revolutionaries around the world. BIOGRAPHY: GEORGE WASHINGTON 1732–1799 Born in Virginia, Washington was a wealthy landowner and served with the British army. In 1775 he was chosen to command the rebel American army, which he led to victory in 1781. He oversaw the new constitution and in 1789 became the first US president.

AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION: WHY DID CHANGES TAKE PLACE IN FARMING? WHO WORKED ON THE LAND? BIOGRAPHY: THOMAS WILLIAM COKE 1752–1842 MECHANIZATION The 18th and 19th centuries saw great changes across Europe and North America in the way people farmed. Scientific methods were used to improve crop yields and breed better livestock. MECHANIZATIONmade farming more efficient. Seeds had been scattered by hand until Jethro Tull’s seed drill (developed in about 1701) made it possible to plant seeds in rows, which could then be easily hoed. WHY DID CHANGES TAKE PLACE IN FARMING? At this time there was a new interest in science and technology. Many old crafts were becoming modern industries, and farming was no exception. This was necessary, as cities were growing and their populations needed more food. In France, an inefficient farming system had resulted in famine and political unrest. WHO WORKED ON THE LAND? In many parts of Europe, farming had changed very little since the Middle Ages. Peasants labored in the fields in great poverty and often had little freedom to move away from their villages. In Britain, farm work was increasingly carried out by large numbers of low-wage laborers. BIOGRAPHY: THOMAS WILLIAM COKE 1752–1842 Thomas Coke was one of the new landowners determined to improve agriculture. He replaced rye with wheat on his land in Norfolk, England, and bred cattle, sheep, and pigs. He also became a Member of Parliament. MECHANIZATION In the 1800s, new machines, such as reaping and threshing machines, were invented to do jobs that had previously been done by hand. DID MACHINES REPLACE PEOPLE? These new inventions were brought in to make farming easier and also to reduce costs. By the 1830s, English farm laborers were beginning to worry that mechanization would lead to loss of jobs. They protested by smashing new machinery and burning haystacks. Their fears were valid. In the next 150 years, the number of farmworkers declined rapidly.

MONARCHY: WHAT WAS THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS? WERE KINGS EVER ELECTED? DYNASTIES Monarchy means rule by a single person, such as a king or a queen. Normally, rule passes from one generation to the next within the same family, or DYNASTY. In the 17th century monarchs held great power, but this power was increasingly being challenged, often with violence. WHAT WAS THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS? This was the belief that monarchs were appointed by God to rule, and therefore had a right to impose their will on their subjects. This made it almost impossible to criticize or oppose the monarch. WERE KINGS EVER ELECTED? From 1573, kings of Poland were elected by an assembly of lords, called the Republic of Nobles. The great Polish soldier Jan Sobiewski was elected king in 1674, after defeating invading Turks. Many of those chosen as king were foreigners. DYNASTIES Dynasties, or royal families, often held power for hundreds of years. Many became hugely wealthy. Their rule came to an end if there were no children or relatives to inherit the throne, or if a monarch was overthrown by rivals or revolutions. HABSBURG 1273–1918 The Habsburgs ruled Austria and at times the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, and Spain. Charles V reigned 1516–1556. STUART 1371–1714 The Stuarts ruled Scotland and, after 1603, England, Wales, and Ireland. Charles II reigned 1660–1685. BOURBON 1589–1830 The Bourbons ruled in France, Navarre, Naples, and Spain. Louis XIV was King of France 1643–1715. QING 1644–1912 The last dynasty of the Chinese Empire was founded by Manchurian invaders. Emperor Qianlong ruled 1711–1799. ROMANOV 1613–1917 The Romanovs were the last Russian dynasty. Catherine the Great married into the family and was empress 1762–1796. WHICH IS THE WORLD’S OLDEST DYNASTY? The same dynasty has ruled Japan for 2,000 years or more. Legend states that it is even older, having been founded by Jimmu in 660 BC. However, the emperors have not always held great power. Sometimes, real power was held by military governors called shoguns.

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION: WHO WAS THE FIRST PERSON TO SEE GERMS? WHO DISCOVERED HOW BLOOD CIRCULATES? WHO WERE THE FIRST CHEMISTS? REFLECTING TELESCOPE BIOGRAPHY: ROBERT BOYLE 1627–1691 The 18th century was a period of remarkable scientific breakthroughs. This began with the scientific advances of the 16th and 17th centuries, when people began to reject unproven theories and superstition in favor of careful observation, and carried out experiments to test ideas. Table 51. NEW SCIENCE 1609Johannes Kepler works out how planets move 1638Galileo Galilei publishes his theories of mechanics 1687Isaac Newton publishes his three Laws of Motion 1753Carolus Linnaeus works out a way of classifying species 1774Joseph Priestley studies oxygen WHO WAS THE FIRST PERSON TO SEE GERMS? The first microscopes were made in the Netherlands in about 1590. Their design was improved by Robert Hooke and Anton van Leeuwenhoek. Van Leeuwenhoek made many important observations and in 1675 was the first person to see bacteria, or germs. WHO DISCOVERED HOW BLOOD CIRCULATES? In 1597, English student William Harvey went to Padua in Italy, which was then a center for studying the human body. He returned to become royal doctor, and in 1628 declared that blood was pumped around the body by the heart. Many doctors ridiculed his views, but Harvey was correct. His discovery changed our understanding of the human body forever. WHO WERE THE FIRST CHEMISTS? From the Middle Ages to the early 18th century, alchemists believed they could turn ordinary metals into gold, and so find the secret of everlasting life. Although this was impossible, alchemy did provide a basis for useful experiments in chemistry, and inspired the genuine research of Robert Boyle. REFLECTING TELESCOPE Telescopes were invented in the Netherlands in about 1608. In 1668, Isaac Newton was the first to use mirrors to improve the image seen through the telescope. BIOGRAPHY: ROBERT BOYLE 1627–1691 Irish chemist and physicist Robert Boyle experimented with gases and with vacuums (in which gases are pumped out of a space). He introduced the idea of chemical elements, essential to the development of chemistry as a science.

COLONIAL AMERICA: WHO BUILT ST. AUGUSTINE? WHO WERE THE SETTLERS? WHERE WAS LOUISIANA? WHERE DID THE BRITISH SETTLE? From the 16th to 18th century, European nations invaded and settled large areas of North America. The colonists often attacked and dispersed the American Indians, and fought each other for control of the territory. WHO BUILT ST. AUGUSTINE? The Spanish reached Florida in 1513, and in 1565 founded St. Augustine, the first European settlement in what is now the US. They were the first Europeans to see the Mississippi River and to reach Kansas. The Spanish also extended Mexico northward into Texas, New Mexico, and California. These territories would become part of the US in the 19th century. WHO WERE THE SETTLERS? Europeans settled in the New World for many reasons. Some were religious refugees, such as the Quakers, who were unable to worship freely in their own lands. Some were convicted criminals, sent to work in the colonies as a punishment. Some were outlaws or pirates. Others were farmers or business people looking for good land and opportunities. WHERE WAS LOUISIANA? In 1682, the French explorer Robert de la Salle claimed all the lands around the Mississippi River for France. The region was named Louisiana, after King Louis XIV of France. Most of the eastern part passed to Spain and then to the US, while the western part was purchased by the US from the French in 1803. WHERE DID THE BRITISH SETTLE? The English seafarer Sir Walter Raleigh organized three expeditions to North America after 1584. He named Virginia after Elizabeth I of England, known as the “Virgin Queen” because she never married. In 1607, Jamestown in Virginia became the first British settlement on the Atlantic coast and became wealthy through the export of tobacco. NEW AMSTERDAM In 1626, the Dutch purchased the island of Manhattan. Its port was named New Amsterdam. It was captured by the British in 1664 and renamed New York.

AMERICAN INDIANS: WHAT WAS THE LEAGUE OF FIVE NATIONS? HOW DID PEOPLE IN THE NORTHWEST LIVE? WHY DID FARMERS BECOME HUNTERS? The lands of North America were originally occupied by a wide variety of American Indian peoples, each with their own language and culture. Ways of life varied from one region to another, according to the environment—some peoples lived in farming villages, while others hunted buffalo. Their worlds were changed forever by the European invasion. Table 50. AMERICAN INDIANS 1547Horses introduced to North America by the Spanish c. 1570The Iroquois Confederacy is founded 1626Manhattan Island is sold to the Dutch 1648The Iroquois-Huron War 1722The Tuscarora join the Iroquois Confederacy 1763Pontiac, chief of the Ottawa, unites tribes against British troops WHAT WAS THE LEAGUE OF FIVE NATIONS? Five American Indian nations in the northeast—the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk—made a powerful alliance, called the Iroquois Confederacy. It was founded in about 1570 by a prophet called Deganawida. The League’s goals were cooperation and mutual defense. A council met each year to discuss their laws. HOW DID PEOPLE IN THE NORTHWEST LIVE? The northwest (in what is now both the US and Canada) was an area with a large American Indian population. Many peoples there lived by salmon fishing or whaling, and by gathering fruits and berries. They lived in large houses, which were built of red cedar wood. Cedar was also used to make hats, boats, rope, cloth, boxes, and baskets. WHY DID FARMERS BECOME HUNTERS? As Europeans invaded the northeast, many American Indian peoples were forced to retreat westward. Some had to give up farming. Instead, they became buffalo hunters on the Great Plains, the grasslands that make up the prairie regions of the central part of the modern United States and Canada.

MUGHAL INDIA: WHO WERE THE MUGHALS? WHERE WAS THE MUGHAL EMPIRE? WHO CHALLENGED MUGHAL RULE? TAJ MAHAL The Mughal Empire, founded in 1526, was the most powerful Islamic state to rule in India. It was at its most prosperous during the 17th century, when fine buildings such as the TAJ MAHALwere constructed. Table 49. THE MUGHAL EMPIRE 1526Babur founds Mughal Empire 1556Akbar the Great begins reign 1605Jahangir becomes emperor 1628Shah Jahan comes to power 1659Aurangzeb seizes the throne 1675Sikhs rise against Mughal rule 1707Start of Mughal decline 1857Last emperor WHO WERE THE MUGHALS? Mughal means “Mongol.” Babur, the Asian invader who founded the empire, was descended from Mongol warlords. Under the Mughal emperors, roads were built, trade prospered, and the arts flourished. WHERE WAS THE MUGHAL EMPIRE? The Mughals governed northern India, and at times their rule extended from Afghanistan in the west to Bengal in the east. The emperor Aurangzeb moved the capital from Agra to Delhi and pushed the empire’s borders far to the south. WHO CHALLENGED MUGHAL RULE? The Mughals had to fight against Afghans and many regional Hindu rulers. The early Muslim emperors allowed all kinds of religious worship, but Aurangzeb offended Hindus and caused the Sikhs to rebel. He also clashed fiercely with the west coast kingdom of the Marathas and its ruler, Sivaji. However, it was the growing political power of British traders in India that brought about the final decline and collapse of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century. TAJ MAHAL The most famous monument of Mughal architecture is the Taj Mahal. It was built in the 17th century by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his beloved wife, Mumtaz-i Mahal, who died in childbirth. HOW LONG DID IT TAKE TO BUILD THE TAJ MAHAL? The Taj Mahal was begun in 1632 and completed 22 years later. About 20,000 people were employed, including Asia’s finest craftsmen. Famous for its perfect symmetry, it is exactly as wide as it is high, and the dome is the same height as its façade. The domes, minarets, and arches of the Taj Mahal are reflected in still water. The walls of white marble are inlaid with over 43 varieties of precious stones.

CONQUISTADORS: WHO WAS THE GOD FROM THE SEA? HOW DID THE CONQUISTADORS DEFEAT SO MANY PEOPLE? WHO KILLED THE INCA EMPEROR? BIOGRAPHY: HERNÁN CORTES 1485–1547 EL DORADO In the 16th century, Central and South America were invaded by Spanish soldiers called conquistadors, who overthrew the Aztec and Inca empires. Many went in search of a rich land called EL DORADO. WHO WAS THE GOD FROM THE SEA? In 1517, Aztec spies saw conquistadors on the coast and relayed news of these pale, bearded strangers to Emperor Moctezuma II. He believed that their arrival marked the return of a long-departed god and king called Quetzalcoatl. HOW DID THE CONQUISTADORS DEFEAT SO MANY PEOPLE? The conquistadors were few in number, but they had ships, horses, armor, and deadly firearms. In Mexico they increased their numbers by joining up with native peoples rebelling against Aztec rule. WHO KILLED THE INCA EMPEROR? In 1532, a band of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro met the Inca emperor Atahualpa. They tricked him into being captured, and demanded a vast ransom of silver and gold for his release. It was paid, but in 1533 they executed him anyway. BIOGRAPHY: HERNÁN CORTES 1485–1547 Cortés was born in Spain. In 1518 he was given command of a force of 550 soldiers. He landed in Mexico, and reached the Aztec capital in 1519. He was greeted peacefully, but soon there was bitter fighting. In 1521 Cortés destroyed the city, and in 1522 he became the Spanish governor of this newly conquered land. EL DORADO El Dorado means “the golden one”—it is the Spanish name for a mythical land in South America, said to be rich in gold beyond all dreams. WHY DID THE CONQUISTADORS SEEK EL DORADO? Conquistadors were often brave, but they were also quarrelsome and violent, driven by a desperate desire for gold and power. Many died in remote jungles, still vainly searching for the riches of El Dorado.

ENGLISH CIVIL WAR: WHO WAS “OLD IRONSIDES”? WHO WERE ROUNDHEADS AND CAVALIERS? WHO WERE THE DIGGERS AND LEVELERS? WHAT WAS THE COMMONWEALTH? From 1642 to 1648 people in the British Isles were split by a war between King Charles I and Parliament. The king was said to be influenced by his wife, a French Catholic. He brought in unpopular taxes and tried to force his will on Parliament. This led to civil war. WHO WAS “OLD IRONSIDES”? Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658) was a farmer and Member of Parliament. In the English Civil War he proved himself to be a brilliant soldier. He and his armored troopers became known as Ironsides. He led a savage invasion of Catholic Ireland in 1649. WHO WERE ROUNDHEADS AND CAVALIERS? The forces of Parliament included many of the more extreme Protestants, called Puritans (also known as Roundheads, because of their short haircuts). The royalists were called Cavaliers (meaning “knights”). Their war ended with the capture of Charles I. WHO WERE THE DIGGERS AND LEVELERS? The leaders of the Parliamentary forces were mostly country landowners, squires, and merchants. Many of the poor people who fought for them wanted the land to be shared and equal rights for all. Cromwell crushed these Diggers and Levelers in 1649. WHAT WAS THE COMMONWEALTH? In 1649 a republic, or Commonwealth, was declared. There was now a Council of State instead of a king. However, the army was impatient for greater change, so in 1653 power was handed over to Oliver Cromwell, who was given the title “Lord Protector”. Cromwell died and under his son the Commonwealth soon collapsed. In 1660 the monarchy was restored, but with limited powers.

TUDOR AGE: HOW DID TUDOR MERCHANTS BECOME WEALTHY? WHO WAS THE GREATEST TUDOR MONARCH? WHY DID HENRY VIII QUARREL WITH THE POPE? CHURCH OF ENGLAND The Tudors were a family of Welsh, French, and English descent. From 1485 to 1603 they ruled England, Wales, and rebellious Ireland. The Tudor kingdom became a powerful force in Europe and the New World. HOW DID TUDOR MERCHANTS BECOME WEALTHY? The Tudor economy depended on wool and the cloth trade, which was centered in the English region of East Anglia. To expand their trade, merchants and ships’ captains began to seek new business in distant lands. WHO WAS THE GREATEST TUDOR MONARCH? Henry VIII was followed as ruler by his three children, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. Elizabeth was a strong and popular ruler, and a shrewd politician. She never married. Her reign saw battles with Spain, exploration of the New World, and a flowering of poetry and theater. Table 47. TUDOR MONARCHS TUDOR MONARCHS 1485Henry VII wins throne from Richard III 1509Henry VIII is crowned king 1547Rule of the boy king Edward VI 1553Reign of Mary I 1558Elizabeth I becomes queen 1603Death of Elizabeth I BIOGRAPHY: HENRY VIII 1491–1547 As a young man, Henry was handsome and intelligent. He loved hunting and dancing, and also composed music. As king, he became increasingly arrogant, selfish, and overweight. He married six times and had two of his wives executed. His reign was marked by political plotting, religious strife, and rebellion. WHY DID HENRY VIII QUARREL WITH THE POPE? King Henry VIII married his elder brother’s widow, a Spanish princess called Catherine of Aragon. Although she had a daughter, Mary, she did not produce the male heir Henry wanted. The king fell in love with a beautiful courtier named Anne Boleyn. When the Pope refused to give him a divorce, Henry VIII made himself head of a CHURCH OF ENGLAND. CHURCH OF ENGLAND Henry VIII finally broke with the Roman Catholic Church in 1534. However, he also rejected the Protestant teachings of Martin Luther. In 1559, after years of religious conflict, Elizabeth I created a reformed Church of England that contained both Catholic and Protestant elements. It was, and still is, headed by the monarch. WHY DID RELIGION TROUBLE THE TUDORS? Henry VIII’s political quarrel with the Pope coincided with the bitter religious quarrels of the Reformation in Europe. Edward VI and Elizabeth I were both Protestant, while Mary I was an ardent Catholic. Many ordinary people were tortured and executed for having a different faith than the reigning monarch.

INCAS: GOLD MASK WHO RULED THE INCA EMPIRE? HOW DID INCA SOCIETY FUNCTION? WHO WAS DESCENDED FROM THE SUN AND MOON? The Inca people lived in the Andes mountains of Peru. Between the 12th century and 1532, they conquered an empire that was only 200 miles (320 km) wide, but that stretched for 2,240 miles (3,600 km), from Colombia to Chile. GOLD MASK Craftsmen had privileged status in Inca society. Metalworkers from various parts of the empire made masks of shining gold. It was greed for such gold and treasure that lured Spanish invaders to Peru in 1532. WHO RULED THE INCA EMPIRE? The Incas formed a ruling elite. They were a small highland tribe who came to govern 12 million people, speakers of 20 different languages. Conquered chiefs were allowed to keep some local power, provided they adopted the Inca way of life. HOW DID INCA SOCIETY FUNCTION? Nobles who were loyal to the emperor were made governors, generals, or priests. They wore golden earplugs as a badge of rank. Most citizens were poor farmers, but they also had to serve the state as soldiers, builders, or laborers. WHO WAS DESCENDED FROM THE SUN AND MOON? The Inca emperor claimed descent from Inti, the Sun god, and the empress from Mamakilya, the Moon goddess. Other gods and goddesses represented the sea, thunder, and the goodness of the Earth. The Incas also revered the holy places used by earlier Andean peoples.

AZTECS: WHERE WAS THE CITY IN THE LAKE? HOW DO WE KNOW ABOUT AZTEC LIFE? HUMAN SACRIFICE The Aztec, or Mexica, people founded the last of the great civilizations that existed in Mexico before the Spanish invasion. Their powerful empire lasted from around 1325 to 1521. The Aztecs were farmers, warriors, and builders of great cities. WHERE WAS THE CITY IN THE LAKE? In 1325, a band of migrating Aztecs came to a large island in Lake Texcoco. When their priests saw an eagle land on a cactus there, they declared that this was the place to build a splendid new city, Tenochtitlán. This is now the site of Mexico City. HOW DO WE KNOW ABOUT AZTEC LIFE? After the Spanish invaded Tenochtitlán, they described many aspects of Aztec life, such as law, schooling, farming, and HUMAN SACRIFICE. Many artifacts from the Aztec Empire have also survived, including feather cloaks, jewelry, pottery, and knives. HUMAN SACRIFICE Human sacrifice is the killing of people for religious reasons. The Aztecs believed that the gods had sacrificed themselves for their people. They wished to repay that debt. WHY DID BLOOD FLOW SO FREELY? Being sacrificed was believed to be a great honor for the victims. Even so, the victims were often captured enemy troops who were taken to the capital to be killed on the pyramid of the Great Temple. At a four-day ceremony in 1487, tens of thousands of captives were sacrificed.

REFORMATION: WHO LED THE REFORMATION? WHAT WERE THE RESULTS OF THE REFORMATION? The Reformation was a Christian movement of the 1500s. Its followers criticized the Catholic Church for corruption and called for radical reform. These protesters became known as Protestants. Table 45. RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, EUROPE 1517–1568 1517German monk Martin Luther demands reform 1518Swiss preacher Ulrich Zwingli calls for change 1541John Calvin founds a Protestant Church, Geneva 1545Catholics launch a Counter-Reformation 1560John Knox founds Protestant Church of Scotland 1562Wars between Catholics and Protestants in France 1568Dutch Protestants begin revolt against Catholic Spain WHO LED THE REFORMATION? The Reformation began in 1517 when a German monk, Martin Luther, nailed a list of complaints to the church door in Wittenberg. Other preachers spread the Protestant message across northern Europe. They called for simpler forms of worship and personal faith. WHAT WERE THE RESULTS OF THE REFORMATION? The success of the Protestants aroused fear and anger among Catholics in Rome. A period of religious strife began that tore Europe apart for hundreds of years. Each side murdered its opponents. Churches and monasteries were destroyed. Civil and national wars caused devastation and streams of refugees.

EXPLORATION: WHY DID PEOPLE EXPLORE THE WORLD? HOW DID EXPLORATION AFFECT THE WORLD? OLD WORLD NAVIGATION NEW WORLD People have always set out to discover new lands and oceans. The greatest age of world exploration began in the 15th century and lasted over four centuries. The Arabs and Chinese had already made improvements in ship design and NAVIGATION. These were now developed further by European seafarers. Table 46. EXPLORATION 1405–1433Chinese fleets explore the Indian Ocean 1486Diaz rounds southern Africa 1492Columbus reaches the Caribbean 1497John Cabot reaches Canada 1498Columbus reaches South America 1498Vasco da Gama sails to India 1500Pedro Cabral reaches Brazil 1522Magellan’s crew sails around the whole world 1606Willem Jansz reaches Australia This type of mariners’ compass first came into use in about 1250. This one dates from the 16th century. WHY DID PEOPLE EXPLORE THE WORLD? The most common reason was trade. The OLD WORLDwanted Asian spices, African ivory, and gold. European traders were soon also seizing lands and trying to convert the local populations to the Christian faith. Many explorers, though, were driven by a sense of adventure or scientific inquiry. HOW DID EXPLORATION AFFECT THE WORLD? European countries brought many lands under their control. The world was opened up and new crops were introduced from one land to another. However, there were some disastrous effects. In the NEW WORLD, many native peoples died because they had no resistance to the European diseases that explorers and crews brought with them. OLD WORLD Europe, Asia, and Africa had been known to geographers since ancient times. They became known as the Old World after the European discovery of the Americas. WHO EXPLORED THE OLD WORLD? In the Middle Ages, the Venetian Marco Polo and the Moroccan Ibn Battutah traveled east to China. The Chinese admiral Zheng He sailed west to Africa in the 15th century. By the 16th century, Portuguese and Dutch ships were trading in southeast Asia. NAVIGATION Navigation is any method used to find one’s way or hold a ship on course. Sailors of the 16th century had various kinds of instruments to help them cross the oceans. WHAT INSTRUMENTS WERE USED? Sailors used a compass to see which direction they were traveling. They could also work out a ship’s position by measuring the angle of the Sun or stars above the horizon. They did this with a metal plate called a quadrant, a disk called an astrolabe, or a simple stick called a cross-staff. HOW WAS DISTANCE MEASURED? Distances traveled at sea were calculated from speed and time. To measure these, a wooden log was thrown overboard. The crew called out the time it took for the log to pass between two measuring points on the ship. The ship’s course and progress were measured on a pegboard. BIOGRAPHY: HENRY THE NAVIGATOR 1394–1460 This Portuguese prince founded an observatory and a school of navigation on Cape St. Vincent, Portugal. Here, a new type of ship, called a caravel, was designed. Henry also sponsored voyages along the coast of West Africa. NEW WORLD “New World” was one of the terms that came to be used by Europeans to describe the newly discovered lands of North and South America. WHY DID COLUMBUS SAIL WEST? In 1492, Christopher Columbus persuaded King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to sponsor a voyage westward. The goal was to find a new trading route to Asia. Columbus landed in the Bahamas, starting a new age of exploration and invasion.

RENAISSANCE: WHERE DID THE RENAISSANCE TAKE PLACE? WHAT WAS THE RENAISSANCE VIEW OF THE WORLD? BIOGRAPHY: LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452–1519 WHAT CAN WE SEE OF THE RENAISSANCE TODAY? PATRONAGE One of the most creative periods in history occurred in Europe around 1350–1550. This cultural revival is known as the Renaissance (meaning “rebirth”). It was inspired by the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome. WHERE DID THE RENAISSANCE TAKE PLACE? Italy was the powerhouse of the Renaissance. At that time it was divided into independent states, where wealthy rulers offered PATRONAGEto great artists. The Renaissance also spread through southern France and Spain, and influenced northern Europe. WHAT WAS THE RENAISSANCE VIEW OF THE WORLD? There was a passion for knowledge. Scholars had mostly studied the teachings of the Church, but they now rediscovered ancient philosophers. Artists became fascinated by the human body. To celebrate its beauty, they turned away from the formal drawing style of the Middle Ages and adopted a more realistic, natural style. Leonardo da Vinci was a brilliant inventor. This reconstruction shows a flying machine that first appeared in his sketchbooks, alongside futuristic plans for a helicopter, tank, and diving suit. BIOGRAPHY: LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452–1519 Leonardo was a genius. Writer, painter, sculptor, engineer, and architect, he left behind a wealth of sketches and what has become the world’s best-known painting—the portrait of a mysterious, smiling woman known as Mona Lisa. WHAT CAN WE SEE OF THE RENAISSANCE TODAY? Many Italian cities still have splendid palaces, churches, libraries, and public squares built during the Renaissance. Visitors to Rome can wonder at the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, created by Michelangelo, or the masterpieces painted by Raphael. PATRONAGE Patronage is the support given by the wealthy to artists, writers, and musicians. Renaissance patrons included the French royal family and powerful Italian nobles such as the Sforzas, the Medicis, and the Borgias. WHY DID FLORENCE FLOURISH? The Renaissance was a period of great social change, when more and more political power came from money and trade. The Italian city of Florence was a European center of banking. Its leading family, the Medici, loaned money to popes and kings. It was the Medici fortune that paid the wages of artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.

RENAISSANCE: WHERE DID THE RENAISSANCE TAKE PLACE? WHAT WAS THE RENAISSANCE VIEW OF THE WORLD? BIOGRAPHY: LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452–1519 WHAT CAN WE SEE OF THE RENAISSANCE TODAY? PATRONAGE One of the most creative periods in history occurred in Europe around 1350–1550. This cultural revival is known as the Renaissance (meaning “rebirth”). It was inspired by the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome. WHERE DID THE RENAISSANCE TAKE PLACE? Italy was the powerhouse of the Renaissance. At that time it was divided into independent states, where wealthy rulers offered PATRONAGEto great artists. The Renaissance also spread through southern France and Spain, and influenced northern Europe. WHAT WAS THE RENAISSANCE VIEW OF THE WORLD? There was a passion for knowledge. Scholars had mostly studied the teachings of the Church, but they now rediscovered ancient philosophers. Artists became fascinated by the human body. To celebrate its beauty, they turned away from the formal drawing style of the Middle Ages and adopted a more realistic, natural style. Leonardo da Vinci was a brilliant inventor. This reconstruction shows a flying machine that first appeared in his sketchbooks, alongside futuristic plans for a helicopter, tank, and diving suit. BIOGRAPHY: LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452–1519 Leonardo was a genius. Writer, painter, sculptor, engineer, and architect, he left behind a wealth of sketches and what has become the world’s best-known painting—the portrait of a mysterious, smiling woman known as Mona Lisa. WHAT CAN WE SEE OF THE RENAISSANCE TODAY? Many Italian cities still have splendid palaces, churches, libraries, and public squares built during the Renaissance. Visitors to Rome can wonder at the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, created by Michelangelo, or the masterpieces painted by Raphael. PATRONAGE Patronage is the support given by the wealthy to artists, writers, and musicians. Renaissance patrons included the French royal family and powerful Italian nobles such as the Sforzas, the Medicis, and the Borgias. WHY DID FLORENCE FLOURISH? The Renaissance was a period of great social change, when more and more political power came from money and trade. The Italian city of Florence was a European center of banking. Its leading family, the Medici, loaned money to popes and kings. It was the Medici fortune that paid the wages of artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE: WHY WAS SULEIMAN I MAGNIFICENT? HOW DID CONSTANTINOPLE BECOME ISTANBUL? WHERE DID JANISSARIES COME FROM? Around AD 1300, a new Muslim empire ruled by Turkish leaders called sultans was founded. At its largest extent, in 1700, it covered vast areas of Europe, Africa, and Asia. It lasted until the end of World War I (1918). Today’s republic of Turkey was founded in 1923. WHY WAS SULEIMAN I MAGNIFICENT? The greatest of the Ottoman sultans was Suleiman the Magnificent. During his reign (1520–1566), the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest extent. He was also a poet and a patron of the arts, adorning Istanbul and other Ottoman cities with glittering mosques. HOW DID CONSTANTINOPLE BECOME ISTANBUL? In 1453, after a siege during which its walls were pounded by a battery of cannons, Constantinople was captured by Sultan Muhammad II. Renamed Istanbul, the old capital of the Byzantine Empire then became the new capital of the expanding Ottoman Empire. WHERE DID JANISSARIES COME FROM? Janissaries were elite soldiers who started as non-Turkish Christian boys from the Balkans. They were trained in Istanbul, where they converted to Islam.

ASIAN TEMPLE KINGDOMS: WHY DID ASIAN RULERS BUILD TEMPLES? WHO INFLUENCED THE TEMPLE KINGDOMS? Between AD 700 and 1300, powerful kingdoms, including the Khmer, Pagan, and Sukhothai, emerged in different parts of southeast Asia. They grew rich from growing rice, selling valuable spices, and controlling merchants’ sea routes. Their rulers built great temples. WHY DID ASIAN RULERS BUILD TEMPLES? Rulers organized thousands of workers to build Hindu and Buddhist temples for worship. The Buddhist religion became much more popular, so many more Buddhist temples were built. The temples brought religious merit to rulers, prestige to their kingdoms, and displayed each ruler’s wealth and power. WHO INFLUENCED THE TEMPLE KINGDOMS? Buddhist monks and Hindu holy men traveled from India to southeast Asia. They offered advice to kings and led religious rituals. Prayers, offerings, and festivals became an important part of people’s lives.

POLYNESIA- WHERE WERE POLYNESIANS FROM? WHY DID PEOPLE SET SAIL FOR POLYNESIA? HOW DID THE SETTLERS NAVIGATE? MAORIS Polynesia is a group of scattered islands in the vast Pacific Ocean. Around 2000 BC, families made long, dangerous journeys to settle there. The settlers arrived with pigs, dogs, and hens. They built thatched wooden houses, gathered bananas, coconuts, and breadfruit, and fished. WHERE WERE POLYNESIANS FROM? The settlers’ ancestors came from southeast Asia, and had lived there for at least 30,000 years. Slowly, they moved to islands in the Pacific. By 1200 BC, they reached Tonga and Samoa, on the western edge of Polynesia. Around 300 BC, they began to sail farther across the ocean. Easter Island (also called Rapa Nui) was the farthest east that the settlers reached. They arrived in AD 500. Using simple tools of stone and wood, they built many moai (stone statues). Some were 33 ft (10 m) high. WHY DID PEOPLE SET SAIL FOR POLYNESIA? The islands in southeast Asia, where settlers traveled from, were probably overpopulated. This would have meant the farmland was exhausted, forests had been cut down, and the soil had eroded away. There may also have been wars between rival islanders, competing for food and land. But some sailors may have been adventurous, eager to explore new lands. HOW DID THE SETTLERS NAVIGATE? Settlers traveled in double-hulled canoes, which had sails made of matting. They observed stars, clouds, ocean swells, migrating birds, and te lapa (rays of light reflected underwater from land), and made maps from sticks, pebbles, and shells. Using these techniques, they reached distant islands like Hawaii, and also New Zealand, where settlers called themselves MAORIS. THE POLYNESIAN TRIANGLE The islands of Polynesia cover an area of over 800,000 sq miles (2 million sq km). Roughly triangular in shape, New Zealand, Hawaii, and Easter Island are at its points. It took many days to sail between groups of islands. Settlers carried farm tools and food plants, to help them survive when they landed. MAORIS Settlers first reached New Zealand around AD 800. At first they lived in small, peaceful groups, but, as the population grew, they became more warlike. Around 1500, they began to build fortified hilltop settlements, called pa. They decorated buildings with woodcarvings, and tattooed their skins with swirling designs. WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE FOR MAORIS? The climate of New Zealand was colder and wetter than the settlers’ home islands, so they had to adapt to their new environment. They hunted giant flightless birds, called moa, in the forests. They killed seals and gathered shellfish around the coast.

MEDIEVAL AFRICA: HOW DID TRADERS CROSS THE SAHARA DESERT? WHICH AFRICAN GOODS WERE HIGHLY PRIZED? TIMBUKTU SWAHILI OBAS From around AD 750 to 1500, lands to the south of Africa’s Sahara Desert were home to many thriving civilizations. Muslim kings ruled in cities like TIMBUKTU, and chiefs called OBASwere powerful in rainforest kingdoms. SWAHILIpeoples became rich through trade. HOW DID TRADERS CROSS THE SAHARA DESERT? Traders from North Africa crossed the Sahara together in a group called a caravan. They led as many as 10,000 camels, heavily laden with goods, in a long line known as a camel train. At the southern edge of the Sahara, the goods were transferred to donkeys or human porters, to be carried farther south. WHICH AFRICAN GOODS WERE HIGHLY PRIZED? Gold, ivory, ebony, and slaves from West African kingdoms such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai were sold in North Africa and the Middle East. They were traded for salt and copper, mined in the Sahara. Later, European traders came for gold, ebony, and slaves. TIMBUKTU Timbuktu (in central Mali) was one of the most important cities on the edge of the Sahara. After Muslim scholars brought the religion of Islam to the region, around 900, it became a great center of Muslim learning, with schools, a university, and a special market where valuable, handwritten books were sold. HOW DID TIMBUKTU BECOME WEALTHY? Like a number of other cities on the edge of the Sahara, such as Gao and Jenne, Timbuktu was also on the banks of the Niger River. These cities were inland ports. Merchants from the south sent boatloads of gold, ivory, cotton, dried fish, and kola nuts upriver to them, to be sold to people living there, or to be carried to lands farther north. Timbuktu became a terminus (end point) for one of the main trading routes crossing the Sahara. WHY DID MUSLIM PILGRIMS GO TO TIMBUKTU? Many Muslim pilgrims traveled to Timbuktu to honor the city’s 333 resident saints. These were celebrated Muslim scholars and teachers who taught their faith to people in the surrounding lands. Many beautiful mosques were built in Timbuktu. SWAHILI Swahili became the main language used by different peoples on the coast and islands of East Africa. Many of its words were taken from Arabic—the language of traders who sailed across the Indian Ocean, linking India and Arabia with East African ports such as Mogadishu, Gedi, and Kilwa. WHO DID THE SWAHILI PEOPLES TRADE WITH? East Africans produced valuable goods, such as leather, frankincense, leopard skins, ivory, iron, copper, and gold. They sold these to Indian Ocean traders. From around 1071, they sent ambassadors to trade with China, and, from 1418, welcomed Chinese merchant ships to East Africa’s ports. ZANZIBAR The island of Zanzibar, off the coast of East Africa, is where Swahili was first spoken. It became a major trading center for slaves, ivory, and cloves. OBAS From around 1250 to 1800, a number of different kingdoms made up what is now southwest Nigeria, in West Africa. Each of these was ruled by an oba. The obas were both religious and political leaders. Their subjects, the Yoruba people, lived as farmers, and built city-states surrounded by massive walls of earth. WHERE WERE MANY STATUES OF OBAS MADE? People living in the rainforest kingdom of Benin, now in south Nigeria, were expert metalworkers and cast elaborate portrait heads of their obas, as well as decorative plaques and ceremonial objects. These were made from brass or bronze and were used for ancestor worship, or to decorate the rulers’ palaces. WHAT HAPPENED TO THE KINGDOMS OF THE OBAS? The power of the obas and other African rulers was weakened by the arrival of Europeans. Portuguese, Dutch, and British traders took back news to their countries of the riches of Africa. Explorers were encouraged to travel there and, by 1900, almost all of Africa was ruled by European powers.

MONGOLS: WHAT WAS SPECIAL ABOUT MONGOL ARMIES? WHO WANTED TO RULE THE WORLD? BIOGRAPHY: GENGHIS KHAN r. 1206–1227 The Mongols were nomadic tribes from the steppes, or grasslands, of central Asia. In AD 1206 they declared Genghis Khan their supreme ruler. He led their conquest of an empire that, by 1279, included all of China and nearly all of Russia, as well as central Asia, Iran, and Iraq. WHAT WAS SPECIAL ABOUT MONGOL ARMIES? Mongol military might was based on the speed and ferocity of mounted archers. From galloping horses, Mongol archers let loose arrows that could pierce armor. The riders and the horses were tough, capable of covering more than 100 miles (160 km) a day. WHO WANTED TO RULE THE WORLD? Genghis Khan wanted to live up to his title, which means “prince of all that lies between the oceans.” He aimed to conquer the world and was proud of the fact that, eventually, it took almost a year to ride from one end of his realm to the other. BIOGRAPHY: GENGHIS KHAN r. 1206–1227 Genghis Khan began his career as Temujin, the brilliant, ambitious chieftain of one Mongol tribe. He was chosen as supreme ruler, and given the title Genghis Khan, by a gathering of all the Mongol tribes. After his death, in 1227, his empire was divided among his sons.

SAMURAI: WHAT WAS THE WAY OF THE WARRIOR? SHOGUNS Samurai were warriors from Japanese noble families, who served in private armies recruited by daimyo (local lords). They fought in civil wars that raged in Japan from around 1159. In 1603, the Tokugawa SHOGUNSrestored peace. Samurai then became local officials and administrators. WHAT WAS THE WAY OF THE WARRIOR? Samurai swore a solemn oath of loyalty to their comrades and their lord. They aimed to follow a code, called the bushido (the way of the warrior). This called for self-discipline, skill, bravery, honor, obedience, and self-sacrifice. Many samurai also followed the teachings of Zen Buddhism. SHOGUNS From 1192 to 1867, Japan was ruled by a series of powerful army commanders with the title of shogun. Japan’s emperors had great prestige but little real power. WHO WAS THE FIRST SHOGUN? In 1192, the warlord Yoritomo, who was the head of the mighty Minamoto clan, defeated rival nobles to become the most powerful man in Japan. The emperor gave him the title of shogun, which means “great general.” Yoritomo set up a new, military government, far away from the imperial court.

IMPERIAL CHINA: WHY WERE EXAMS IMPORTANT IN CHINA? HOW DID BEIJING BECOME CHINA’S CAPITAL? WHO LIVED IN THE FORBIDDEN CITY? PORCELAIN For more than 2,000 years, from 221 BC until AD 1912, China was ruled by emperors. In that time, the capital city and the imperial dynasty (ruling family) changed. There were periods of unrest and of invasion by fierce tribes, including the Mongols, but the same system of government continued. Imperial China was a remarkably stable civilization, which led the world in art and technology, with inventions including paper, PORCELAIN, and gunpowder. Table 44. CHINA’S RULERS 221 BCQin dynasty 206 BCHan dynasty AD 221Time of disunity 581Sui dynasty 618Tang dynasty 907China divided into five dynasties 960Song dynasty 1279Yuan dynasty (Mongol) 1368Ming dynasty (last Chinese dynasty) 1644–1912Qing dynasty (Manchu dynasty from Manchuria) WHY WERE EXAMS IMPORTANT IN CHINA? The first Han emperor set up a civil service to run China. Before getting a job in the civil service, officials had to pass a series of difficult exams. Those who passed the top exams could expect jobs as government ministers, and marriage to princesses. HOW DID BEIJING BECOME CHINA’S CAPITAL? After invading China in AD 1279, the Mongol (Yuan) emperors established their capital at Beijing, which was just inside the Great Wall, in what was then the far north of China. In 1368, a new dynasty, the Ming, came to power. They kept Beijing as the capital, rebuilding and expanding the city. The Great Wall snakes across the mountains north of Beijing. Defensive walls had been built since ancient times, but most of the Great Wall as it still stands was built under the Ming emperors. WHO LIVED IN THE FORBIDDEN CITY? The imperial palace at Beijing is called the Forbidden City. Enclosed by a moat and high brick walls, this complex of palaces, halls, gardens, offices, and storehouses was built under the Ming dynasty. The imperial family lived there, along with nobles, servants, and officials. PORCELAIN Porcelain is a translucent (semitransparent) ceramic material, made of fine white clay mixed with crushed stone. It can be shaped on a potter’s wheel, or molded by hand. When fired (baked) at extremely high temperatures, it becomes waterproof, and so hard that steel cannot scratch it. WHY WAS PORCELAIN SO PRECIOUS? Porcelain was first made by Chinese potters during the Tang dynasty. It was a luxury product, for the use of nobles and emperors, and for centuries no one but the Chinese knew how to make it.

MEDIEVAL EUROPE: WHO WAS POWERFUL IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE? WHAT DID MEDIEVAL PEOPLE BELIEVE? HOW DID MEDIEVAL TOWNS DEVELOP? WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE FOR PEASANT FAMILIES? BIOGRAPHY: ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE 1122–1204 CASTLES KNIGHTS Between AD 1000 and 1500, a lively society developed in Europe. Although most people still worked on the land, this was also the age of CASTLES, cathedrals, and growing towns. Gradually, the traders and craftsmen of the towns began to have more influence on government. WHO WAS POWERFUL IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE? Kings led armies of KNIGHTSand foot soldiers. They made laws, collected taxes, and encouraged trade. Nobles ran great estates, given to them on the condition that they would help the king rule. The Church was important in every area of life, providing medieval Europe with its schools, hospitals, and universities. WHAT DID MEDIEVAL PEOPLE BELIEVE? Medieval Europeans believed that God had made the world, and ruled it through his Church and the king. Few people, apart from priests and monks, could read and write. Ordinary people learned the stories of the Bible and the saints from preachers, and from the pictures painted in their churches. HOW DID MEDIEVAL TOWNS DEVELOP? Many towns grew up around markets, where farm produce was exchanged for the goods and services of specialized craftsmen, such as shoemakers and weavers. Through their guilds, traders and craftsmen regulated prices and organized the training of their apprentices. WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE FOR PEASANT FAMILIES? Most peasants worked on their local lord’s fields in return for their own plots of land. Some, called serfs, were not free, and could not travel, or marry, without their lord’s permission. Skilled men could be thatchers or carpenters. Women might weave cloth or brew ale. BIOGRAPHY: ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE 1122–1204 Eleanor of Aquitaine was the richest heiress in France. She married King Louis VII of France in 1137, but by 1154, she was married to King Henry II of England. In her old age she remained a powerful woman, ruling England during the absence of her son, King Richard. CASTLES A castle is a huge, fortified building, or set of buildings. The first castles, built around 900, were made up of a wooden fortress on top of an earth mound. Later, castles built of stone had towers, battlements, moats, and strong defensive walls. They also became prestigious homes. WERE CASTLES ONLY USED IN WARTIME? The first castles were built to shelter nobles, KNIGHTS, and soldiers in a war. After around 1200, in times of peace, each castle had its own nobleman and his family living in it. Comfortable private rooms were added for important guests. The main building of a castle was its keep (central tower). This one was built around 1130. Its stone walls would not burn, and were very hard to knock down. HOW DID GUNPOWDER AFFECT CASTLES? From around 1300, gunpowder for firing cannons began to affect warfare in Europe. Cannon balls could smash through stone walls, making castles less useful as safe strongholds. Castles continued to be built, but for show. They were intended as impressive residences rather than indestructible fortresses. KNIGHTS Knights were warriors on horseback. They came from noble families and were trained from boyhood to handle weapons, wear armor, and ride heavy war horses. Some knights owned castles and land, and kept local order. Others served in the private armies of great lords. Each knight had his own coat of arms, helping him to tell friend from foe in battle. HOW DID KNIGHTS FIGHT? Knights charged into battle on horseback, spearing enemy soldiers with their long lances, or slashing at them with heavy swords, maces, and battle-axes. On foot, they fought with daggers and short swords. This suit of armor, worn around 1380, gave good protection while the knight was on horseback, but was hot and heavy when fighting on foot. WHAT WAS THE CODE OF CHIVALRY? Knights were bound by a solemn promise to be loyal to their king. They were also supposed to respect women, protect the weak, and defend the Church. This code became known as chivalry.

CRUSADES: WHY WAS THE FIRST CRUSADE CALLED? WHAT DID THE CRUSADERS BRING BACK TO EUROPE? In 1095, Pope Urban II called for a war against the Muslim rulers of Jerusalem. This was the First Crusade. Over the next two centuries, Christian armies from Europe fought more crusades, but none was successful. WHY WAS THE FIRST CRUSADE CALLED? For centuries, Christian pilgrims had been visiting the Holy Land, where Jesus had lived and which had been ruled by Muslims since 637. The First Crusade happened because, by the 11th century, the region’s rulers were less sympathetic to Christian pilgrims. WHAT DID THE CRUSADERS BRING BACK TO EUROPE? Crusaders returned with apricots, lemons, rice, dyes, spices, perfume, soap, and glass mirrors. They also brought back a musical instrument, the ancestor of the modern guitar.

NORMANS: WHAT HAPPENED IN 1066? WHY WAS NORMAN SICILY SO REMARKABLE? The Normans were descended from Viking warriors who settled in Normandy, northwest France, in AD 912. They conquered large areas of Europe, from England to southern Italy. Norman kings were strong rulers. WHAT HAPPENED IN 1066? The Normans invaded England in 1066. They were led by the Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, who became king of England. He removed English nobles, and gave their land to Normans. Norman nobles ran the government, and Norman priests led the Church. Norman rulers spoke French, and built castles. They imposed heavy taxes and harsh laws. WHY WAS NORMAN SICILY SO REMARKABLE? In 1060–1091, Sicily was conquered by Normans. The island’s new rulers were tolerant of its Muslim inhabitants, and after the conquest it flourished as a multicultural center of art and learning. Norman Sicilian kings encouraged the work of Arab geographers and scientists, and sponsored the translation of Greek classic texts into Latin.

VIKINGS WHERE DID THE VIKINGS TRAVEL? HOW DID THE VIKINGS GET THEIR FIERCE REPUTATION? HOW DID THE VIKINGS WORSHIP THEIR GODS? LONGSHIPS Late in the 8th century, Viking raiders from Norway, Denmark, and Sweden began to sweep across Europe. In their versatile LONGSHIPS, the Vikings sailed vast distances. Their golden age of trade, exploration, and colonization lasted until AD 1100. WHERE DID THE VIKINGS TRAVEL? The Vikings raided and settled along the coasts of Britain, Ireland, and continental Europe. They crossed the Atlantic to reach Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland. Viking merchants traveled through Russia to Constantinople, exchanging the amber, furs, and whale oil of the north for wine, silks, spices, and silver coins from the Middle East. HOW DID THE VIKINGS GET THEIR FIERCE REPUTATION? The Vikings were not Christian, and they saw isolated monasteries and churches as easy targets for hit-and-run raids. But the first people to write about the Vikings were monks who had suffered in these raids. As a result, Viking atrocities were better recorded than Viking achievements. HOW DID THE VIKINGS WORSHIP THEIR GODS? The Vikings worshiped their gods in the open air, choosing natural landmarks such as big rocks, unusual trees, and waterfalls. Their most important gods were Odin, the god of knowledge, Thor, the god of metalwork and thunder, and Frey, the goddess of fertility. After around 1000, Viking peoples became Christian. LONGSHIPS Viking ships were the best in Europe. Besides the longships used for raiding and war, they had special fishing boats. For long-distance voyages, they built deeper, broader ships called knorrs. HOW WERE VIKING SHIPS BUILT? Viking ships were made of planks of oak or pine wood, nailed to a heavy central keel (supporting timber). This made them strong but flexible. The mast was made from a tall tree trunk and supported a huge square sail. There were oars for each crewman, to row the ship when there was no wind. The shallow hull of a longship made it less likely to capsize. It could be sailed in shallow water close to land, to make a surprise attack. Its planks overlapped for extra strength. Tarred wool was crammed between the planks to keep water out.

ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION: WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE IN MUSLIM LANDS? HOW DID ISLAM SPREAD SO QUICKLY? WHERE DID MUSLIMS TRAVEL TO? WHY WERE TEXTILES SO IMPORTANT? CALIPHS AL ANDALUS In AD 610, an Arab merchant called Muhammad founded a new religion called Islam. His teachings inspired the Arab peoples, and by 750 Muslims (followers of Islam) had conquered an area stretching from Afghanistan to AL ANDALUSin southern Spain. Trade, science, and culture thrived in this Islamic empire. WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE IN MUSLIM LANDS? Newly conquered lands were united by Islam, and by common tax systems, coinage, and laws. Jews and Christians sometimes paid higher taxes, but they were free to run their own religious affairs so long as they did not insult the Prophet Muhammad. HOW DID ISLAM SPREAD SO QUICKLY? Islam brought a new sense of unity and purpose to the traders and tribespeople of the Arabian Peninsula. Led by the CALIPH, Arab armies spread Islam in the Middle East and beyond. It helped that their main enemies, the Sassanids in Iran and the Byzantines in eastern Europe, were weakened by fighting each other. Islam was also spread by Muslim traders. This minaret, a slender tower used to call Muslims to prayer, was built in 1199 by a new ruling dynasty as a symbol of their victory. It is part of the Quwwat al-Islam (Might of Islam) Mosque, in Delhi, India. WHERE DID MUSLIMS TRAVEL TO? Muslim pilgrims, traders, soldiers, scholars, and government officials made long journeys across the Islamic empire and beyond. One of the most famous explorers, Ibn Battuta, set out on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325. He spent the next 25 years traveling, crossing the Sahara and even reaching China before returning to Morocco to write his story. WHY WERE TEXTILES SO IMPORTANT? Many of the first Muslims were nomads, who needed to be able to pack up and move all their belongings quickly. Traditionally, woven cloth was used for tents, bags, clothes, cushions, bedding, and carpets. The art and craft of making textiles continued to be important in the Muslim world, which gave us the words for damask (from Damascus), muslin (from Mosul), and cashmere (from Kashmir). CALIPHS After the death of Muhammad in 632, Muslims were ruled by caliphs. As Islam spread, the caliphs had great political as well as spiritual authority. In the reign of the fourth caliph, from 656 to 661, two rival traditions of Islam emerged: the Sunni and the Shi’a. This division meant it was no longer possible for the whole Islamic world to be ruled by a single caliph. WHO WERE THE UMAYYADS AND THE ABBASIDS? The Umayyads and Abbasids were dynasties of caliphs. From 661, Islam was ruled by the Umayyads, based in Damascus (in Syria). In 750, a new dynasty, the Abbasid, seized power, although a branch of the Umayyad continued to rule Muslim Spain. The Abbasid caliphs were based at Baghdad, which became the prosperous center of a huge trading empire and the artistic capital of the Muslim world. AL ANDALUS Muslim armies conquered southern Spain in 711. They called it Al Andalus, and it became the richest country in Europe. The Muslims, or Moors as they are sometimes called, brought new crops, such as oranges, almonds, and cotton, and new technology, such as water wheels. In 1492, Granada, which was the last surviving Islamic kingdom in Spain, fell to Christian rulers. HOW DID AL ANDALUS LINK EAST AND WEST? During the 10th century reign of Abd al-Rahman, Cordoba was the capital of Al Andalus. With its lavishly endowed libraries, it was a magnet for scholars and acted as the door through which the science of the East reached Christian scholars in western Europe. After 1031, when the ruling dynasty changed, Cordoba’s golden age ended. In 1236 it was reconquered by Christian Spanish forces.

BYZANTINE EMPIRE WHO RULED THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE? CONSTANTINOPLE In AD 324 the emperor Constantine reunited the Roman Empire. By then Rome was too difficult to defend against barbarian attacks, so he moved his capital east to Byzantium, renaming it CONSTANTINOPLE. WHO RULED THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE? From Constantinople (now Istanbul), Constantine ruled over the entire Roman world, but eventually the empire split again. In 476, the western Roman empire was swept away. However, the eastern empire, which is called the Byzantine Empire, endured until 1453, when it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. CONSTANTINOPLE In 330, Constantinople was proclaimed capital of the Roman Empire. The new city’s splendid public buildings, which included a forum, were adorned with treasures from all over the empire. WHY WAS CONSTANTINOPLE SO PROSPEROUS? Constantinople was a meeting point for long-distance trade routes linking Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Merchants brought silks from China, pearls and perfumes from Arabia, spices from southeast Asia, and fine wool and furs from Europe to sell in its markets.

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE WHY WAS THE EMPIRE FOUNDED? HOW DID CHARLEMAGNE WORK WITH SCHOLARS? WHAT HAPPENED TO THE TITLE? On Christmas Day, 800, Charlemagne, the King of the Franks, was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope. Under Charlemagne, much of western Europe was ruled as one vast country, but within 40 years of his death, in 814, the Holy Roman Empire had fragmented. WHY WAS THE EMPIRE FOUNDED? Charlemagne was a brilliant leader, and his kingdom stretched from the North Sea to Italy. As Holy Roman Emperor, he was expected to rule Europe like a Roman emperor, but with a new responsibility for the safety and prosperity of the Church and the Pope. HOW DID CHARLEMAGNE WORK WITH SCHOLARS? Charlemagne was a great patron of learning, inviting the most famous scholars of the day to his main court at Aachen. His advisers and friends included Peter of Pisa, Agobard of Lyons, and Alcuin of York. Under Charlemagne, rare manuscripts were collected, the text of the Bible was revised, and grammars, history books, and ballads were published. WHAT HAPPENED TO THE TITLE? By 843 Charlemagne’s empire had split into three kingdoms, each of which was ruled by a member of his family. Following Charlemagne, there was no Holy Roman Emperor until Otto I was crowned in 962. After 1438, all but one of the holders of the prestigious title were Habsburg monarchs. In 1806 Napoleon abolished the title.

CELTS: WHAT WERE CELTIC WARRIORS FAMOUS FOR? WHO WERE THE DRUIDS? The tribespeople who lived in western Europe before the Roman conquest were called Celts. Each tribe was made up of three main classes—druids, warriors, and farmers—and the largest settlements were hilltop forts. WHAT WERE CELTIC WARRIORS FAMOUS FOR? Celtic warriors were famous for their love of feasting, fighting, and jewelry. They daubed their faces with a blue war paint made from woad (plant that produces a blue dye) and yelled at the tops of their voices as they rode into battle. But the terrible look and sound of a Celtic army was no match for the discipline of highly trained Roman legions. WHO WERE THE DRUIDS? After studying everything from herbalism to astronomy for up to 20 years, druids served Celtic society as priests and judges. At sacred pools, or groves of oak trees, they led religious rites that sometimes involved human sacrifice. Unlike most Celts, many druids could read and write.

AGE OF MIGRATIONS: WHO WERE THE BARBARIANS? WHO WERE THE HUNS? In AD 285 the Roman Empire divided into eastern and western parts, each with its own emperor. Despite this reorganization, by around 400 the western empire could no longer hold out against waves of invading barbarian tribes from northeastern Europe. In 410, Rome itself was attacked. WHO WERE THE BARBARIANS? For the Romans, the Germanic tribes moving across the empire were destructive, disorderly “barbarians.” Over time, these migrant peoples did settle down, eventually giving their names to their new homelands: the Franks in France, the ANGLES AND SAXONSin England, the Lombards in northern Italy, and so on. Table 43. BARBARIAN ATTACKS AD 235Germanic tribes start to invade 410Visigoths capture Rome 435Vandals take Roman North Africa 451Hun invasions 455Vandals destroy Rome 476Last western emperor deposed WHO WERE THE HUNS? The Huns were a nomadic people from today’s Turkestan. Mounted on swift ponies, and armed with bows and arrows, Hun armies rode deep into the Roman Empire in search of plunder. They were not interested in conquering land. ANGLES AND SAXONS Angles and Saxons, who were later known as Anglo-Saxons, lived along the North Sea coast. They began to raid Britain while it was under Roman rule. After 410, when the Roman army left, they arrived in larger numbers to settle, and gradually took over much of eastern Britain. WHO WAS BURIED IN SHIPS? The Angles and Saxons were pagan, seafaring people, and ships played an important part in their culture. They believed that boats could ferry a dead person’s spirit to the next world. People who had been wealthy when they were alive were buried in ships, together with the comforts and treasures they were expected to enjoy in the next world. Poorer Anglo-Saxons were sometimes buried with a few ship’s planks. WHY DID ANGLES AND SAXONS MOVE TO BRITAIN? Around 200, the climate became warmer and sea levels rose, which made life more difficult for the Angles and Saxons living on the North Sea coast. At the same time, they were being squeezed by other westward-moving Germanic peoples. Some of the first Anglo-Saxons in Britain may have been soldiers, hired to protect villages against other raiders.

MAYA: WHO RULED MAYAN KINGDOMS? WHY DID THE MAYA BUILD PYRAMIDS? The Maya lived in Central America and were powerful from around AD 250 to 900. Farmers and traders, they built spectacular cities and developed a system of writing that used picture symbols called GLYPHS. WHO RULED MAYAN KINGDOMS? The Maya were divided into kingdoms, each of which had a city and a ruler, who acted as war leader, lawmaker, and chief priest. After 900 Mayan civilization declined, possibly because their farming methods led to exhausted fields and failing crops. WHY DID THE MAYA BUILD PYRAMIDS? Pyramids were the largest buildings in Mayan cities and were built as temples and royal tombs. Shrines where sacrifices were made to the gods were at the top, while burial chambers were hidden deep inside. The pyramids were built of stone, and covered with red-painted plaster, but this plaster has not survived. MAYAN GLYPHS Mayan glyphs were painted on walls and pots, and carved into pieces of jade and monuments of stone. They were also written into books called codices, which were made out of long strips of bark paper that folded up like screens. This complex writing system was controlled by scribes of very high rank. WHEN WAS THE RIDDLE OF THE GLYPHS SOLVED? The study of Mayan hieroglyphs began 200 years ago. By the 1950s, scholars had worked out the glyphs for the names of rulers and animals. Then, in 1960, it became clear that most Mayan inscriptions are historical. They record important events, such as the births, marriages and deaths, and the victories in battle, of the godlike Mayan kings.

ANCIENT ROM: HOW DID ROME EXPAND? WHAT WAS THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT ROME? HOW WERE ROMAN SOLDIERS RECRUITED? Rome began, around 1000 BC, as a settlement of farmers and shepherds in central Italy. Over the course of the next thousand years, it developed into a powerful city-state, and became the capital of an empire that stretched from Britain in the north to Arabia in the southwest. Opened by Emperor Titus in AD 80, the Colosseum was the largest amphitheater in Rome. For the blood-thirsty “games” staged here, gladiators and animals were imported from every corner of the empire. HOW DID ROME EXPAND? Gradually, the Roman Republic conquered its neighbors, until, by 260 BC, it controlled all of Italy. Next, the Romans defeated the Carthaginians, which by 100 BC gave Rome control of the Mediterranean. At the heart of the government of this expanding Roman Republic were the politicians called SENATORS. WHAT WAS THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT ROME? Jupiter, Minerva, Vesta, and Mars were among the chief gods and goddesses of Ancient Rome. On special occasions, animals were sacrificed to them in temples. Before going into battle, for example, a public sacrifice would be made to Mars, the god of war. Throughout the empire a wide range of non-Roman religions were tolerated, so long as they did not disrespect official Roman gods and the EMPERORS. HOW WERE ROMAN SOLDIERS RECRUITED? In the early days of Rome, every citizen had to be prepared to fight, but soldiers of the Roman imperial army were paid, highly trained professionals who signed on for 20-25 years of service. The ordinary foot soldier was equipped with a short sword, two javelins, and a heavy shield of leather and wood. When he was not at war, he was building forts and roads. SENATORS The Roman Republic was ruled by the Senate, the council of noblemen that controlled all the top jobs in the government and army. After 27 BC, when the Roman Republic was replaced by the Roman Empire, the Senate continued to play an important part in politics. WHY WAS JULIUS CAESAR MURDERED? In 44 BC, five years after he had become the sole ruler of Rome, Julius Caesar was murdered in the Senate building. His assassins were a group of senators who thought he had become too powerful. They also resented the fact that Julius Caesar had rewarded hundreds of his supporters by making them senators. As a result, the Senate, which for most of its history had between 300 and 600 members, was packed with 900 senators. EMPERORS After Julius Caesar’s death, Rome was divided by civil wars. By 27 BC, his adopted son Octavian was master of the Roman world. Under the title Augustus, which means “revered” in Latin, he became the first Roman emperor. His reign brought peace and prosperity to a war-weary world. WHY DID ROMANS GET BREAD AND CIRCUSES? Rome was the largest city in the world. By AD 300, it had a million inhabitants, many of whom were hungry and unemployed. To stop them from rioting, they were given “bread and circuses.” The “bread” was the regular ration of grain issued to Roman citizens, and the “circuses” were the free entertainments and chariot races provided by politicians and emperors. FIRST EMPEROR Augustus reigned for nearly 50 years. He reorganized coins, laws, and taxation.

MAURYAN INDIA: WHAT WERE THE CITIES OF MAURYAN INDIA LIKE? HOW DID ASHOKA SPREAD BUDDHISM? The Maurya dynasty ruled India from 322 BC to 185 BC. Its greatest king was Ashoka (273–232 BC). He began his reign as a warrior, but after becoming a Buddhist, he tried to pursue peaceful policies. WHAT WERE THE CITIES OF MAURYAN INDIA LIKE? Mauryan cities were defended by steep banks of earth and timber walls. At Ashoka’s capital, Pataliputra (near modern Patna), they stretched for 9 miles (14 km). Inside were temples, reservoirs, palaces, storehouses, and workers’ houses. HOW DID ASHOKA SPREAD BUDDHISM? Ashoka set up tall stone pillars in important places, carved with Buddhist teachings and his own promises to rule well. He tried to make peace between different peoples in his empire, but after he died, the empire split into smaller states, until a new empire emerged under the Guptas.

EARLY AMERICANS: HOW DID EARLY AMERICANS LIVE? HOW DID EARLY AMERICANS HONOR THEIR GODS? The first Americans crossed the land bridge that linked Siberia with Alaska during the last Ice Age. Gradually, they spread through the continent. By around 8000 BC there were people in almost every part of the Americas. HOW DID EARLY AMERICANS LIVE? The first Americans were hunters, gatherers, and fishermen, and this way of life continued in tropical rainforests and cold northern woods. Other peoples became farmers. In the Andes of South America they grew potatoes and herded llama. In fertile river valleys, MOUND BUILDERSgrew corn, beans, and squash. In semideserts, the PUEBLOpeople farmed irrigated fields. HOW DID EARLY AMERICANS HONOR THEIR GODS? The rituals of early Americans were closely connected with persuading the gods, or spirits, to continue to provide sunshine and rain. With gifts of blood and food, and sacrifices of animals and young people, they honored the gods on whom life depended. WHICH METALS DID EARLY AMERICANS TREASURE? Around 1500 BC, craftworkers in South America discovered how to shape nuggets of gold, silver, and copper by hammering them, stretching them into wire, or melting them and casting them in molds. They crafted jewelry, ritual objects, and images of gods. PUEBLOS From around AD 800, in parts of southwest North America, rooms were stacked on top of each other to make villages called pueblos. People living in these apartments also became known as Pueblos. HOW MANY PEOPLE LIVED IN A PUEBLO? Some pueblos, like that at Pueblo Bonito, in New Mexico, may have had as many as 650 rooms, and more than 30 ceremonial chambers (kivas). Each room could house a whole family, so the population of a pueblo could have been well over 3,000. MOUND BUILDERS Between 700 BC and AD 550, Adena and Hopewell peoples in the Ohio Valley built huge earth mounds. Some were meeting places for long-distance traders. Others were holy monuments or tombs. WHERE WERE AMERICA’S FIRST CITIES? Around AD 800, mound builders by the Mississippi River also began to build cities. The largest was Cahokia, near St. Louis. It covered almost 6 sq miles (16 sq km) and had over 120 earth mounds. About 10,000 people lived there by 1200.

GUPTA INDIA: WHY IS GUPTA INDIA CALLED A GOLDEN AGE? WHAT IS THE MAHABHARATA? The Gupta dynasty was founded by the Hindu king Chandragupta I in AD 320. From their home in northeast India, the Gupta kings won control of a large empire, which lasted for more than 200 years. WHY IS GUPTA INDIA CALLED A GOLDEN AGE? The art, architecture, science, music, literature, and dance of northern India flourished under the generous and tolerant Gupta kings. Gupta mathematicians developed the number system used all over the world today, and invented the concept of zero. WHAT IS THE MAHABHARATA? TheMahabharata, or “Great Epic of India,” is the world’s longest poem. It tells the story of five Hindu princes who lose their kingdom and struggle to win it back. Written in Sanskrit, it is one of the most important works of Hindu literature.

ANCIENT GREECE: WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT MYCENAEAN KINGS? WHO DID THE ANCIENT GREEKS WORSHIP? WHAT WERE ANCIENT GREEK PLAYS ABOUT? WHY DID THE GREEKS VALUE SPORTS? Greece was home to a rich civilization that reached its peak between 500 BC and 300 BC. Its people lived by farming, fishing, crafts, and trading. They built 300 CITY-STATESand settled in colonies. In 146 BC, Greece was conquered by Rome, but many aspects of Greek culture still shape our world. WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT MYCENAEAN KINGS? Mycenaean kings were powerful from 1600 BC to 1200 BC. They were warrior chieftains who lived in fortresslike cities and ruled small kingdoms. Their name comes from the richest of these—Mycenae, in southern Greece. They employed skilled artists and craftworkers to make fine pottery and magnificent gold jewelry. They owned fleets of trading ships that sailed to many ports. WHO DID THE ANCIENT GREEKS WORSHIP? The Ancient Greeks worshiped many different gods and goddesses. They believed that these gods had magic powers and that they were human in form, but bigger and more beautiful. Each god or goddess controlled a different aspect of life. The supreme god Zeus led all other gods. His brother Poseidon ruled the sea, and another brother, Hades, ruled the underworld. Temples were homes for the gods and goddesses, and status symbols for cities. The Parthenon, Athens, was built in c. 480 BC, when Greek architecture was at its peak. It is one of the world’s most famous buildings and was made from more than 24,000 tons (21,800 metric tons) of marble. This temple was dedicated to the goddess Athena. Inside stood a 40-ft- (12-m-) tall carved statue of Athena, with solid gold armor. WHAT WERE ANCIENT GREEK PLAYS ABOUT? Greek tragedies and comedies told stories about gods and goddesses, or made fun of people such as politicians. Only men watched the plays. They thought women would find them too rude or upsetting. The plays of Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides are still performed today. WHY DID THE GREEKS VALUE SPORTS? Sports were good training for war, but city-states also organized sports competitions to form part of their religious festivals. The most famous was the Olympic Games, held every four years to honor the god Zeus. Competitors came from all over Greece. Victorious athletes won praise for themselves, and prestige for their families and towns. BIOGRAPHY: ALEXANDER THE GREAT 356–323 BC Alexander was ruler of Macedon, north of Greece. As a young man he conquered many lands, including some of the Greek city-states. When he died, his vast empire stretched from Egypt to Pakistan. CITY-STATES A city-state was made up of a town and all the land near it. Each one had its own government, laws, and way of life. City-states often fought each other, using troops of HOPLITESand huge warships. HOW DID ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY WORK? In Athens, all adult male citizens could listen to debates in the Assembly, which met on most days. Here, they could elect and expel city leaders, and vote to decide on government policies. Women, slaves, and foreigners were not able to vote. Three of the world’s most famous philosophers—Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle—lived and taught in Athens. HOPLITES Hoplites were trained foot soldiers who fought for their city-states using swords and spears. Their name came from the round hoplon (shield) that they carried for protection in battle. They also wore helmets, body armor, and plated greaves (shin guards). HOW DID THE ANCIENT GREEKS FIGHT? The Greeks used a battle formation called the phalanx. Soldiers stood side by side in rows, overlapping their shields to make a solid wall of defense as they advanced toward the enemy. Their commanders rode in horse-drawn chariots to overlook the battlefield. City-states also hired foreign experts, such as archers from Scythia, and used warships called triremes.

MEDITERRANEAN SEAFARERS: WHAT MADE THE TRADERS SO PROSPEROUS? From around 2000 BC, people living close to the Mediterranean Sea, such as the MINOANS, Mycenaeans, and PHOENICIANS, built strong wooden ships powered by sails and oars. They established long-distance sea routes linking Europe, Africa, and Asia, and became wealthy sea traders. Later, they sailed to explore and set up colonies. WHAT MADE THE TRADERS SO PROSPEROUS? Traders braved the stormy Mediterranean waters to earn as much as possible through overseas business. The most profitable cargoes included silver from Spain (used to make coins), tin from Britain, and copper from Cyprus. The tin and copper metals were smelted to make bronze. Phoenician cloth, colored purple with a dye made from shellfish, was so expensive that only kings and queens could afford to buy it. MINOANS From 3000 BC to 1450 BC, Minoan kings ruled the eastern Mediterranean area from the island of Crete. The kings grew rich by trading with other islands and demanding offerings from less powerful peoples. They lived in vast, elegantly decorated palaces. WHY DID MINOAN POWER COLLAPSE? Inc.1450 BC, the Mediterranean island of Thera (now Santorini) was destroyed by a volcanic eruption. At nearby Crete, sea levels rose, dust blotted out the Sun, and the Minoans’ crops died out. Then the palace at Knossos, Crete, was attacked by the Mycenaeans. Byc.1100 BC, the Minoan civilization had disappeared. PHOENICIANS The Phoenicians lived on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and were powerful from around 1000 BC to 500 BC. They lived as farmers, foresters, and craftworkers who were highly skilled in woodworking, glass-making, and textile production. WHERE DID THE PHOENICIANS TRAVEL TO TRADE? The Phoenicians sailed all over the Mediterranean Sea. A few ventured farther—to western Spain, southeast Britain, and western Africa—and built new cities in the regions where they traded. Their most famous city was at Carthage, in North Africa, which remained powerful until the Romans destroyed it in 146 BC.

PERSIAN EMPIRE HOW WAS THE PERSIAN EMPIRE GOVERNED? WHAT WAS THE ROYAL ROAD? ROYAL PALACE BIOGRAPHY: KING DARIUS I r. 522–486 BC SATRAPS From 539 BC to 331 BC, the Persian Empire was the most powerful state in the world. Ruled from Persia (now Iran), it stretched from Egypt to India. It had rich resources of water, fertile farmland, and gold. The Persians worshiped a fire god, Zoroaster. HOW WAS THE PERSIAN EMPIRE GOVERNED? Persian rulers claimed the proud title of “King of Kings” and demanded total obedience from their subjects. Under King Darius, the empire was divided into 20 provinces to try to stop any single region from becoming too powerful. Each province was ruled by a governor, called a SATRAP. WHAT WAS THE ROYAL ROAD? This was the longest highway in the Persian Empire. It ran for more than 1,550 miles (2,500 km) from Sardis, in western Turkey, to the empire’s capital, Susa, near the Persian Gulf. A giant network of roads linked the empire’s provinces. Messengers traveled on horseback to deliver urgent royal commands or news, while merchants used camel trains to transport goods. ROYAL PALACE In 520 BC, King Darius gave orders for a magnificent new palace to be built at Persepolis, in Persia. He commanded leaders from all over the empire to bring tributes (forced gifts) to him there. BIOGRAPHY: KING DARIUS I r. 522–486 BC Known as Darius the Great, Darius I reorganized the Persian government, won great victories in Turkey, and led an invasion of Greece. But his army was defeated by Greek soldiers at the famous battle of Marathon in 490 BC. This started a long-lasting war with the Greeks that eventually brought down the Persian Empire. SATRAPS Satraps were local rulers appointed by the king to govern individual provinces. Their job was to enforce law and order, and to collect taxes and tributes. They worked with Persia’s army commanders to defend the empire’s frontiers from enemy attack. COULD THE SATRAPS BE TRUSTED? Persian kings did not trust the satraps. They employed special spies, known as “the king’s ears,” to make sure that the satraps were not stealing taxes and tributes. But some satraps did become powerful, and plotted against the king. Some joined with enemies of the empire, such as Alexander the Great, the Greek leader who conquered the Persian Empire in 331 BC.

MIDDLE EASTERN EMPIRES: WHY WAS THE MIDDLE EAST SUCH A RICH PRIZE? BABYLONIANS HITTITES HEBREWS ASSYRIANS From around 2000 BC, rival peoples in the Middle East fought to either conquer or defend land. Some, like the BABYLONIANSand ASSYRIANS, were based in magnificent cities. Others, like the HITTITESand HEBREWS, arrived to settle and found new kingdoms. WHY WAS THE MIDDLE EAST SUCH A RICH PRIZE? Kings and peoples wanted to live in the Middle East because of its fertile farmland. The best land lay beside the Euphrates and Tigris rivers of Mesopotamia, but there were also fields, forests, and orchards in mountain valleys to the north and south. People also competed to control the long-distance trading routes that passed through the Middle East, linking Europe with Asia. BABYLONIANS Babylon became powerful around 1792 BC, under King Hammurabi. From 1595 BC, its people came under the rule of invaders. In 625 BC, a general called Nabopolassar drove out the foreigners and became king. Under his son, King Nebuchadnezzar (r. 605–562 BC), a great new empire emerged. HOW DID THE BABYLONIANS MEASURE TIME? Babylonians built mud-brick monuments and used them as sundials. They observed stars and planets, predicted their movements, and compiled calendars. They based their calculations on units of 60—which we still use today to measure minutes and seconds—and recorded all their findings in cuneiform writing. BIOGRAPHY: KING HAMMURABI r. 1792–1750 BC King Hammurabi conquered all of Mesopotamia to create a new kingdom, which was named after its chief city—Babylon. He introduced a strict code of law, and many crimes were punished by death. After he died, the empire weakened. HITTITES The Hittites were people who settled in Anatolia (now Turkey), in around 1700 BC. They could smelt iron, so they were able to make stronger weapons than their enemies. Around 1400 BC, Hittite city-states joined forces to create a powerful kingdom. HOW DID THE HITTITES FIGHT THEIR WARS? Fast, two-wheeled war chariots—pulled by horses—were first used by Hittite warriors around 1800 BC. Armed with bows and arrows, the charioteers would charge at ranks of enemy soldiers to scatter them. The Hittites also attacked enemy cities with the help of siege engines such as tall towers. The Hittites had two great enemies: the Ancient Egyptians and a war-like people from the state of Mitanni, in Mesopotamia. WHY DID HITTITE POWER COLLAPSE? The Hittites and their enemies fought to win the eastern Mediterranean region, with its forests, farms, and rich trading ports. In around 1200 BC, the Hittites were also attacked by invaders from Mediterranean islands, known as Sea Peoples, and by nomad tribes from the east. These wars, plus famine, destroyed Hittite power. HEBREWS The Hebrews were shepherds and farmers in Canaan, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Sea Peoples also settled there. Around 1020 BC, the Hebrews conquered these peoples and founded a powerful new kingdom, led by great kings. Saul was the first king. He was succeeded by David, and then Solomon. WHERE WAS THE PROMISED LAND? The Hebrews believed that God had promised them a home in Canaan. According to the Bible, the prophet Moses led them to this land in around 1200 BC. Later, in 922 BC, the Hebrew kingdom of Canaan divided into two separate nations—Israel in the north and Judah in the south. The people of Judah became known as Jews. ASSYRIANS The Assyrians lived in northern Mesopotamia. They grew crops in irrigated fields and built fine cities. From around 900 BC, they conquered an empire stretching from Egypt to the Persian Gulf. It collapsed when the Babylonians and Medes attacked in 612 BC. HOW DID THE ASSYRIANS FIGHT THEIR BATTLES? The first Assyrian soldiers were farmers, who left their fields when called up to fight. But by around 740 BC, the Assyrian kings had developed fierce new armies made up of captured foreigners. They fought with swords, spears, bows and arrows, and battering rams. They demanded tributes of lumber, metal, and horses from weaker peoples.

ANCIENT EGYPT: WHY WERE NILE FLOODS IMPORTANT? WHO DID THE EGYPTIANS WORSHIP? WHY DID EGYPTIAN CIVILZATION LAST SO LONG? PHARAOHS PYRAMIDS MUMMIFICATION From around 3100 BC to 30 BC, the dry desert land of Egypt was home to an advanced civilization. The Ancient Egyptians produced massive PYRAMIDS, fabulous golden treasures, and wonderful works of art. They invented hieroglyphs, and were expert engineers. WHY WERE NILE FLOODS IMPORTANT? The Nile River flows through Egypt on its way to the sea. Every year, between June and October, it flooded the surrounding desert and covered the land with fertile silt (fine mud). Ancient Egyptian farmers were able to grow excellent crops on this land, including wheat, barley, grapes, figs, and many different types of vegetables. WHO DID THE EGYPTIANS WORSHIP? The Egyptians worshiped hundreds of gods and goddesses. Gods like Osiris, ruler of the underworld, looked human. Others were shown as animals, such as the cat-goddess Bastet, who brought fertility. The most important was ram-headed Amun, king of the gods. WHY DID EGYPTIAN CIVILZATION LAST SO LONG? Egypt became wealthy through farming and trade. Its power was built up by strong governments, led by PHARAOHSand staffed by well-trained scribes (officials). The nation was defended by huge armies. Table 42. EGYPT’S HISTORY 5500–3100 BCPre-Dynastic Period: before the time of the Pharaohs 3100 –2686 BCEarly Dynastic Period: Upper and Lower Egypt are united—Menes becomes first pharaoh 2686–2181 BCOld Kingdom: age of the pyramids 2181–2055 BCFirst Intermediate Period: breakdown of centralized government 2055–1650 BCMiddle Kingdom: Egypt reunited 1650–1550 BCSecond Intermediate Period: invasion of Hyksos people, who are then defeated 1550–1069 BCNew Kingdom: Egypt at its greatest 1069–747 BCThird Intermediate Period: breaks into small states 747–332 BCLater Period: invaded by Assyrians, then Persians 332–30 BCPtolemaic Period: conquered by Alexander the Great and ruled by his general’s family 30 BC–AD 395Roman Period: Egypt part of Roman Empire PHARAOHS Ancient Egypt was ruled by powerful kings called pharaohs, who took the roles of chief priest, war leader, and head of government. Egyptians believed that the pharaohs were living links between people and gods, and that they actually became gods after death. WHAT DOES “PHARAOH” MEAN? The name pharaoh came from two Egyptian words,per-aa, meaning “great house” or “palace.” Later, the name for such a building was also used to refer to the king living there. It was used to show great respect. PYRAMIDS Massive stone tombs protected the bodies of dead pharaohs. These pyramids represented stairways leading to the sky. They took great skill to plan and build, and were designed to keep out robbers—but no pharaoh’s MUMMYhas ever been found inside one. WHO BUILT THE PYRAMIDS? The pyramids were constructed by teams of skilled professional builders, such as stone masons, who were paid very well for their work. During the flood season, when the Nile River washed over the farmlands, royal officials commanded peasant farmers to assist the professional workers in building the pyramids. These pyramids were built in around 2500 BC for the pharaohs Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura. They were originally covered in limestone and topped with gold. The tallest, the Great Pyramid, is 482 ft (147 m) high. MUMMIFICATION A mummy is a dead body that has been carefully preserved, or mummified. Workers removed organs that might rot, then dried the body with natron (salty crystals) and wrapped it in resin-soaked bandages. WHY WERE PEOPLE MUMMIFIED AFTER DEATH? Ancient Egyptians thought that people were made up of five elements. These elements were the body, its ka (spirit), ba (personality), name, and shadow. By preserving the body, the Egyptians believed that they could keep the other four elements alive. If the body decayed, to them the person would stay dead forever.

MESOPOTAMIA: HOW WERE THE SUMERIAN CITIES RULED? HOW WERE THE ZIGGURATS BUILT? Mesopotamia is the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Farmers used the river water to irrigate fields and grow plentiful crops. Around 3500 BC, the Sumerians in southern Mesopotamia built the world’s first cities, including Ur, Uruk, and Eridu. HOW WERE THE SUMERIAN CITIES RULED? Mighty kings, who commanded large armies, had strong cities, great palaces, and magnificent royal tombs made. The kings were assisted by priests and well-trained scribes, who collected taxes, controlled irrigation projects, and took charge of laws governing city crafts and trade. Priests also served the gods in ziggurats (temples). HOW WERE THE ZIGGURATS BUILT? Mesopotamian builders built ziggurats and houses from bricks made of mud mixed with chopped straw (left to dry and harden in the sun). Teams of workmen moved huge loads of bricks using sleds on wooden rollers, or carried smaller quantities in baskets on their backs. Mud was used as a mortar to bind the bricks. ZIGGURAT AT UR Ziggurats were holy “mountains,” where people could get closer to the gods. The ziggurat at Ur (in modern Iraq) was built in around 2100 BC. Originally, it had three tall terraces (raised levels), one on top of the other, which were planted with trees and flowers. A shrine to Nanna, the Moon god, stood at the top. Today, only the temple’s lower section survives.

FIRST SCRIPTS: WHAT WERE EARLY FORMS OF WRITING LIKE? WHERE ELSE DID PEOPLE USE PICTOGRAMS? Writing was invented in Mesopotamia, around 3200 BC. Cities had grown so big that people could no longer do business by keeping every detail in their heads. Rulers needed to keep track of who had paid their taxes, which craftworkers had been given rations, and how many goods they had made. WHAT WERE EARLY FORMS OF WRITING LIKE? The first writing was made up of pictograms—small pictures representing objects or expressing actions or ideas. These writing systems, which included CUNEIFORM, were complicated, and few people managed to learn them. WHERE ELSE DID PEOPLE USE PICTOGRAMS? Different forms of picture-writing developed in Egypt, China, and Meso- (Middle) America. In the Indus Valley, scribes used pictures combined with symbols—a system that today’s experts have still not explained. CUNEIFORM Cuneiform is the name given to the wedge-shaped script, written using trimmed reeds, developed by scribes in Sumer around 2900 BC. It was borrowed by other Middle Eastern peoples to write and develop their own languages, before the ALPHABETwas developed. HOW WAS THE FIRST SCRIPT WRITTEN? The first pictograms were scratched on to tablets of wet clay, using stalks from reeds that grew beside Mesopotamian rivers. The tablets were then dried in the sun to preserve the written text. Scribes (people trained to copy manuscripts) soon began to trim the reeds to make a triangular tip, which created clear, wedge-shaped marks. ALPHABET The world’s first alphabet was invented in around 1000 BC by the Phoenicians, who lived in the eastern Mediterranean region. Unlike pictogram scripts, the alphabet used letters that stood for individual sounds. WHY WAS THE FIRST ALPHABET SO IMPORTANT? The Phoenicians discovered that letters could be put together in different combinations to spell almost all known words. Alphabetic writing needed fewer than 30 letters, compared with the 600 cuneiform symbols used by Sumerian scribes, or the 5,000 characters used by Chinese scholars. This made it much easier to learn, so literacy (reading and writing) became much more widespread in societies using alphabetic scripts. ROSETTA STONE In 196 BC, Egyptian scribes carved the same text in three different scripts on this stone. It was discovered in Rosetta, Egypt, in 1799, and provided the key to translating Egyptian hieroglyphs.

INDUS VALLEY: HOW DID THE PEOPLE OF THE INDUS VALLEY LIVE? WHY DID INDUS VALLEY CITIES DISAPPEAR? FIND OUT MORE Between around 3500 BC and 2000 BC, people in the Indus Valley built more than 100 towns. The largest were Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, with populations of 40,000. These towns had large temples, granaries, brick houses, and streets laid out in neat grid patterns. HOW DID THE PEOPLE OF THE INDUS VALLEY LIVE? Farmers grew wheat, barley, cotton, and rice on land fertilized by yearly Indus River floods. They also raised animals. In towns, people made cloth, pottery, metalwork, and jewelry. On the coast, they went abroad to trade. WHY DID INDUS VALLEY CITIES DISAPPEAR? At Mohenjo-Daro, the Indus River changed its course, causing a water shortage. Other towns may have been destroyed by floods, disease, or invaders. But nobody knows for sure why the Indus Valley civilization collapsed.

PREHISTORIC POTTERY: WHY WERE THE FIRST POTS SO IMPORTANT? FIND OUT MORE Pottery-making was invented in Japanese fishing communities, inc.10,500 BC. When they cooked, people noticed that the clay soil underneath their fires baked and became hard. They soon began to shape clay into pots, cook them on bonfires, and leave them to cool. WHY WERE THE FIRST POTS SO IMPORTANT? Unlike earlier containers—made from leather, woven twigs, bark, and string—clay pots were heatproof and waterproof. They made it possible to cook soups and stews, brew drinks such as wine and beer, and store grain and oil for long periods. The remains of pots help archaeologists to identify different peoples.

FIRST METALWORKERS: WHAT WAS BRONZE USED FOR? HOW WAS BRONZE FIRST MADE? WHO MADE THE FIRST BRONZE OBJECTS? FIND OUT MORE From around 9000 BC, people in different lands began to work with nuggets of soft metals, such as copper. Later, they discovered how to extract metals, such as tin, from rocks by smelting (heating). Finally, they discovered how to melt metals together to make new materials called alloys, such as bronze. Table 41. SOME OF THE FIRST METALWORKERS 9000 BCHammered copper, Central Asia 5000 BCGold/copper, Europe 4000 BCBronze, Middle East 2300 BCBronze, Europe 1500 BCIron, western Asia 1000 BCIron, Europe WHAT WAS BRONZE USED FOR? Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin. It is much harder than either metal, and can be sharpened to make a cutting edge. It was used to create more powerful and long-lasting weapons, tools, and farm implements. Craftworkers also used it to make intricate castings—objects made by pouring melted bronze into a mold. HOW WAS BRONZE FIRST MADE? Bronze-workers heated copper and tin in a furnace fueled by charcoal. When the two metals melted, they combined to form liquid-hot bronze, which ran down a clay pipe into containers made of clay or sand. When cold, these ingots (solid blocks of metal) were remelted and poured into different-shaped molds. WHO MADE THE FIRST BRONZE OBJECTS? The technique of making bronze objects—by pouring molten (melted) metal into molds—was invented in western Asia in around 3000 BC. It was also discovered separately in China in around 2000 BC. The Chinese bronze-makers developed their skills to create much more elaborate patterns and designs.

MEGALITHIC EUROPE: WHO BUILT MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS? WHAT WERE STONE CIRCLES USED FOR? CHAMBER TOMBS FIND OUT MORE Betweenc.3200 BC and 1500 BC, peoples in northwest Europe began to build monuments from massive stones known as megaliths. Some were arranged in circles or lines, pointing to the sky. Others, called CHAMBER TOMBS, were buried under the earth. WHO BUILT MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS? Megalithic monuments came in many different shapes and sizes. Most were fairly small, and could easily have been assembled by a family over a few seasons. Large monuments, like Stonehenge and Carnac, were probably built by powerful chiefs who could command their subjects to work on the monuments. WHAT WERE STONE CIRCLES USED FOR? Stone circles were probably used for religious ceremonies or for astronomy. Most of them line up with the Sun, Moon, and stars on special days. For example, the rising Sun shines through the center of Stonehenge, England, at midsummer, and lights up a chamber tomb in Newgrange, Ireland, at midwinter. These rows of standing stones in Carnac, France, are arranged in parallel lines that run for about two-thirds of a mile (1 km) and link two stone circles. Carnac also has many separate standing stones, chamber tombs, and barrows (earth mounds). CHAMBER TOMBS Megalithic tombs with several chambers (rooms) were built using massive stone slabs, then covered with an earth mound called a barrow. Each one could be used as a burial place for hundreds of years. WHO WAS BURIED IN THE CHAMBER TOMBS? Archaeologists are not certain for whom the chamber tombs were made, because they were robbed long ago. From their design, it seems likely that they were used to bury rich, powerful leaders, who controlled vast areas of farmland and the people living in the region.

EARLY FARMING: HOW DID FARMING CHANGE PEOPLE’S LIVES? WHICH PLANTS DID THE FIRST FARMERS GROW? HOW DID PEOPLE BECOME BETTER FARMERS? DOMESTICATION FERTILE CRESCENT FIND OUT MORE Farming beganc.10,000 BC on land that became known as the FERTILE CRESCENT. Hunter-gatherers, who had traveled to the area in search of food, began to harvest (gather) wild grains they found growing there. They scattered spare grains on the ground to grow more food. Table 40. TIMELINE OF EARLY FARMING 9000 BCWheat/barley, Fertile Crescent 8000 BCPotatoes, South America 7500 BCGoats/sheep, Middle East 7000 BCRye, Europe 6000 BCChickens, South Asia 3500 BCHorse, West Asia 3000 BCCotton, South America 2700 BCCorn, North America HOW DID FARMING CHANGE PEOPLE’S LIVES? Before farming, people lived by hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants. When supplies ran out, these hunter-gatherers moved on. Farming meant that people did not need to travel to find food. Instead, they began to live in settled communities, and grew crops or raised animals on nearby land. They built stronger, more permanent homes and surrounded their settlements with walls to protect themselves. WHICH PLANTS DID THE FIRST FARMERS GROW? In the Fertile Crescent, farmers grew tall, wild grasses, including an early type of barley, and primitive varieties of wheat called emmer and einkorn. These naturally produced large grains (seeds) that were tasty and nourishing. In other parts of the world, between 8000 BC and 3000 BC, farmers discovered how to DOMESTICATEtheir own local plants and animals. HOW DID PEOPLE BECOME BETTER FARMERS? By around 9000 BC, people were storing grains during the winter, then sowing them in specially cleared plots. By 8000 BC, the farmers had discovered which grains gave the best yields and selected these for planting. They produced more food than they needed and were able to feed non-farmers such as craftworkers and traders. The farmers exchanged their food for various kinds of useful or decorative goods. DOMESTICATION Domestication is the process of making wild plants and animals more useful to humans, through selective breeding. Farmers select and plant only the best seeds from their last crop. Wild cattle are selectively bred to make a herd docile (easy to control). WHAT WERE THE FIRST DOMESTICATED ANIMALS? Dogs were the first animals to be domesticated, c. 12,500 BC. They were descended from wild wolf cubs that had learned to live with human families, who fed and petted them. By 10,000 BC, hunters were managing wild herds of gazelle, sheep, and goats, watching over them and killing the weakest for food. Around 7500 BC, farmers were taking the best animals from their herds to breed them for meat and milk. FERTILE CRESCENT Archaeologists use the name Fertile Crescent to describe an area to the east of the Mediterranean Sea, where farming first developed. It was a crescent-shaped strip of land that stretched across the Levant region (now known as Israel, Lebanon, and Syria), and around the edges of the Tarus and Zagros mountains. WHY DID FARMING BEGIN HERE? The Fertile Crescent had regular rainfall, making it ideal for growing grains such as emmer and einkorn, and for raising herds of grass-eating animals such as sheep and goats. In nearby Mesopotamia, where the soil was more fertile, farming was only possible once irrigation methods had developed to supply the land with water. HOME OF THE FIRST FARMERS The Fertile Crescent stretched in a crescent-shaped curve from the northern tip of the Red Sea around to the Persian Gulf. Some of the world’s first settlements, including Jericho, were built in this region. Important trading centers, such as Çatal Hüyük, also developed nearby. WHY WAS ÇATAL HÜYÜK SO PROSPEROUS? Çatal Hüyük was founded in around 7000 BC, and grew to be the largest settlement in the Middle East. Its wealth came from farming and trade. The farmers kept cattle and grew wheat, barley, and peas. Çatal Hüyük made itself especially prosperous by controlling the trade in obsidian (a coarse, glassy rock), which came from a nearby volcano. Craftworkers used this volcanic glass to make high-quality tools. ÇATAL HUYUK HOMES Excavation of the Çatal Hüyük site found mud-brick houses closely packed together, without any streets. Access to each home was by ladders leading up to doorways on a flat roof. Rooms had hearths for heating, benches for sitting and sleeping on, and ovens for baking bread. When family members died, they were buried under the floor.

FIRST MODERN HUMANS: WHERE DID THE FIRST MODERN HUMANS LIVE? WHO WERE NEANDERTHALS AND WHY DID THEY DISAPPEAR? HOW DID MODERN HUMANS REACH OTHER AREAS? FLINT-KNAPPING ABORIGINALS FIND OUT MORE Homo sapiens sapiens(modern humans) first evolved between 200,000 BC and 100,000 BC. They were like us, physically, and had the same brain power. They developed many skills of survival, and advanced FLINT- KNAPPINGtechniques for making better tools. WHERE DID THE FIRST MODERN HUMANS LIVE? Most archaeologists think thatHomo sapiens sapiensfirst lived in Africa, and that our direct ancestor wasHomo habilis(“handy man”), who evolved about 2.5 million years ago. But some believe our ancestor wasHomo ergaster(“work man”), who developed around 1.9 million years ago and settled in different parts of the world. WHO WERE NEANDERTHALS AND WHY DID THEY DISAPPEAR? Like us, Neanderthals are a subspecies ofHomo sapiens(“wise man”). They lived in Europe and Asia from c. 130,000 BC to c. 28,000 BC. The spread of modern humans may have been the cause of their extinction. Neanderthals had larger brains than modern humans. Their short, stocky build and broad nose helped them to conserve body heat in Europe’s chilly Ice Age climate. They relied more on strength than brain power. The first modern humans were tall, and had slender bones, high-domed foreheads, smooth brows, and small jaws. Their muscles were not as well developed as those of the Neanderthals, and their eyesight was weaker. HOW DID MODERN HUMANS REACH OTHER AREAS? Wandering groups of modern humans moved out of Africa, in search of food, around 125,000 BC. They reached other continents via land bridges—areas of seabed left uncovered as the Earth’s water froze during the last Ice Age (c. 70,000 BC to c. 10,000 BC). By c. 28,000 BC, they had replaced all earlier humans—including their close relatives, the Neanderthals. FLINT-KNAPPING Early and modern humans used a technique called flint-knapping to make stone tools. They chipped flakes off one piece of flint (a hard, glassy stone) by striking it with another piece. This required great patience and skill. ABORIGINALSstill practice flint-knapping today. WHAT KINDS OF TOOLS DID EARLY HUMANS USE? Early humans used five main kinds of flint tools—knives for cutting, scrapers for removing flesh from hides, burins (small, pointed tools) for carving, awls for piercing holes, and points or tips for attaching to spears. They also used flint hand-axes for chopping wood and butchering animal carcasses. In late summer and fall, women and children gathered large quantities of nuts, fruits, and berries, then dried them over fires to preserve them for the winter. Archaeologists have found remains of food preserved 12,000 years ago. ABORIGINALS Aboriginals, also known as indigenous Australians, were the earliest inhabitants of Australia. Until the 20th century, they followed a lifestyle similar to that of earlier humans. Their skills helped archaeologists understand evidence about the distant past. HOW DID ABORIGINALS SURVIVE? In 10,000 BC, sea levels around Australia rose and Aboriginal people were forced to move farther inland, where conditions were harsh. To survive, they used fire to clear bushland so that wild food plants could grow, hunted kangaroos with boomerangs, wove traps for fish, and dug grubs from deep underground.

13 ‘hackers’ of hacker group Anonymous indicted: The United States brought criminal charges against 13 suspected members of the hacking group Anonymous on Thursday for allegedly attacking government, credit card and lobbying websites in a campaign in support of internet file-sharing. A grand jury indictment of the 13 people was filed in US District Court in Alexandria, Virginia, charging them with conspiracy to intentionally cause damage to protected computers as part of Anonymous' "Operation Payback." The loose-knit international group known as Anonymous has been in frequent battle with US authorities, not only over file-sharing but also other ideological causes such as the willingness of financial institutions to process donations for the anti-secrecy group WikiLeaks. In March 2012, US prosecutors in New York charged six suspected leaders of Anonymous for wreaking havoc on government and corporate websites. The hackers launched "Operation Payback" in retaliation for the 2010 shutdown of Pirate Bay, a Swedish internet service that allowed users to share files such as films and music, according to Thursday's indictment. They used what are known as denial-of-service attacks to overwhelm websites and make them inaccessible, starting with the website of the US film industry lobbying group, the Motion Picture Association of America, the indictment said. "This will be a calm, coordinated display of blood. We will not be merciful," said one set of instructions for the attacks quoted in the indictment. Other websites targeted were those of the Library of Congress, Bank of America Corp, Visa Inc and MasterCard Inc, the Justice Department said. Those charged ranged in age from 21 to 65 and lived in 13 different US states.

US ban on some Samsung products to go into effect: The US Trade Representative's office said on Tuesday it would allow a US ban to go into effect at midnight on importing or selling mobile devices made by Samsung Electronics Co Ltd that infringe on Apple Inc patents. The decision is the latest step in a patent battle between the two companies that has spread across several countries as Apple and Samsung vie for market share in the lucrative mobile industry. Samsung and Apple are the No. 1 and No. 2 smartphone makers globally, respectively. The US International Trade Commission said on August 9 that some older smartphones and tablets made by South Korea's Samsung infringed on Apple patents. It banned the importation or sale of the devices. US Trade Representative Michael Froman could have overturned the ban - as he did on August 3 in a case where Apple was found to have infringed on a Samsung patent - but did not. "After carefully weighing policy considerations, including the impact on consumers and competition, advice from agencies, and information from interested parties, I have decided to allow the commission's determination," Froman said in a statement. Apple had filed a complaint in mid-2011, accusing Samsung of infringing its patents in making a wide range of smartphones and tablets. The ITC ruled that the Samsung devices infringed on portions of two Apple patents on digital mobile devices, related to the detection of headphone jacks and the operation of touchscreens. Samsung has said its newer models incorporate features that work around disputed technology, and that those changes have been approved by the ITC. In the August case, when the USTR overturned a proposed ban on some older-model Apple iPhones and iPads, the patents covered were standard essential patents, while the patents covered by Tuesday's decision were not. Standard essential patents are central to the products at issue and are supposed to be licensed broadly and inexpensively. US antitrust authorities have argued that infringing on them should trigger requirements for license payments but not import or sales bans.

Google ads to include user names, photos: Google Inc plans to launch new product-endorsement ads incorporating photos, comments and names of its users, in a move to match the "social" ads pioneered by rival Facebook Inc that is raising some privacy concerns. The changes, which Google announced in a revised terms of service policy on Friday, set the stage for Google to introduce "shared endorsements" ads on its sites as well as millions of other websites that are part of Google's display advertising network. The new types of ads would use personal information of the members of Google+, the social network launched by the company in 2011. If a Google+ user has publicly endorsed a particular brand or product by clicking on the +1 button, that person's image might appear in an ad. Reviews and ratings of restaurants or music that Google+ users share on other Google services, such as in the Google Play online store, would also become fair game for advertisers. The ads are similar to the social ads on Facebook, the world's No. 1 social network, which has 1.15 billion users. Those ads are attractive to marketers, but they unfairly commercialize Internet users' images, said Marc Rotenberg, the director of online privacy group EPIC. "It's a huge privacy problem," said Rotenberg. He said the US Federal Trade Commission should review the policy change to determine whether it violates a 2011 consent order Google entered into which prohibits the company from retroactively changing users' privacy settings. Users under 18 will be exempt from the ads and Google+ users will have the ability to opt out. But Rotenberg said users "shouldn't have to go back and restore their privacy defaults every time Google makes a change." Information Google+ users have previously shared with a limited "circle" of friends will remain viewable only to that group, as will any shared endorsement ads that incorporate the information, Google said in a posting on its website explaining the new terms of service. Google, which makes the vast majority of its revenue from advertising, operates the world's most popular Web search engine as well as other online services such as maps, email and video website YouTube. The revised terms of service are the latest policy change by Google to raise privacy concerns. Last month, French regulators said they would begin a process to sanction Google for a 2012 change to its policy that allowed the company to combine data collected on individual users across its services, including YouTube, Gmail and social network Google+. Google has said its privacy policy respects European law and is intended to create better services for its users. Google's latest terms of service change will go live on November 11.

Cook poaches Burberry boss for Apple gloss: Now Apple Inc is hoping she can do the same at the world's most valuable technology company. In poaching Ahrendts to direct strategy, expansion and operation of its retail and online stores, Apple CEO Tim Cook has set her the task of bolstering global iPad and iPhone sales and returning some lustre to the Steve Jobs-created brand which has not launched a major new device in almost four years. Apple's profit fell 22 percent in the June quarter as gross margins slid below 37 percent from 42 percent a year earlier and its shares, down more than 30 percent since September 2012, are being pummelled by fears of slowing growth, and competition from Samsung Electronics. "The point of Apple retail is to sell Apple, not to sell Apple products," said Benedict Evans, who covers mobile and digital media at Enders Analysis, a research consultancy. "What they've got is somebody who can take 400 stores with really great premium positioning and turn that into 800 stores and do that in China, and do that in India and do that in Europe and in Russia and in South America and everywhere else which at the moment they don't really have." Jumping to Apple - whose $157 billion net sales are nearly 50 times those of Burberry - is a challenge of a different proportion for Ahrendts. The pressure is made all the more intense by Cook's previous stumble hiring a retail star from the UK market. John Browett, chief executive of consumer electronics retailer Dixons, was appointed by Cook in 2012 to lead the iPad and iPhone maker's global retail expansion. But Browett left after just six months and later said he had not fitted in with the business culture at Cupertino, California-based Apple. Ahrendts' digital experience means she is likely to have an easier time adapting. While at Burberry she launched a website dedicated to the firm's traditional trenchcoats and introduced webcast catwalks, using the new iPhone5S to shoot the entire spring/summer 2014 show. She also collaborated with Google for a brand campaign named Burberry Kisses. Strategic Vision "Clearly she has good strategic vision; she understands and talks digital," said John Guy, an analyst at Berenberg in London. "Under her stewardship Burberry has done well, there has been a lot of organisation in terms of the backend in sourcing supply and replenishment." One of Ahrendts' main challenges will be to boost Apple's sales in China, its second-largest market. Here, analysts say, she will be able to draw on her Burberry experience of introducing less expensive goods without damaging the value of the brand. Apple launched a cheaper plastic iPhone last month to help make up ground in emerging markets to rivals like Samsung Electronics and Huawei Technologies. Analysts said the phone - still more expensive than many of its rivals' models - was not cheap enough. "Part of her role from a retail point of view will be to ensure that that kind of premium or added value level that Apple is seen to represent remains intact," said Neil Saunders, managing director of retail consultancy Conlumino. "The trick is to allow people to buy into the product and make it as mass market as possible, because you want the volume and the sales, but you don't want that to come at the expense of the cachet of the brand."

Top 6 Best Places to visit in Dubai6 months agoby Sam 2 Whenever a tourist think of vacation or a place where he/she can have fun and at the same time enjoy good shopping and all the world class facilities the place that comes in mind instantly is ” Dubai” . Dubai is the part of U.A.E and has immense potential for tourism and economic activity, it is one of the largest duty free port and most of the south east Asian occurs through Dubai’s ports . Dubai is a tourist heaven and as well as economic hub , so Dubai has something to offer to everyone . we have compiled a list of top ten places to visit in Dubai depending on diversifying culture , peoples’ choice , so here it goes . 6. Ibn Battuta Mall Ibn Battuta Mall ,the world’s largest themed shopping mall revolutionizing the retail and entertainment experience in Dubai . Uniquely designed to celebrate the travels of the famous Arabic explorer Ibn Battuta, the exciting mix of over 275 retailers, 50 restaurants and food outlets, 21 cinema screens including the UAE’s only IMAX theatre and a continual array of events and promotions have helped evolve and develop one of the city’s fastest growing areas. 5. BURJ AL ARAB Since the development of this amazing hotel , Burj Al Arab became the symbol of the country, you could see it on taxi’s number plates and so on as Sheik Muhammad took special interest in the project and monitored its development in every phase himself and he made his billion dollar dream into reality . The best hotel in the world is situated in Dubai. Experience Dubai as you stroll around the city while taking a glimpse to the most popular hotel in the world will surely satisfy your ego. The hotel shapes like a sail which they locally termed as the dhow (a vessel in the sea of the emirates). 4. The Palm Islands Dubai Another significant iconic spot in Dubai is the palm Islands. This man-made island resembles the shape of the palm. It is so huge that you can even see it by your naked eye once you’re in the air. It was realized through the effort of their leader Sheikh Muhammad to take their economy move forward. The Island has various houses which are ready for occupancy. Palm Jumeirah has everything you need to enjoy a wonderful holiday break. World famous hotel names, amazing tourist attractions, luxury fashion and shopping malls are starting to open up. Whether you just want to relax or immerse yourself in an exciting world of leisure and entertainment, this is a truly inspirational holiday destination. Visitors will come to enjoy the magnificent sunsets, unwind in the spas, pools and gardens and eat out at the fine selection of restaurants. There’s a wide range of daytime activities, including water sports, aquariums, theme parks and of course miles of beautiful beaches. And at night the bars, clubs and shows will offer plenty of fun and amusement. 3. Ski Dubai Ski Dubai is the first indoor ski resort in the Middle East and offers an amazing snow setting to enjoy skiing, snowboarding and tobogganing, or just playing in the snow. Young or old, there is something for everyone, from the beginner to the snow sport enthusiast. Ski Dubai is a unique mountain-themed attraction that offers you the opportunity to enjoy real snow in Dubai all year round. You don’t have to worry about ski clothing or equipment either. Ski Dubai has thought of it all and offers guests the use of winter clothing, ski and snowboard equipment. Your skis will carry you down the slope, and our quad-chairlift and tow lift will promptly carry you back to the top for another run. The facility is famous that it became the first-ever recorded indoor black run that extends for about 400 meters that can surely add up to your skiing experience. It is ideal for ski lovers and snowboarding enthusiast. The Ski Dubai lies beside the largest mall in the world. 2. Burj Khalifa The Burj Khalifa is the world’s tallest tower and is an amazing feat of engineering- the story of which you can see if you take a trip to “At The Top”- the highest viewing platform in the world. The high point of any Burj Khalifa experience is the view from At The Top. Located on level 124 of the world’s tallest tower, this observatory is destined to be the highlight of any visit to the Middle East. The journey begins in the lower ground level of The Dubai Mall. Throughout the journey to the top, visitors are entertained by a multi-media presentation of the exotic history of Dubai and the marvel that is the Burj Khalifa. 1. The City of Dubai Mall It’s about time to show you guys the one of the biggest mall in the world. The City of Dubai Mall has an approximately 1200 boutiques. The mall lies beside the tallest infrastructure in the world which is Burj Khalifa. If you are in Dubai, you should not miss the chance to see the gold souk being the biggest in the world. There are so many things and information that we can get by just roaming around the world class mall. wing areas.

Top 5 Smart Phones of 2013: Smartphone is a mobile phone built on a specific operating system. You’re intelligent enough to know that carrying around a cell phone and a PDA is inefficient. Whether you use your Smartphone as an organizer, or to check e-mails or listening to music on the go. Getting a proper Smartphone according to your needs and specification is a hard move. To find and compare the best smartphones in the market.Our Smartphone list allows you to find and compare smartphones based on expert ratings. According to your needs. Here is a list of top five smartphones of 2013. 5.LG Nexus 4 It’s the next-generation of Nexus and this time it’s made by LG. The Nexus 4 aggressively undercuts it competitors’ by pricing as it sets out to wipe the floor with most of them in terms of speed and performance also. The Nexus 4 has a 4.7″ WXGA IPS display and the most powerful chipset in an. Android phone. It has of course the latest Android OS and will be the first in line to get the new upgrades as they come. Running stock Android OS v4.2 Jelly Bean, fast updates and Quad-core 1.5 GHz Krait CPU, 2 GB RAM, Adreno 320 GPU, Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 Pro chipset the 8 MP autofocus camera with LED flash and geotagging, face detection makes it a fun device there is somehow a disadvantage as it just comes in 8/16GB of built-in storage. But overall a great device for android lovers out there. 4.Sony Xperia Z Now with solid backup in the midrange, returning to the fiercest battle in the mobile market is Sony’s top priority. The Xperia Z, gives sony a edge. Sony is the first of the manufacturers to bring 5 inches of 1080p in the market. Running Android OS v4.1.1 Jelly Bean with Quad-core 1.5 GHz Krait CPU, 2 GB RAM, Adreno 320 GPU; Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 Pro chipset and 13 MP autofocus camera with LED flash , HDR.16GB of built-in storage; microSD card slot. The xperia Z is water proof and dust proof which gives it a unique feature. 3.Apple iPhone 5 The iPhone 5 has five million units sold in a week we can’t say no to that. The people couldn’t just wait ever when apples new phone is coming in the market. Now, what is it they couldn’t wait for?The Apple iPhone 5 brings the long anticipated larger screen .There’s also a slimmer body. If all of Apple’s claims that the iPhone 5 is a real a masterpiece. Apple say that they have double the performance in a more compact package. 2.HTC One At the speed smart phones are changing and the increase in competition htc has introduced it HTC ONE, The HTC One proves itself in the market .It’s so far the best Smartphone ever made by htc .The HTC ONE is the one of the most exciting pieces of smart phone ever designed in recent time, the. It has .4.7″ 16M-color 1080p Super LCD3 capacitive touch screen with 469ppi pixel density Android OS v4.1.2 Jelly Bean with Sense UI 5.0,Quad-core 1.7 GHz Krait 300 CPU, 2 GB RAM, Adreno 320 GPU; Qualcomm Snapdragon 600 chipset and 4 MP autofocus “Ultrapixel” camera with 1/3” sensor size, 2mega pixel size; LED flash ,1080p video recording @ 30fps with HDR mode, continuous autofocus and stereo sound ,2.1 MP front-facing camera, 1080p video recording and two storage to choose from 32/64GB of built-in storage. Aluminum unibody. Front-mounted stereo speakers with Boom Sound tech Class-leading audio output make the listening experience like never before 1.Samsung Galaxy S4 The Samsung Galaxy S4 is finally here leaving each and every competitor behind it is much faster quite comfortable Smartphone available on the planet . It’s the ultimate upgrade for all the Smartphone fans out there, Its dimensions are 136.6 x 69.8 x 7.9mm, 130 g havingDisplay size of4.99″ 16M-color Super AMOLED HD with a resolution of 1920 x 1080 pixels (441ppi)ChipsetExynos 5410 Octa / Snapdragon 600CPU:1.6 GHz Quad-core ARM Cortex-A15 and 1.2 GHz quad-core ARM Cortex-A7 / 1.9GHz Krait 300 and aGPU: PowerVR SGX 544MP3 / Adreno 320.Its running a Android 4.2.2 (Jelly Bean)and hasMemory options of16/32GB/64GB storage, and a microSD card slot for more extra storage Has aStill camera:13 megapixel auto-focus face detection, touch focus and image stabilization, Dual Shot, Cinema Photo; 2MP front facing camera for video-calling Full HD (1080p) video recording at 30fps.A massive upgrade over the Galaxy S III. Great improvement in the specifications and buy adding plenty of new software features. TheSamsung Galaxy S4 makes it place on 1stplace in the list of top 5 smart phones of 2013.

Top 10 Largest Meteor Craters in the World: Every day thousand of meteors (asteroids ) commonly known as shooting stars, can be seen blazing across the sky, When it enters Earth’s atmosphere the force of friction heats up cosmic debris, in a result streaks of light are visible to human naked eye. Most of the meteors or shooting stars burn up before they ever reach the surface. But if unfortunately one actually survives the long fall and strikes the earth, that particular meteor is a meteorite. We have made a list of top ten largest meteor craters all over the world for you based on the reported incidents and its tenacity. 10. Chesapeake Bay Crater Number ten on our list of largest meteor craters we have “Chesapeake Bay Crater”. This crater was discovered in Virginia United States, the impact date of the asteroid is estimated to be thirty five million years ago. The crater was first discovered in 1980, the estimated width of the crater is 53 miles that is about 85 kilometers. 9. Popigai Crater Meteor when crashes with the surface of the earth its impact is like of a nuclear bomb with radiation .Next on our list is another huge crater that shocked many ” Popigai Crater “. The crater was found in Siberia, Russia its impact date is estimated to be thirty five and half million years ago. Russians claim that crater site contains trillions of carats of diamonds, This site is amongst the world’s most biggest diamond site and the diamonds extracted from here are called” Impact diamonds “. 8. Chicxulub Crater This is known as the mother of craters. it exists in Yucatán, Mexico, the asteroid’s impact date is estimated to be 65 million years back .There is no concrete date being given by the scientists on its width but it is said to be 106 to 186 miles wide (170-300 kilometers) if these facts are true it is certainly the biggest crater ever existed, many scientists believe that this meteorite is the cause of dinosaur extinction on earth. 7. Kara Crater On seventh we have Kara Crater .It is situated in Nenetsia, Russia. The estimated impact date of this asteroid is 70.3 million years back. This crater is now greatly eroded. The Kara crater is a non-exposed impact structure in Russia, many have claimed that the impact structure basically consists of two adjacent craters: the Kara and the Ust-Kara crater little is known about its real specs up till now. 6. Morokweng Crater This crater was found in North West , South Africa . The asteroid’s impact date is estimated to be 145 million years ago. The crater side has debris of the meteor that created it .This humongous crater is on the sixth place in our list . 5. Manicouagan Crater On fifth place we have the Manicouagan Crater, It is located in Quebec, Canada. The asteroid’s impact date is estimated to be 215 million years ago. Lake Manicouagan is now the impact site of the crater. Even with erosion still it’s considered one of the largest and most-preserved craters on planet with an estimated diameter of 62 miles (100 kilometers). 4. Woodleigh Crater The fourth place goes to the Woodleigh Crater. The crater site is located in Western Australia, Australia, the asteroid impact date is estimated to be 364 million years ago. This crater is not exposed at the surface and has led to many discrepancies and irregularities regarding its actual size. There are many reports on its diameter that vary from 25 to 75 miles (40 to 120 kilometers). 3. Acraman Crater In the countdown on third place we have ” Acraman Crater”. This massive crater is located in South Australia, Australia. The asteroid’s impact date is estimated to be massive 580 million years ago. The crater is Located in what is now Lake Acraman, the crater measures about 56 miles (90 kilometers ) in diameter. 2. Sudbury Basin Second on our list is the crater called Sudbury Basin. It is located in Ontario Canada and is amongst the second oldest crater ever found on earth , the estimated asteroid impact date is about 1.8 billion years ago .It is deemed as the largest impact structure on planet earth .It measures about 81 miles in diameter that is about 130 kilometers. 1. Vredefort Crater On the top of our list we have ” Vredefort Crater “. It is the oldest crater on planet earth that ever got discovered .The crater site is located in Free State, South Africa , the impact date of the asteroid is estimated to be 2 billion years ago. This crater is also known as the Vredefort Dome, the Vredefort crater has an estimated diameter of 59miles (90 kilometers) making it the world’s largest known impact structure on planet earth. Vredefort Crater was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005.

Top 10 9mm pistols of 2013: Hand guns are mostly used for self-protection as well as by security agencies for close range combat situations. The 9×19mm Parabellum (abbreviated 9mm, 9mmP, 9×19mm or 9×19) cartridge was designed by Georg Luger and introduced in 1902 by the German weapons manufacturer Deutsche Waffen- und Munitionsfabriken . So 9mm is currently the most used and reliable hand gun, it has been used by Police of many countries also is considered the best for self-protection at home. We have compiled a top ten list of the best 9mm pistols in 2013. This list is based on the reviews of the user and quality of the products. 10. Walther PPQ On the tenth place we have a German creation “Walther PPQ”. This is a semi automatic pistol specially designed for law enforcement agencies and police, the Walther is pure combination of power and reliability. It is the replacement of its predecessor Walther P99 , this new engineering marvel is short coil semi automatic pistol .The pistol incorporates three different safeties (trigger safety, firing pin safety and disconnector safety) .The price tag on this gem is around 510-540$ dollars. 9. Glock 17 Gen 4 Glock pistol is an examplary creation of Austrian engineering .The Glock is the “safe action” semi automatic fire arm designed for law enforcement agencies and security forces .It was designed and produced by an inexperience Gatson Glock . Well it is a amongst most famous hand guns now a days and many of its variants have been introduced in the market and recent of it is Glock 17 Gen4 (generation four) is a compact and reliably single barrel pistol today, per unit cost is around 520-550$ dollars. 8. Springfield XD The eight place goes to ” Springfield XD”. The HS2000 or XD (X-treme Duty) is a series of semi-automatic pistol that are based on polymer-framed and striker-fired. XD is Manufactured in the city of Karlovac, Croatia ,which is licensed and sold in the United States by Springfield Armory, Inc.It is a single barrel light weight pistol and quite popular in weapon junkies . The per unit cost of XD is around 600-630 $ dollars. 7. Taurus PT92 Taurus PT92 is on seventh place in our list of top ten 9mm pistol .Its origin is Brazil and is double action/ single action single barrel 9mm caliber pistol. Taurus is very reliable pistol also comes in stainless steel model .It is awesome looking and is designed for personal security and law enforcement agencies. Its cost is around 430-460 $ dollars. 6. Beretta 92FS (M9) It is a marvel of Italian engineering comes up with a manly pistol ” Beretta 92FS (M9)” is an eye magnet. This 9mm single action semi automatic pistol was designed and produced by Italy in 1972 and comes in many variants .The per unit cost of it is around 570-600$ dollars . 5. CZ SP-01 Phantom Its first variant was introduced in 1975 and later the technology was evolved and integrated , the latest product is CZ SP-01 Phantom .It s from Czech Republic origin and is a single action ,single barrel semi automatic pistol with high performance and reliability used by many around the world. The cost of each phantom is around 530-560 dollars. 4. Baby Eagle II BE9915R The list is reaching its climax and as on the fourth place we have the ever reliable and unmatchable engineering of the US , Baby Eagle II is an excellent hand gun with amazing fire power . Baby is double/single action single barrel pistol that comes in different calibers ( 9mm , 40. S&W , 45 ACP ).The cost of single unit is around 510-540$ dollars. 3. Kahr P9 On the third place we have another American master piece ” Kahr P9 ” . It was designed by Justin Moon and produced by an American company Kahr Arms .It is only double-action semi automatic comes in various calibers .Its target market is civilians who likes to carry fire arms or need it for self protection. It costs around 500-540$ dollars . 2. Tanfoglio T95/ EAA Witness Elite Match On the second palce we have yet another sensation for Italian weapon lovers . Tanfogilo is double/single action ,semi automatic 9mm caliber pistol that is famous among many forces in the world . It was basically designed for the combat forces but is also used by many civilians. It is a high performance pistol, per unit cost of each is around 53-560$ dollars. 1. CZ 75 SP-01 It is one of the most high performance weapons at the moment , users say more than 10,000 rounds fired and still its good as new that shows the potential of the weapon .It is the creation of Czech Republic , its a double/single action semi automatic pistol used by the law enforcement agencies and is a primary weapon of NY( New York ) police . It costs around 590-620$ dollars each and thus makes its 1st place in our top ten 9mm pistols list .

Top 7 Fighter Jets in the World: In twenty first century the art of war is well evolved then previous centuries , the Air force has become the backbone of any country’s defense line and is integral part of any countries security .It’s been said that if you have air dominance no one can dare to strike at you and gives you an overall strategic advantage .In previous two decades there has been significant and ground breaking advancements in flying sciences as well as in fighter jets , now jets have more advance radars , communication , electronic warfare (EW) , better thrust , BVR (beyond visual range) missiles and much more . This evolution in fighter jets is an ongoing process and scientists are now a days working on jets that are soundless and not just stealthy but invisible. We have compiled a list of top ten fighter jets serving the armies around the globe. 7. F/A-18 Super Hornet It is the pride of the most advanced air force in the world (USAF). It is the greatest of all the fourth and 4.5 generation super jets of the world. The Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet is basically a twin-engine aircraft carrier-based multirole fighter aircraft that numerous has other variants as well. It has advance weapon systems , it operates with an internal 20 mm gun and is fully capable of carrying air-to-air missiles and air-to-surface weapons also , operates in all weather conditions both at day and night. The jet has high angle of attack capability and can be refueled in midair. Per unit of it costs $66.9 million. 6. JAS 39 Gripen NG On sixth place we have a Swedish creation” The Saab JAS 39 Gripen “. Gripen is basically a lightweight single-engine multirole fighter aircraft with all-weather combat capability both at day and night. It is primarily used by the Swedish Air Force and incorporates fly by wire capability for stability and is a delta wind jet. Swedish government have been successful to promote their aircraft and to get export orders from Central Europe, South African and Southeast Asia, per unit cost of the aircraft is between $40 million to $60 million. 5. Rafale On fifth place we have the revolution of French avionics and probably one of the most attractive fighter of them all “Dassault Rafael” .Rafael is 4++ generation fighter with a twin engines and is equipped with the most advance radars, tracking systems and as well as EW suites. It has been sold to Indian air force only export order so far for this machines , the estimated cost of per unit is 124 million$ depending on the variant. 4. SU-30 MKI: Super Sukhoi SU-30 MKI was not initially designed to carry nuclear or strategic weapons but later in 2012 the developed IAF received 40 upgraded SU-30 MKI’s that were capable of carrying the BrahMos cruise missile. In 2010 Russia had won the large contract of upgrading the Jet aircraft with new radars, electronic warfare systems, computers and the ability to carry BrahMos missile. And they have been successful as it stands as the fourth top Jet fighter on the list. 3. Euro fighter Typhoon We have ” Eurofighter Typhoon” on third place on this list , it is one of the most advance 4.5 generation fighter jet operational at the moment .Eurofighter is assembled, designed and built by a syndicate of four different companies from UK, Italy, Spain and Germany. It’s a multirole fighter and is powered by twin engines and operates with NATO and Saudi Arabia at the moment. It’s designed for complete air superiority and can act as an air aggressor. 2. SU-35 The second on our list is the great SU-35. The twin engine, single seat jet is a super maneuverability multi role fighter. It is the derived version of Su-27 ‘Flanker’ and was known as SU-27 at its early stage. Dozens of these were built from which most of the jets were used by the Russian knight’s aerobatic demonstration team. The Su-35 framework has been protected because of the increased takeoff and landing weight of the jet. For the similar reason, the front bearing has two wheels. The improved radar stealth decreases the reflectance of the Su-35 in the X radio waveband and in the angle range of ±60°. 1. F-22 On the top we have the most advanced and sophisticated aircraft ever known to man so far “Boeing F-22 Raptor”. American company Lockheed Martin is known to produce weapons of the future as it proudly produced F-16 some decades ago, F-22 is nightmare of any army it’s the only air craft with the radar cross section of 0.01 which makes it invisible to the most advanced X-band radars in service today. The air craft’s radar is the longest range radar ever to be used in a fighter jet; it is powered by two engines that produce the maximum thrust so far recorded by an engine. It is completely computerized and has 2 super computers to perform all necessary functions. This super stealth jet deserves to be on the top of our list as its currently the only fighter stealth jet in service of any air force.

Top 10 Best Smart Phones to Buy in 2013: The trend of gadgets and smart phones is extremely high from few years. If you have a smart looking sleek phone in your hand you are thought to be a smart person yourself! C’mon you are holding the world in your hand is that a joke? With such competition in the market and top technologies it is hard to say which one is better than the other. We have note down the top ten best smart phones of 2013 which if you buy will not ever disappoint you in any sense. 10. Nokia Lumia 920 : The first Australian device, Nokia Lumia 920 is in the market with the software of Windows 8 installed in it. Windows 8 comes up to give a little competition to the Apple and android companies. Being larger than iPhone 5 screen the nokia screen is 4.5 inches diagonal, the display resolution is 1280×768. Although it’s smart and sleek but weighs a little more than the other phones. All in all it’s a great phone and holds its position at the number 10. 9. Samsung Galaxy S3 At number 9 is the Samsung Galaxy S3, an Android phone. It has an 8 megapixel camera with absolutely no shutter lag. One can enjoy movies, videos, songs and whatsoever on the HD screen that gives you a wide space of 4.8 inches. Having either 32GB or 16GB of storage however the customers like to buy it. Overall it is an amazing phone to have. 8. Samsung Galaxy Note II Having a screen of 5.5 inches this Samsung device is called a Tablet. It has an 8MP camera, 16, 32 or 64GB of storage and runs on the latest Android system. Standing at number 8 with its extraordinary features it has much to offer when you buy it. 7. Sony Experia T : Operating at the Android system this smart phone is a better attempt of the Sony Company compared to that of the previous one. It has a camera of 13MP, has 16GB storage and a screen of 4.55 inches. Many other interesting recording features and uploading systems are also introduced by this phone. 6. Google Nexus 4 A thrilling brand Google Nexus introduces its new phone with Android latest installed. It has an 8MP camera, 8 or 16GB storage and has 1.5GHz quad-core Krait CPU. A new and different smart phone has made its way through to number 6 on the list means it’s actually good enough. 5. BlackBerry Z10 Blackberry is not new to the people but its Z10 surely has some attractive features such as its look that does not make it look like those old blackberry it looks more smart and sleek. It has a removable storage of 16GB and a camera of 8MP. Other blackberry features will look more attractive in this screen. The smarter blackberry is on number 5. 4. iPhone 5 Who does not know about Apple? iPhone2, 3, 4, 4s and now it is time for iPhone5. It has a 4 inches retina display and an 8MP camera. The phone can be bought with 8, 32 or 64GB storage. Although the brand is one of the strongest in the competition but has been lacking extraordinary stuff in its quality but still making mark all over it is number 4 on the list. 3. Sony Experia Z How about a dustproof and Waterproof handset in your pocket? Yes Sony Experia at its best has the Z model which has these features. It has a 13MP camera, runs on the latest Android software and has a 2GB of RAM and a removable storage up to 64GB. Having 550 hours of standby in one charge the phone stands as number 3 on the list. 2. Samsung Galaxy S4 Here comes another wonder of Samsung, S4 is an amazing phone that came in after S3 and has an HD screen of 5 inches. The phone has some different features like tracking eye contact when making video or pictures so that it can pause automatically, and the screen touch is softer too. S4 with many other features like these has grabbed the 2 number of the list. 1. HTC one HTC has always come up with some best phones and now its HTC one. The smart phone uses the latest Android software and 4MP camera with aluminium casing. Although it does not have any removable storage but gives 32 or 64GB in built storage system. This is the best smart phone to buy in 2013 which makes it mark as the number 1.

Top 10 Best Laptops to Buy in 2013: Laptops have gained a huge need and reputation in everyday life but the criteria to entitle any specific model good or bad varies from person to person; some pupil are fond of those with big colourful screens, some like those with hard metal casings, some love ones which are extraordinarily small and very convenient to carry. Nevertheless, we have come up with those you’ll find simply awesome; read the article and select the one which suits you best. 10. Acer Aspire S7 Ultrabook This time what Acer has brought is some durable quality in a really compact form with a gorgeous 1080p screen with touch which is perfectly suitable for the new Microsoft Windows 8. It is a bit expensive but, inside it, the intel core 3rdgeneration processor and intel HD 4000 graphic card are worth that price. 9. HP Envy X2 The HP is an interesting proposal; it has an Atom processor which uses much less power than most Intel Core processors which is a good thing for people on travel; it is tiny and light-weight with a 720p responsive screen. It is so far the best option if you need maximum battery life in a tiny machine. 8. Lenovo ThinkPad X1 Carbon Among business laptops, Lenovo’s ThinkPad X1 Carbon is at the top of the list because of its best-in-class keyboard, accurate pointing stick, solid security and durable design in a frame of just 3 pounds and 0.74-inches thickness. It has a brilliant 1600 x 900 display, a comfortable palm-rest, optional touch support and nearly 8 hours of battery-life. 7. ASUS Zenbook Prime UX31A With one of the best screens available on any laptop, the super-bright colorful 1920 x 1080 display of 1080p IPS screen with wide viewing angles alone could justify the purchase of ASUS Zenbook Prime UX31A. This 3-pound Ultrabook also provides fast Core i7 performance, comfortable keyboard with backlight, clear audio, and appealing design with 6.5 hours of battery life. 6. Lenovo IdeaPad Yoga 13 Lenovo IdeaPad Yoga 13 is the ultrabook which has a screen that can be folded all the way back. Its Core i5 processor and 8GB of RAM make it pretty speedy. It’s also got an impressive battery life of over 7 and half hours. If you ask for the most flexible laptop which can also be used as tablet, Lenovo IdeaPad Yoga 13 is the perfect answer! 5. MSI CX61 It is an excellent gaming laptop! Its quad-core 2.4GHz Intel Core i7-3630QM processor offers near-desktop level performance and its 2GB Nvidia GeForce GT 645M graphics chipset and 8GB RAM gives a competent gaming experience. It is a complete package as well to run new windows 8 64-bit. 4. Apple MacBook Pro 15-inch Apple MacBook Pro 15-inch is the best mobile workstation you can buy. While its quad-core Core i7 power, Nvidia GT650M graphics and speedy SSD provide plenty of charm, the laptop’s greatest strength is its eye-popping 2880 x 1800 Retina display. With this laptop, your high resolution videos and photos will look fantastic; technically it is the best a graphic professional can get. 3. Toshiba Satellite If you want a lightweight and a “handsome” laptop with long battery life and strong performance, you should get 14-inch Toshiba Satellite U845T-S4165, which weighs just 3.6 pounds, lasts 7.5 hours on a charge and comes with a Core i5 processor and a speedy SSD. If you don’t know, it has a complete touch screen! 2. MacBook Air 13-inch The 2013 edition of the Apple MacBook Air 13-inch is the best overall laptop; it is simply super-light and thin. It stands out because of its sharp screen, responsive keyboard, superior touchpad, iconic design, very long battery life, faster flash memory, improved graphics performance, relatively loud speakers, and great webcam. Best of all, the MacBook Air 13-inch lasts 9.5 hours on a charge. It comprises of 1.3GHz dual-core Intel Core i5 (Turbo Boost up to 2.6GHz) with 3MB shared L3 cache, and 4GB of 1600MHz LPDDR3 onboard memory. 1. Sony Vaio Pro 13-inch Now here we present the most compatible and best ever laptop for, particularly, the new windows 8 experience. It looks amazing and its light weight design will simply impress you. There’s also an SD card slot which is a fantastic characteristic of this laptop; we shoot all our photos on SD card, and this will save us from messing around with the card reader. Its worth is further enhanced by the slim keyboard, responsive touchpad, and an enchanted touch screen.

Top 10 Gadgets to Buy in 2013: Who’s in for some real technology? Gadgets are the things that fascinate us with their specifications and uniqueness. Everything that comes out new is definitely to be tested or at least known. 2013 had some amazing number of gadgets that people loved and bought but which of them are on top of the year’s list which are a must to buy. So we are here with the list of top ten Gadgets to buy in 2013 that will fascinate you before they help you out! 10. Basis Band How about a band on your wrist telling you how well you are doing all day? Sounds awesome!! Basis Band is a wrist watch that not only shows time but lets you know your heart rate. With a Galvanic Skin reaction indicator in the band it tells you about your sweat rate change in your pulse rate according to your activities. From counting daily steps, your sleep hours to your workout timing, the Basis Band is a gadget that can help you in being a fit and healthy person who has all the daily records up on his wrist. 9. X-Box 720 So the X-Box 720 is already on hype before its release. The next generation of the 360 will have a 3D game playing, recorder that will be able to record from live TV and a restored Xbox xbox 360 that will work with improved reality cups. The X-Box 720 will have an 8GB RAM and a quad-core processor that will make it different and unique than any other before. 8. Nokia Augmented Reality Glasses Another 3-D glasses wear by Nokia stays on the eighth number. These Nokia improved veracity glasses allows you to have an improved navigation experience and reality immersion with the help of your smartphone. The glasses have amazing features of near to eye displays, 3D Audio, 3D Video and signals. 7. Motorola Atrix 4G with Lap Dock Here is the debut of the Lap dock after the release of the Motorola Atrix 4G. The unique Lap dock will eventually change your smart phone into a fully-featured Laptop. Motorola items are always attractive and so is the Lap dock, it is so slim and smart that there is no place for a USB port and who want one when it’s replacing your phone into a desktop Computer itself. Grab the dock and have your personal smart phone computer. 6. Looxcie LX2 Wearable Video Cam Want to make a movie of whatever you are watching yourself? A game, a trip or a place where you won’t be able to handle the camera? Looxcie LX2 Wearable Video Cam is the best choice. Wear it around your ear and it will record everything that you see around, all you need to do is connect the camera with your smartphone via Bluetooth and it will start to work. It will also allow you to go on a live video chat with your friends and family. 5. Apple iPhone 5 Apple stands as number five on the list with its iPhone 5. The smart phone is just 7.7mm thin for which the engineers of the magnificent apple company had to think tiny too. They made a Nano sim for the phone and also have double chip setup too. The slim design and a larger displays than the previous Apple smart phones, Apple iPhone 5 is a (must to buy gadget) for 2013. 4. Samsung Galaxy Camera At number four is the Samsun Galaxy Camera. It gives you the experience of professional photography along with apps with the help of Android Jelly Bean OS. It has many editing features, shooting modes and an exceptional large LCD. You will definitely love this new camera for sure. 3. Lenovo Idea Pad Yoga Lenovo Idea Pad Yoga 13 stands as the third gadget that is on top in 2013. Like no other Lenovo Idea Pad Yoga 13 has a 360-Degree flip that allows easy and comfortable change of modes. It has a touch, keypad and fast mouse that make a PC experience to be more fun. 2. Microsoft Surface Pro So the second top gadget is Microsoft Surface Pro. The Windows’ company has come up with the combination of complete new Windows 8. It has so much to offer that the business men now are supposed to have this single gadget for what they used two. 1. Samsung Galaxy S4 Samsung Galaxy S4 takes the lead in the year 2013 till now. After Samsung S3 which had a lot of unique functions, Samsung now comes up with the S4 model that is even more fascinating! In 130g of weight this gadget holds the whole new world in it. With image stabilization, camera, touch and other feature this S4 has smile detection and face detection too. This beautiful gadget is a must if you are a fan of smart phones.

Top 10 Best Apps For IPHONE 5S: The world has become global village due to the advancements in the field of technology. People want to keep aware and updated about what’s going on around the world. And mobile phones have made this task even easier. Apple has launched their new model iphone 5s which has revolutionized the world of cell phones. The ones who got hand on it must consider themselves the new lucky owners of iphone 5s. Stuffed with some brilliant features, iphone 5s stuns the world not only just the looks but its remarkable features as well. Here are top 10 best apps for iphone 5s you’ll need that takes great advantage of the new IOS7 processor and work with ease. 10.Infinity Blade 3 With the new iphone 5s you and the best IOS7 processor you can now get world’s best gaming experience ever. Iphone 5s has revolutionized the quality and speed of the gaming zone. With infinity blade 3 you can enjoy speed up to 2 x faster and an amazing picture quality that makes you feel like being with the real fighters. 9.Angry Birds Star Wars 2 The fan of angry birds can now have the benefit of switching characters as well. You can now join the “pork side” and play as pigs also. The game now feels more realistic with amazing colors and best picture quality of iphone 5s. Isn’t it a treat for all the angry birds’ fans yeah? 8.Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas Iphone 5s provides you with the best new features of grand theft auto: san Andreas. It is a perfect match of the IOS7 and A7 processor of the iphone. Grand theft auto: San Andreas has brought the world of gaming to a new era. The amazing and breath taking features and picture quality makes you feel like you are playing the game in your real life. Grand theft auto: San Andreas can be downloaded easily for app store of iphone 5s. 7. Nike + Running Are you concerned about your fitness and never compromise on it? Iphone 5s gives you the advantage to track your physical activity with the app known as Nike + running. It tracks the activity without A7 processor with the help of the coprocessor M7. The coprocessor helps standby the new pattern power of iphone 5s. 6.Hulu Plus Don’t want to miss your favorite program? Hulu has added two new features in the support of IOS7. With the features AirDrop and AirPlay you can now enjoy instant live streaming of your favorite TV shows. Download hulu plus from app store of iphone 5s. 5.Yahoo! Iphone 5s is now featured with the new version of yahoo. It provides new interface that is easier and user friendly with new interesting features. Yahoo refurbishes its IOS to experience better use and clean look. You can now save your documents on ‘my save’ and use them instantly whenever you want. Another new feature is the breaking news alert. You get notifications of the new important stuff on this section of yahoo. 4. Simplenote IOS7 offers you with the simplnote now stuffed with new features and a simple clean look which is easy to understand and use. You can now store your important notes and reminders on simplenote app and retrieve them any time you want. It has come up with a new feature called Simperium. With the help of this feature, note syncing has become even faster. Get this app from iphone 5s app store for free. 3. Foursquare Looking for one of the best known restaurant finding apps? Foursquare is the best answer. With the IOS 7 operating system, using foursquare has become even easier and more fun. Foursquare has come up with a brand new icon and UI for IOS 7 that is well suited with the look and feel of the phone. Download foursquare from app store of the iphone 5s and enjoy looking for the restaurants 2.Facebook One of the most famous forms of social media, facebook has now come up with a totally new design for IOS 7 that will help people stay in touch with your friends and family effortlessly. It has designed the app that fits with IOS 7 completely. User can now easily switch between messages, news feed, notifications and friend request. It is much easier to upload your photos and view others in order to keep updated. Users can also find a new toolbar at the bottom of the screen in facebook app of IOS7. 1.Chrome Easiest way to browse and use internet is with not doubt Google chrome. It has not changed much for iphone 5s but it allows user to browse much faster. Users can enjoy fast web browsing experience. It also permits user to browse privately in incognito and sign in to chrome to see bookmarks. Google chrome can be downloaded from app store of iphone 5s.

Top 10 Reasons Why You Should Not Buy an iPhone 5s/5c: Many Apple lovers have been lined up to seek the pleasure of the new iPhone 5s and iPhone 5c as per the Apple tradition. But there are many other people who will still wait and watch if the two models are worth their amount of money. The fuss of the iOS may lead some to go buy the so called ‘cheaper’ 5c so that they can also get to know how it feels to have an apple product but they might not end being those very happy customers! For all those who are still not sure if they should buy the new 5s or 5c the top tens have listed up the top ten reasons why they should not let their money go into something worthless. 10. It is slow Innovation wise Since its very beginning Apple has always taken a closed method to its software and hardware. To be fair, this does have some advantages. For example, the closed nature of Apple’s iOS ecosystem – which inspects any app before letting it onto its App Store and blocks developers setting up third-party marketplaces – is a key reason the iOS has remained wonderful for so long. But a drawback of this closed method is that it enormously slows down the innovation system. While the Apple development is safe on one hand, on the other hand it will never be able to enjoy different and unexpected changes that will be brought in other open systems. 9. No Micro SD card slot Unlike many other amazing smartphones, iPhone 5s or 5c still do not offer any SD card slot through which the customers can easily save and retrieve their data. All they ever did and will probably keep on doing is attach their cable wire to the internal system and sync things and do stuff. 8. Camera updates still much behind competitors With HTC, Nokia Lumia 1020, Samsung S4 and other recently launched smartphones in market having some amazing pixel quality and camera updates Apple iPhone 5c have nothing too exciting to offer. Although the 5s model have updated the camera quality a little but that also did not bring it to the mark of its competitors quality. 7. Apple copying Android? Apple lists iOS 7 as having over 200 new features, which on paper makes the software, look fairly advanced. But people who have been using Android will not be impressed by the work as they have seen much in their very own world. Example of this is the new quick settings bar. The quick settings menu is an attractive addition that offers a quick and easy way to access certain options. However it’s a feature that has been on Android for years now and the only real difference is that you access it by swiping up from the bottom of the screen whereas it’s the other way around in Android. 6. The next year’s iPhone wait is worth This year the Apple iPhone 5s and 5c have nothing new to offer the customers, through which they will be fascinated, so it’s better for the Apple Company to come up with something worth the wait next year. That might be a wider screen, much improved and redesigned set that will make the people see the worth for which they are going to spend a heavy amount. 5. O2 customers face a long wait, with no 4G in sight For those who have O2 and are anxious to get on 4G with an iPhone, the wait is still going on and will go on longer. Apple will have to release a software upgrade to run on the network owned by O2, and for users this is nevertheless more annoying. 4. New iOS 7 operating system is more of a confusion platform One of the main reasons of not buying the iPhone 5s or 5c is that both the models come up with iOS 7 already installed in them and there is no such option that will allow the customer to go back to iOS 6. This can make the customer confused as the previous iOS used by the customer had been easier to use for them and the new features can complicate the customers. 3. Shady chip specifications Apple has always rejected to detail the full technical specifications of chips used in its iOS tablets and smartphones. This is because, according to Apple, the information is an incorrect representation of how fast the device actually is. In the past there has been some truth to this claim, with Apple’s previous dual-core iPhone 4S easily excelling all similar Android phones. 2.Outdated design The design of the phone has not been updated since years now, but the 5s and 5c resemble the iPhone 5 a lot, other than 5c’s plastic back and 5’s body comes in gold, silver and space grey. The company needs to do a lot with its design, leaving behind its very typical single button at the bottom of the screen and leaving big spaces on the top and bottom of the screen. 1.Cost could put off the customers With all these negative points in iPhone 5s and 5c the price of the phone is touching skies as usual. The backdrop of the company is that there are many other smartphone companies in the market which are offering much more than iPhone and has its price reasonable too.

Top 10 Brightest Stars in the Universe: Watching various bright stars up ahead on the sky at night is the most profound and beautiful sight. Ever thought which one of those is the brightest of all, the one which you probably see every night? We have summed up the ten brightest stars, except the Sun, which is the Earth’s own star. The brightness of a star is calculated through its apparent visual magnitude, the lower the magnitude the brighter is the star. Lets have a look at the least and the highest magnitude holding stars, which means the Top ten brightest stars. 10. Beta Centauri The tenth brightest star in the night sky is the Beta Centauri, whereas the traditional names given to the star are ‘Agena’ and ‘Hadar’. ‘Hadar’ is an Arabic word which means ‘Soil or Earth’ and ‘Agena’ is a latin word meaning ‘The knee’. The apparent visual magnitude of this star is approximately 0.61, which makes it the tenth brightest star in the sky at night. The star is located in the constellation Centaurus. 9. Achernar The bright star Achernar is located in the constellation Eridanus, the ninth star on our list has an apparent visual magnitude of 0.50. Achernar is known to be blue, bright and has a mass as seven times the mass of the sun itself. The star is 139 light years away. 8. Betelgeuse Betelgeuse is the reddish star in the sky which is 640 light years away. At number eighth the star has an apparent magnitude of 0.42 but apart from that it can get brighter or lighter according to the future. It would be known as the second sun, classified as type 2 Supernova if it exploded due to its Red giant structure. 7. Procyon The star is not at a very long distance away, which is 11.4 light years from the earth. The seventh star Procyon is located in constellation to Canis Minor with the apparent visual magnitude of 0.34. The star is not bright because of its own distinctive feature but because it is quite close to the sun. The closest star to the Procyon is Luyten’s Star which is about 0.34 pc away from it. 6. Rigel The sixth brightest star on the list is the Rigel which has the apparent visual magnitude of 0.12. Despite of being at a large distance of 772.9 light years away from the earth, the Rigel star shines really bright. At the origin of the Orion collection, the star is seen as a triple star system back from the earth. 5. Vega With the apparent visual magnitude of 0.03, Vega is the bright star which is at a distance of 25.3 light years from the earth. The fifth star on the list is in the area of Lyra. Along with Sirius and Arcturus the star Vega too is the gleaming star from the Sun’s closest area. After the Sun, Vega was the first ever star that was photographed and to get its spectrum recorded. 4. Rigil Kentaurus The apparent visual magnitude of the star Rigil Kentaurus is known to be -0.01. The fourth on the list stands in constellation of Centaurus and is 4.4 light years away from the earth, which not a very long distance. This star is also known to be as Alpha Centauri. 3. Arcturus The third brightest star is the Arcturus, found in the constellation of Bootes. The apparent visual magnitude of the star is known to be -0.04. The Orange star is reported to have bushed its hydrogen and is fusing the oxygen and carbon to its core helium. The small star might lose its life due that. Apart from that it is 36.3 light years away from the earth. 2. Canopus The Second brightest star on the list is the brightest in the area of Southern Carina. Canopus has an apparent magnitude of -0.72 and is at a long distance from the earth, which is 312.7 light years. It is a super giant of Spectral type F, which is why it is given a ‘Yellow white’ colour although when someone sees the star with an uncovered eye it will appear as bright white colour. It was not famous enough in the previous years because it was not seen by the Romans and Greek, it was not until the Ancient Egyptians started recognizing it and also gave it an Arabic name which was ‘Suhayl’. 1. Sirius Twice as bright as the second brightest star, Sirius is the brightest star in the sky. It has an apparent visual magnitude of -1.46 which makes it the brightest star in the night sky. In the area of Canis Major Sirius is the brightest except the sun, moon and some planets. The star is 8.6 light years away from the earth. The star has some instinct luminosity and its nearness to the earth makes it brighter.

Top 10 Style Essentials For Men 2013: We are always wondering what to wear, whatever the occasion is. Looking perfect in the right matching or contrasting colors is an art in itself .Some of us have it, while others let’s admit it, need a little help in this regard. There are people who believe that fashion is just a ladies department, but take note, a little dress sense tells a lot about our character. Men’s fashion essentials will definitely vary according to age,environment,income bracket and personal taste. Here you will find tips for a variety of accessories and essential staples that every man should have in his wardrobe this year. 10. THE SUIT Every man should have at least one well-tailored formal ‘suit’, even if it’s only going to be worn a few times during the year. Always ask the sales person to show you a classic cut which does not go out of style. Single breasted in black or gray would be ideal. Seasonal changes can then be made to change the overall look with addition of latest styles in shirts and ties. 9. SHOES No man can deny the need for a decent pair of shoes. This essential item should be top notch and trendy .Never compromise on comfort, pay extra for quality. Black is always a fashion favorite, but brown is also a firm favorite with some designers these days. It must be stressed that your belt should be the same color as your shoes. Pair of semi-formals and some colorful sneakers should cater for most of your day to day needs 8. JEANS Colored jeans are in, remember the sixties? Be daring and go for the brighter colors otherwise play it safe in pastels. But they are a staple for this year’s fashion conscious. 7. SHIRTS A dressy shirt or two is a must to wear with your suit or dress pants. No one should be without a choice of white; blue and grey to cater for your formal events. On the casual front opt for bold prints and classic checks. 6. SHORTS Shorts have got shorter this year, but if you’re not so daring play it safe with the military combat- style with useful extra pockets. Teamed up with a fresh white T-shirt you can’t go wrong. Alternatively go for checked or pastels for a sporty look teamed with matching or contrasting footwear! 5. THE BLAZER A Blazer is an indispensable item for the summer wardrobe, giving a sense of a jet –set style. White looks great over printed shirts and dark T-shirts that are worn with stone colored canvas trousers. 4. SUNGLASSES You’re spoilt for choice when buying this accessory; top designer items are also top in prices! You must protect yourself from the glaring sun when driving or just out in the sun. Raf Simons or Gucci’s aviators are a classic .But remember to choose a pair that suits your face shape. 3. THE WALLET Y our wallet reveals a lot about you (here we’re talking of quality, not its thickness) designer wallets are a great choice Louis Vuitton’s wallets are iconic and durable. This essential item one does not buy every day so you can afford to spend a little extra. Other top favorites include PRADA who also do credit card holders and zipped pencil bags which are a sensible buys. 2. HEAD GEAR Another item which is fundamental for the summer is some choice of head covering. Depending on personal choice from baseball caps to trilby’s. Stand out in a crowd and protect your head as well! 1. BELTS From, black and brown leather one’s to cater for your formal needs, you should also own some webbing one’s to add style to your casual look .A quality belt can jazz up the simplest of outfits . Leather belts also come in colored varieties now-a-days. A quality belt can last a lifetime so invest in quality and style.

Top 10 Most Googled Personalities: Millions of people are using the internet daily , for entertainment, information or just for seeing beautiful famous people . We all want to know of the lives of the rich and famous , catch up on the latest gossip and see the latest pictures . For some this may be an idle pastime.Here you will find which personalities have been googled the most over the past year. Rankings may vary somewhat as in some cases facebook and twitter followings may be reflected . Here goes, see if you can guess the most googled personality on our rankings list 10. Kate Middleton Last but not least on our list is the Duchess of Cambridge . Wife of Prince William who is second in line to the British throne after his father Prince Charles . Married Prince William in April l2011, She is now expecting the next in line to the throne, Famous for her smile and her thrifty fashion sense of mixing ‘High street ‘ retail fashion with couture pieces. 9. Kate Perry Singer who married Russell Brand, now divorced . Famous albums ‘Teenage dream ‘ a 3D concert film/biopic Kate Perry, part of me . Also known for her eye-popping outfits. 8. Miley Cyrus Famous as a child star, has since posed topless for Vanity Fair . Engaged to actor Liam Hensworth . 7. Kristen Stewart Last year (2012) she was named as the highest paid actress in Hollywood by Forbes magazine . Has appeared in the ‘Twilight’ film franchise . Snow white and the huntsman, and Breaking dawn. 6. Nicki Minaj Hip-Hop artist Nicki Minaj is controversial in her performances and choice of costumes , from techni – color petticoats to leopard print getups. 5. Kim Kardashian An American celebrity, actress , reality star and business woman . Basically rich ,famous and beautiful! 4. Whitney Houston Full name Whitney Elizabeth Houston,a top American recording artist and producer. Also known for her acting and modeling . She was one of the worlds best selling music artists , having sold 170 million albums ,videos and singles worldwide . She was the most awarded female act of all time according to the Guiness book of world records . She died tragically in 2012 . 3. Selena Gomez A famous singer and actress from America . Also famous as Justin Biebers girlfriend, until recently when they broke up. 2. Justin Bieber Young pop – star and songwriter from Canada . He has a twitter following of 33 million known as Beliebers . 1. One Direction This group of five young lads are an English/Irish pop boy band based in London . The members consist of Niall Horan , Zayn Malik , Liam Payne , Harry Styles and Louis Tomlinson .Their band came third in the ‘X’ factor in 2012.Having sold 15 million records worldwide . Voted ‘Top New Artist” by billboard in 2012 .These lads are definitely heading in the right direction!

Top 10 Self-Made Billionaire Women of 2013: We are quite familiar with the saying that some people are born with silver spoon in their mouths, but not all are born with those luxuries, supremacy, effortlessness and coinage they are at the moment enjoying. Here are a small number of super rich women whose not so sudden triumph coerces us to look into their lives beforehand they were billionaires. These are the top 10 self-made billionaire women who were born underprivileged. 10. Giuliana Benetton ($2 Billion) Giuliana Benetton is an Italian working women. She is working with Benetton Group a fashion company with her family members. Giuliana is 75 of age a married women with 4 children. Benetton in beginning used to knit sweaters that her brother would hawk by bicycle, and sold under numerous labels before the foundation of Benetton Group. She is presently in board of director of Benetton Group and in additional family business. 9. Lynda Resnick ($2.2 Billion) Lynda Resnick belongs to California, United States. She is an Entrepreneur/Business women/Writer/Columnist .She is 69 years old wedded women having 5 kids. The couple is holder of corporations which are named as Teleflora, Franklin Mint, POM Wonderful & Fiji Water. Lynda is a Vice Chairman of Los Angeles Country Museum of Art’s Board of Trustees, Trustee of Philadelphia museum of Art, Board of Trustees and Chairperson of Marketing and communications Committee at Aspen Institute. 8. Marion Ilitch ($2.7 Billion) The lady is an American entrepreneur, works with her spouse Michael, an owner of international fast food franchise “Little Caesars Pizza”. The couple also owns the Detroit Red Wings of National Hockey League and Detroit Tigers of Major League and FOX Theatre. Marion is 83 years old, having seven children. 7. Oprah Winfrey ($2.7 Billion) Oprah is recognized for her multi-award-winning dialogue show “The Oprah Winfrey Show”. The talk show was the highest rated program of its kind. She is an American media proprietor, talk show host, actress, producer and philanthropist. She is also CEO of Harpo Productions and Oprah Winfrey Network. Her marital status is single. 6. Doris Fisher ($2.8 Billion) Doris is an 81 years old American business woman who cooperatively runs business with her spouse Donald Fisher. They have apparel business known as “The GAP” and known as prolific art collector and philanthropist. She was one of the “100 Most Powerful Women” on Forbes Magazine. She belongs to Judaism religion and has 3 children. 5. Zhang Xin ($3.6 Billion) Zhang is a Chinese business woman, she established Soho China in Beijing with her other half and working as the CEO of the business. It is the leading money-making real estate contractor of the capital. She is also the chairwomen of Teach for China Board of Directors. . She was in “Top 50 Women in World Business”, Among “China top 10 Career Women Role Models” in 2009, and one of Forbes’s “World’s Most Powerful Women”. 4. Diane Hendricks ($3.8 Billion) Diane Hendricks is an American businesswoman, Film Producer and Humanitarian. She holds the company named Hendricks Holding and working as a C.E.O. of ABC Supply Co. Inc. She is the richest female in Wisconsin. As a film producer she worked for movies like “The Stoning of Soraya” and “An American Carol”. In political world she is famous as the leading donor of Scott Walker to whom she donated $500,000. Diane is a 66 years old widow having 7 children 3. Chan Laiwa ($4.1 Billion) Chan is 72 years old married women, the founder and chairwomen of Beijing’s largest commercial property developers Fu wah International Group. Fu Wah donated 130 million Yuan for disaster relief in 2005 and 265 million Yuan in 200.She is the founder of China Red Sandalwood Museum, also the curator. Chan is also known as one of China’s cultural diplomats. The lady is listed in only 19 self-made billionaire women in the world. 2. Wu Yajun ($4.3 Billion) Wu Yajun is a 49 years old former journalist, and general director of Longfor Properties, hand over her circlet as China’s richest women. Yajun founded the company Longfor Properties with her former husband in Chongqing. The enterprise grew rapidly and was expanded in other major cities like Chengdu, Beijing, Shanghai, Changzhou, and Dalian. 1.Rosalia Mera Rosalia is a Spanish businessperson, entrepreneur specifically known as Inditex’s co-founder. Rosalia is the 2ndprosperous person of Spain after her ex-husband. She was dropped out from school due to dressmaking work at the age of 11.She started multi-billion-dollar corporation “Inditex” and “Zara”. The lady also holds interests in a company which makes fingerprinting identification sets for new-borns and an additional company. She is the president of a charitable organization entitled Paideia Foundation.

Top 5 Most Powerful Politicians of 2013: In all that political blather around the world we see almost all the politicians as ‘not capable’ of being politicians or any kind of leader. But do we not see those faces in this field too which somehow make their name a little secure than the others. They keep up the spirit and make their mark on the book of good names. Some of the powerful politicians of 2013 who have kept working hard and made most of their country population proud of them will be on our list today. Although being hard enough, we came up with the ten most powerful Politicians of 2013, and here it goes. 5. Kim Jong Un Son of Kim Jong il, Kim Jong Un is the Supreme leader of North Korea. He has taken many titles until now on which he had been working and primarily serving his country after his ancestors, the titles are, First secretary of the Worker’s Party of Korea, Chairman of the Central Military Commission, First Chairman of the National Defense Commission of Korea and Supreme commander of the Korean’s People army. He came up to the leadership seat after his father’s death in 2009, He was announced to be ‘A Great Successor’ by the state television after his services and work for his country after his father and is known to be the youngest head of state at the age of 30 now. 4. Hillary Clinton Wife of Bill Clinton as we all know! Hillary Clinton is an American Politician and diplomat serving since 1978 when she first found herself in a chair of the first female of the Legal Services Corporation. She is the 67thUnited states Secretary of State from 2009-2013, Hillary Clinton has been awarded with number of Awards for her continuous work and services for Health, Women and specially children. To pull the U.S message out in the world she traveled in around 111 countries and used social media to spread her word of conduct. 3. Imran Khan A former cricketer turned Politician; Imran Khan is a philanthropist, cricket commentator, Chancellor at the University of Bradford, founding chairman of the Board of Governors of the Shaukat Khanam Memorial hospital and Research Center and the founder of Namal College (Mianwali). Khan became the Chairman of the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaaf, a political party that emerged in 1996, whereas Khan served to be the representative of Mianwali from 2002-2007 but it was not until 2013 elections when he found a suitable position of his party in the country. A large number of supporters, especially youngsters in the country polled for their new heartthrob leader. Khan was voted as the Asia’s Person of the year by the Asia Society in 2012, in the same year he was put as third in the list of ‘9 World Leaders’ on the Global Post and Jinnah Award was also presented to him. Not only these but many number of awards from different countries was awarded to him for his skills and services. 2. Barack Obama The 44thand the first ever African American President Barack Obama is yet again elected by the public of America in 2013 after he took place in 2009. He is a graduate of Colombia University and Harvard Law School; he worked as the Civil rights Attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of the Chicago School. Obama have served the best he can for the country and have had passed foreign policies alike to that, ending U.S military involvements in Iraq War, signed New Start arms control treaty with Russia and ordered U.S military involvement in Libya. Obama also came with the great improvement in Economic policies, Health care reforms and Domestic Policy. He was also ranked as second in the ‘9 World Leaders’ on the Global Post. 1. Xi Jinping Holding three positions in China, Xi Jinping is the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, President of the People Republic of China and Chairman of the central Military Commission is on the top of the list. He had also been the Governor of Fujian between 1992 to 2002. Xi is the fifth continuous leader from the family and has not been given up on his responsibilities, thus has started campaigns against corruption, continued with the economic policies, has an open view towards leadership and is still working on ‘Chinese Dream’. Standing firm and strong on his first position Xi is no less than his ancestors.

Top 10 Youngest Billionaires of 2013: Talking about money, it really does not take a lifetime for some people to be a billionaire. We in our list are going to discuss some youngest billionaires of the year 2013. Some of these top ten billionaires have transferred their money banks from their parents where as some of them have worked hard on themselves to reach this level and be a billionaire. 10. Fahd Hariri Youngest son of the assassinated Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, Fahd Hariri is the tenth on the list. He graduated in the year 2004 from an interior designing school of Paris known as Ecole Speciale d’Architecture de Paris. While he was still studying in Paris he has put up his own interior designing studio in the suburbs of the city and made furniture there to sell it to the people in Saudi Arabia. It was not until 2005 when he came back to Beirut and now develops residential buildings there. At the age of 31 he has almost an amount of $1.2 billion which makes him stand ten on the list. 9. Li Zhaouhui With the net worth $1.3 billion son of Li Haicang, Li Zhaouhui is the ninth youngest billionaire. He graduated from the Wuhan University of Science and Technology business management professional in the year 2005. He took over as the chairman of his father’s Haixin iron and steel Group and since then he is working hard to keep the reputation and investment of the business at its best and somehow have achieved some outstanding results as well. In a young age of 32 he has done a lot good to the industrious group of his father. 8. Albert Von The 12thPrince of Thurn and Taxis is actually a German aristocrat and has been listed in many lists of young billionaires; the 30 year old has been appearing on the lists since he was eight years old. He completed his high school education from Rome and studied economics and theology from University of Edinburgh after his military service. He is an amazing racing driver and has a net worth of $2 billion. 7. Eduardo Saverin One of the five co-founders of Facebook is Eduardo Saverin. Sharing almost 5% of the Facebook shares Eduardo has a net worth of $2.2 billion and he have also invested in Jumio and Qwiki. He did his B.S Economics in 2006 from the Harvard University and is an actual citizen of Brazil. 6. Sean Parker Sean Parker was the first president of the social networking site ‘Facebook’. He also co-founded Plaxo, Airtime and Causes. With the net worth of $2.3 billion Sean stands as sixth on the list of young billionaires. Parker attended Oakton High School and then was transferred to the Chantilly High School in 1996 where he persuaded his teachers to count his time on computer coding which result him in starting companies and coding them computer at the end of his finishing year. Korea’s Kim Jung-Ju is a founder of the online gaming company, Nixon. Although he lost billions lately, but still stands as the fifth youngest on our list. The 32 year old has a net worth $2.7 billion. 4. Scott Duncan Scott Duncan is the youngest son of Dan Duncan who found the Enterprise Products Partners. The 30 year old Scott inherited the energy pipeline company that owns more than 50,000 miles of Natural Gas, oil and petro chemical pipelines. The net worth of Scott Duncan is almost $4.1 billion which makes him the fourth youngest billionaire. 3. Dustin Moskovitz One of the five co-founders of ‘Facebook’ another is 29 year old Dustin Moskovitz who is an American internet entrepreneur. With a net worth $4.2 billion Dustin is the third on the list. He was having 7.8% share in the Facebook until he left it in the year 2008 and started working to co-find Asana. 2. Yang Huiyan The only girl on the list is Yang Huiyan. The daughter of a wealthy Chinese Yang Guoqiang who started his company Biguiyuan in 1997 is the majority shareholder of The Country Garden Holdings. The 30 year old graduated from the Ohio State University and has a net worth $6.9 billion. 1. Mark Zuckerberg So the youngest who tops the list is the one who is known by the world, Mark Zuckerberg. He is an American internet entrepreneur and computer programmer. Though one of the five co-founders of Facebook he is usually known as the only ‘founder’ because he is the chairman and the chief executive of the Facebook Inc. The 29 year old Mark has a net worth $17 billion. Starting the site from his very own University which was Harvard University from where he was dropped out. Mark was always an extra ordinary student who excelled in computing and technology.

Top 10 French Politicians Of All Times: There are several French rulers that have left a mark in the history of the European region and have proved themselves that no matter if they were monarchs, kings or even diplomats they were some great Politicians too. Keeping in regard we’re talking about French politicians which will include all the great leaders and politicians who are French. Here is the list of Top 10 Best French Politicians. 10. Victor Schoelcher Victor Schoelcher on number ten was actually an abolitionist writer of the 19th Century born in 1804. He was a main spokesman from a group of Paris that represented the abolishment of slavery and eventually found an abolition society in 1834. He worked specially on the Caribbean Islands and French West Indies for the abolition of slavery. 9. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord The French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord is on number nine was usually known as Talleyrand and was born into an Aristocratic family in Paris. He was born in the year 1754 till 1838; he worked successfully under Napoleon I, Louis XVIII, Charles X and Louis Philippe. Most of the people regard him as the most versatile, skilled and influential diplomat in the complete European history. 8. Jean Monnet On number eight we have Jean Monnet, the French political economist and diplomat. He stayed in the office from 1952 till 1955. He is highly known as the main figure in finding the European Union and an architect of European Unity. He normally worked behind the scenes which made him help the American and European governments and was also given the name of Patron of the year 1980-1981 academic year at the College of Europe. 7. Philip Augustus The seventh French politician on the list is Philip II Augustus. He was born from 1165 till 1223 during which he was one of the most successful feudal French monarchs. He expanded the Royal demesne and impact of the empire on the people at that time. There are number of things that he did while he was the ruler, one of which is defeating the Angevin Empire and breaking the alliance of the Flemish, English and German in the battle of Bouvines in 1214. He amazingly organized the government in his reign and brought about prosperity in country. He at his time checked the finances of the nobles and passed the extra to the middle class, this was the main reason he and his reign of ruler ship was popular among the ordinary people of the country. 6.Charles de Gaulle Charles de Gaulle on number sixth was a French General and statesman who led the French forces in World War II. He founded the French Republic in 1958 and served as the first president in from 1958 till 1969. He is considered as one of the most influential and patriotic leaders. 5.Georges Clemenceau On number 5 is Georges Clemenceau who was a French Statesman who led the nation in the First World War and he was an important political person in the third Republic. The Prime Minister of France from 1906 till 1909 and from 1917 till 1920 had been an important person in some difficult time of France. 4. Louis IX On number fourth is Louis IX, the son of Louis VIII. He was the eight-generation descendant of Hug Capet and thus was the king after his father and the part of the House of Capet. He worked really hard with the Parliament of Paris in order to improve the professionalism in his legal administration. He had many places named after him, for example; St. Louis, Missouri, ille Saint Louis in Paris, Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin and Mission San Luis Rey de Francia in the United States; São Luís do Maranhão, Brazil; and both the state and city of San Luis Potosí in Mexico. He worked extremely well in the field of art. 3. Henry IV The King of France from 1589 till 1610, Henry IV is the third politician on the list. He was one of the popular French kings and worked extremely well for the welfare of his subjects and showed an unusual religious tolerance and gave religious liberties to all the Protestants which ended the Wars of Religion in the country region. 2. Louis XIV The longest ruling monarch, Louis XIV is the second politician on our list. Louis was the monarch of the House of Bourbon and ruled from 1643 till 1715, this reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest time in the history of European country. During his reign France was the leading European Power and fought three main Wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the War of the Spanish Succession. He omitted the feudalistic system and centralized the state. 1. Napoleon I Napoleon I tops the list of the French politicians. Napoleon Bonaparte was an Emperor of the French from 1804 till 1815. He is remembered the best for his Wars that he led against the coalitions against France, these Wars were also known as the Napoleon Wars. All these Wars were won by him, which is the reason he’s known as the best military commanders of all times.

Top 10 Things Women do Better than Men: Enough of proving and fighting of the genders, on who is better than whom and in what! Women without any doubt have been able to touch the skies during the 21stCentury. But what can be better than knowing those top ten things which with statistics prove that women do better than men in any concern. So if you’re a guy and going to read this then make sure that you will help yourself and your friends do a better job in future, because women have clean swiped all these top tens! 10. Women learn better No wonder they attempt multitasks most of the times and prove that they are remarkably good. A study done at the University of Georgia and Columbia University proved it that Women are better learners than men. They have a capability to expand their mind and tend to be more focused, flexible and organized. This makes most of the women understand the task better and quicker than their male fellows. 9. Women are cleaner We have definitely seen more clean girls than clean boys! Not only they themselves but they have a habit of to keep their environment clean for themselves too, their room, workspace, washrooms and cars. A study at the San Diego State University of offices across the United States discovered that men had 10%-20% more bacteria on their workspaces compared to women, who have a cleaner and more hygienic space. 8. Women Interview better No matter how confused and chaotic a woman seems during a test or an interview, they end it up quite perfectly. A Study at the University of Western Ontario resulted in proving that women are better in handling a stress of a job interview. The researchers said that even though they freak out before the actual exam day but they prepare for it better than men that make them interview better. 7. Women evolve prettier Looking through the advancement and evolution a study revealed that women are getting beautiful day by day whereas men in one way or another are the same. Attractive women giving births to more children resulting in more baby girls means another pretty girl in the world. So if you recently had or are going to have a baby girl then she’s going to be one of those pretty ones too. 6. Women survive car accidents more often Many point women for having bad driving skills! But here we are with another study at the Carnegie Mellon University that proved that 77% men are more likely to die in a car accident than women. So try keeping you seatbelts tight when you sit in a car without a girl! 5. Women are better at pursuing comfort A mind survey of about 2000 people revealed that Women are better at seeking comfort from. Women are chosen to be a better option by many to talk out their problems to. So when your girl-friend asks you what is stressing you out you may tell her, she might have an option to solve your stress. Mothers in that account can be put as the best comfort providers. 4. Women graduate more often How many of you boys have taken more than five years to complete their bachelor’s degree? Well women don’t really appreciate that; they like to do the work right on time. The department of Education’s Statistics discloses that men are less likely than women to get their bachelor’s degree. The enrolment of girls is also higher than boys in most of the Universities. 3. Women have a stronger immune system Women fight through the sniffles and fevers better than the baby boys out there! A study done by McGill University discovered women’s secret weapon that keeps them strong against all the odds and bacteria, which is Estrogen. Estrogen according to the study gives a woman a strong edge when it comes to infections and medical problems; estrogen confronts a certain enzyme that often stays the body’s first line of protection against the virus. 2. Women invest better Having an amazing preplanned system and thinking of far-headed women are the ones who invest better than men. A study of 100,000 portfolios resulted in showing that women’s investment outperformed compared to many men’s. Being more concern and practical women are the ones who can deal well with the money too, so do not underestimate the girl power with the money. 1. Women live longer With these top ten qualities and many more not mentioned, Women tend to live longer than men. According to a new England Centenarian study, among the population of the world above hundred 85% are women. It is also proved in general that women live 5-10 years longer than men do. Take them seriously; they might live after you die!

Top 10 Most Dangerous Diseases: 10. MRSA Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus is resistant to antibiotics like penicillin and cephalosporin. MRSA infects the weakened immune system of people, whose immune system cannot afford to fight against bacteria, like Diabetic and Venous drug abusers. There is a lot of care to be done in hospitals to prevent this infection from occurring and spreading. 9. Gonorrhea Gonorrhea was named after Neisseria Gonorrhoea, who researched the infection.. It’s an infection which is transmitted by sexual contact. The infection can be transmitted from man to woman or vice versa too. Women usually have a vaginal discharge and genital pain as a symptom, whereas men have burning urination. Gonorrhoea causes Pelvic Inflammatory disease in women which can be treated as well. 8. Cholera and Typhoid The ‘food and water’ related diseases are Cholera and Typhoid,which enter the body through the things we eat and eventually enter our gastrointestinal tract and resulting in vomiting and diarrhoea. The specific bacterium that causes Cholera is bacterium vibrio cholerae which leads to electrolyte imbalance and if left untreated it becomes lethal. On the other hand Typhoid is caused by bacterium Salmonella Typhi, this causes an upset stomach and fever. If yphoid is not treated it leads to many complications. 7. African trypanosomiasis Caused by Tsetse fly, African trypanosomiasis is normally known as the ‘sleeping sickness’. As the name implies it is found in African countries and attacks in two stages these include, neurological stage and hemolytic stage. During the Neurological stage the person undergoes a sleep disorder which is due to the organism’s entrance in the brain, whereas in Hemolytic stage the person suffers from joint pains, fever and itching. 6. Pneumonia The swelling of the lungs is known as Pneumonia which can be caused by many reasons, infection being one of those. Some of the common viruses that cause pneumonia are rhizo virus, corona virus, Respiratory syncytial virus etc. Pneumonia can be treated through antibiotics and vaccines. 5. Tuberculosis Tuberculosis is transmitted through air diffusion to the other person by a person’s cough, who is suffering from Tuberculosis. The reasons of the infection are Mycobacterium species and mostly M.tuberculosis. The disease infects when the bacterial infection is high or when the immune system of the prey is weak. As for the symptoms the patient suffers from body aches, coughs, fever, loss of weight and weakness. 4. Hepatitis Hepatitis is basically the swelling of the liver, which can be caused by virus and or toxins as well. The patient in this kind of disease becomes weak, loses weight and becomes pale. There are five types of Hepatitis which are; A, B, C, D, E from which the most common are A, B and C. A is spread through the oral route (eating and drinking), B is through blood or sexual act and C when persistently present can result to carcinoma liver. Hepatitis at all stages has vaccines as a treatment. 3. Malaria A common virus among the people today is Malaria which is caused by a female anopheles mosquito. The symptoms of Malaria are fever, back ache and weakness. The reason due to which Malaria spreads through is Plasmodium genus and its species are P.ovale, P.malariae, P. vivax etc. a course is provided to the person who has the disease but if left untreated it can cause some serious problems and complications in the body, whereas now a pre-course is also available to prevent Malaria. 2. Influenza What we commonly call ‘Flu’ is actually known as ‘Influenza’ which is caused by influenza virus. The patients suffer from chills, fever, body aches and cough. Flu is transmitted by nasal secretions, cough or bird droppings. The two types Influenza are Influenza A and Influenza B, Trivalent vaccine is given to the patient in disease. 1. HIV-Aids The most dangerous and appalling infection in the world is HIV/Aids. The cause of the disease is Immunodeficiency virus, which enters the human body to weaken the immune system and give ways to other infections to enter the body and affect it. It can be transmitted through, sexual intercourse, from mother while birth, breast feeding, unsterilized injections and blood transferring. The most frightening thing is that the disease does not have a complete medication course, leaving the patient to die at any stage.

Top 8 Terrorist Countries of The World1 month agoby Sam 16 Top Tens’ World now compiles its most controversial list to date. The top ten countries which are sponsoring terrorism all around the world .This list is amassed on the basis of past international events and on people’s opinion through various polls. When we are talking about terrorism first we should differentiate between the real terrorism and freedom fighters .Freedom fighters can be considered to be heroes, unfortunately because of false media information portraying them as rebels, radicals or thugs they can be misconstrued as terrorists. It is the right of every living being that if anybody hit him/her without reason, he/she will hit back. As we have been taught that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Here’s the list we prepared for you of top ten terrorist countries: 8.SYRIA The Syrian government is also spreading terrorism .The Syrian government is using its armed forces against its own people. The Syrian government is also promoting terrorism in its neighbouring countries. The government has been bombing and firing and using various chemical weapons against own peoples. 7.AFGHANISTAN Afghanistan has become a most dangerous place after the American attack. It is becoming the center of attention for most intelligence agencies like RAW and CIA, after the Soviet Union war. These agencies are promoting various terrorist groups in South Asia, especially in Pakistan like Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan, Balochistan Liberation Army and various others. These militants are challenging the writ of the Pakistan government. Many militant groups are also interfering in Iran, China and other neighbouring countries. 6.INDIA When we talk about India, it is not less than any other country in spreading terrorism. India is aiding and supporting terrorist groups in Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Above all India has physically invaded and has been using military power against innocent people of occupied Jammu Kashmir for the past 66 years. 5.FRANCE The French were a colonizing nation in the 17th century well before the British Empire had evolved. There was rivalry between the British and French for colonising North America. Later they concentrated on North Africa and Asia. In 1985, France attacked New Zealand.. After this France always support America in every war and every terrorist activity. France sent its army to Iraq and Afghanistan like America. 4.RUSSIA Russia has a long history starting from the times of the Russian Empire. Terrorism, in the modern sense, means violence against civilians to achieve political or ideological objectives by creating fear, terrorism tactics, such as hostage-taking, were widely used by the Soviet secret agencies, most notably during the Red Terror campaigns, against the population of their own country. Russia also attacked Afghanistan in December 1979. 3.UNITED KINGDOM When we talk about United Kingdom, it has got a very strong history of terrorism .First,in the early eighteenth century, they penetrated Indian subcontinent and destroyed their government by acting on the policy of divide and rule. They took their historical artefacts, books and jewels. Even the large diamond the famous Koh-i-Noor in the queen’s crown is not their own and was instead attained by confiscation from the subcontinent. Then British attacked Ireland in 1955. British army was with America in Iraq war and in the occupation of Afghanistan. Now the United Kingdom is supporting terrorist activity in Karachi, Pakistan by giving protection to MQM leader Altaf Hussain. 2.ISRAEL Israel is a terrorist state too. Israel is spreading terrorism all over the world, especially in Muslim countries like Lebanon, Iran Syria, Jordan, Turkey Egypt, Pakistan and Palestine. Israel has engaged in many terrorist attacks and bombing against the civilians of Gaza; Palestine. They even attacked the Freedom-flotilla which was organized by 22 NGOs for the besieged people of Gaza; Palestine. Now Israel is again planning to attack Syria. 1.UNITED STATE OF AMERICA America is the biggest terrorist country in the world. America wages war just to run its own weapons industries. America has undertaken terrorist activity in the past. The major terrorist activity was atomic bombings of the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan during the Second World War. The Korean War of 1950-1953 and the Vietnam War of 1964-1975 are prime examples of terrorist atrocities. Recently, they attacked Iraq and Afghanistan. Now they are going to attack Syria. Oh sorry, will organize a ‘limited operation’ against Syria.

Top 10 Reasons to Say ‘NO WAR’ in Syria: 10.Diplomatic solution SHOULD BE GIVEN A CHANCE to solve the crisis in Syria. Over the past few days, there has been a tremendous wave of optimism that it may be possible for war with Syria to be averted.President Obama follows up on his speech to the nation and describes the possibility for a diplomatic solution in Syria, partially because of the credible threat of U.S. military force.Minimally, there has to be a cease-fire in Syria’s civil war. There can be no inspection regime until all parties involved in the fighting in Syria agree to stop fighting and to an intrusive cease-fire verification regime.its still debatable why Is diplomacy the harder solution in Syria than war. 9.Had already enough with the outrage over the use of weapons of mass destruction. The atomic bomb, which redefined warfare, chemical weapons have been categorized as “weapons of mass destruction,” even if they do not have the killing power of nuclear weapons.World War I led to the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which banned the use, though not the possession, of chemical and biological weapons. In effect from 1928, the protocol is one of the few treaties that have been almost universally accepted and become an international norm. 8.The United States is the leading international supplier of armaments. The United States is by far the world’s largest arms trader, accounting for around 30 per cent of conventional arms transfers in terms of value.The arms industry is a global business which manufactures weapons and military technology and equipment. The USA supplies arms to more than 170 countries. it has supplied arms to other countries, for example Sri Lanka, Bahrain, Egypt and Yemen, where there is a substantial risk that they could be used to commit of facilitate serious human rights violations. 7.Need to stop letting armament manufacturers dictate the foreign policies and life of all innocent humanity. Of course the people don’t want war. But after all, it’s the leaders of the country who determine the policy, and it’s always a simple matter to drag the people along whether it’s a democracy, a fascist dictatorship, or a parliament, or a communist dictatorship. Voice or no voice, the people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. 6.Economically a war with Syria will prolong the economic crisis in the world, With higher oil-prices, less growth and more despair worldwide War has influenced economic history profoundly across time and space .war generally impedes economic development and undermines prosperity. Several specific economic effects of war recur across historical eras and locales and Inflation. 5.Historic use of weapons widely condemned by the global community and all international polls results conducted regarding this issue. It makes absolutely no sense to use banned weapons to retaliate for the use of another banned weapon.Most of the world condemns cluster munition for its potential, like chemical weapons, to indiscriminately harm civilians. The bomb splits into dozens of dispersed explosives that, if they fail to explode, turn effectively into land mines long after the attack. 4.Nothing will end war unless the people themselves refuse to go to war.War can be devastating, And it can go on for years to come. And sometimes, no good even comes out of it. Many people oppose war, but don’t know how to take action to stop it. 3.Recent history of U.S. warfare shows a trail of weapons leaving long-lasting civilian harm. Will most certainly create huge outflows of refugees. . At the end of 2012 the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR) reported that there were 15.4 million refugees worldwide. In 2012 Afghanistan was the biggest source country of refugees (a position it has held for 32 years) with one out of every four refugees being an Afghan and with 95% living in Pakistan or Iran. food, medicine, and other aid to refugees and other civilian victims of the war is burden on country itself. 2.Its illegal and against basic human rights. The deadliest war in history, in terms of the cumulative number of deaths since its start, is the Second World War, with 60–85 million deaths. 1.War should never be a priority at all ,as solution of problem. In fact ,its itself is the biggest problem of all times. for example after world war 2 the combined damage consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages/hamlets, 2,508 church buildings, 31,850 industrial establishments, 40,000 mi (64,374 km) of railroad, 4100 railroad stations, 40,000 hospitals, 84,000 schools, and 43,000 public libraries.

Top 9 Largest Air Forces in the World: 9. Japan, Air Self Defense Force It wasn’t until World War II after which Japan started forming their very own Japanese Self-Defense Force. In 1954 Japan founded its Japan Air Self-Defense and performed the airborne duties that the navy and armed forces were taking care of. With General Haruhiko Kataoka as the Commander of the Army, 791 total Aircrafts and 45,000 personnel Japan stands as the number ninth Largest Air Force in the whole World. 8. United Kingdom, Royal Air Force Founded in 1918, Royal Air Force is the part of the British Armed Forces and is number eight on our list of Top Ten. It was the World’s first ever Air Force Army that became independent of the navy and armed forces, also it is the oldest. When it was founded it was the largest force in the World but during World War I it was drastically reduced. It wasn’t until World War II that they gained back the power of the force. Today they hold 827 Aircrafts, 40,000 personnel with Sir Andrew as the Chief of the Air Force. 7. Turkey, Turkish Air Force The Turkish Air force was founded along with the creation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. After the World War I some of the Turkish aviators tried to build new units in the main parts of Turkey and tried to bring back a flight personnel with the left overs of the war planes. This is how the beginning of the Turkish Air Force actually started. Today it holds total 60,000 personnel and 736 Aircrafts which makes it stand on number seven on our list. 6. Pakistan, Pakistani Air Force Part of the Pakistan Armed Forces, Pakistan Air Force is the sixth largest Air Force in the World. It basically came into being in 1947 with the independence of Pakistan from India and British, it was then called the Royal Pakistan Air Force. At the time of the independence the country was not provided with the total promised equipment and aircrafts and it was not until 1956 when the country became a Republic, which changed the name to Pakistan Air Force and started flourishing. It today has almost 65,000 full time personnel and 902 Aircrafts. The Chief of Air Staff is Mr. Tahir Rafique Butt. 5. North Korea, Korean People’s Air Force The Unified Aviation Forces of Korea, known as the Korean People’s Air Force is the strongest army force that defends its airspace. With the help of the Soviet, People’s Army was formed on the 20th of August 1947 and the day is still celebrated as the Air Force Foundation Day. The KPAF has 1,500 aircrafts and 110,000 personnel who make it stand as the fifth largest Air Force Army. 4. India, Indian Air Force Officially established in the year 1932 the Indian Air Force is the fourth on our list. After the partition of India and Pakistan, the Indian Air Force that was known as the Royal Indian Air Force had conflicts regarding operational squadrons and facilities that were settled during the following years. Today the Indian Air Force has a total number of 127,000 workers and approximately 1,370 Aircrafts. 3. China, People’s Liberation Army Air Force The People’s Liberation Army Air Force officially came into being in the year 1949 right after the foundation of People’s Republic of China. It now has total 330,000 active personnel and more than 2,500 aircrafts that make it stand as the third largest Air Force in the World. 2. Russia, Russian Air Force The Russian Air Force was established in the year 1992. The Air Force suffered a lot regarding the facilities and resources of the Air Force in its early years, but since Vladimir Putin became the President of Russia, he backed up the Air Force and put in a lot of money for the betterment of the Force. It has around 180,000 personnel and almost more than 4,274 Aircrafts. The Russian Air Force is the second largest Air Force in the world. 1. United States, United States Air force So the United States Air Force,without any doubt, tops the list of the largest Air Force in the World. It was founded back in 1947. It is known as the world’s most technologically advanced Air Forces. With 332,854 active personnel and 5,484 aircrafts, the vision of the United States Air Force is “The United States Air Force will be a trusted and reliable joint partner with our sister services known for integrity in all of our activities, including supporting the joint mission first and foremost. We will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and Power for the nation”.

Top 10 Countries With the Largest Road Networks: Roads are a fundamental component of the transport system in every country and they, undoubtedly, play a key role in connection and communication between cities of a country. A country’s road network should be efficient in order to maximize economic benefits; it is acknowledged that roads enhance mobility, taking people out of isolation and initiates the advancement in different sectors. Humans have always been dependent largely on land transport to travel from one place to another. Good road network also enhances tourism and hence, generates revenue. From the latest research, here is the information and introduction of those top ten countries with the largest road network: 10. Spain Spain is a sovereign state in southwestern Europe. It is the second largest country in Western Europe and the fifth largest country in Europe as a whole. The country’s road system is mainly centralized, covering a distance of 681,298 km. 9. Austria Austria is a landlocked country in East Central Europe. Though its landscape is highly mountainous, the country has proved its meticulous work by building a splendid road network which covers a distance of 823,217 km. 8. France France is the largest country in Western Europe and the third-largest in Europe as a whole; it is also a member of the European Union. It is a country with a very effective and vast road network having a distance of 951,200 covered by its road network. 7. Russia Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one-eighth of the Earth’s inhabited land area. The country is also the world’s ninth most populous nation with more than 143 million people; this population relies on one of the best road networks in the world, covering a distance of 982,000 km. 6. Canada Canada is a country located in North America, and consists of ten provinces and three territories. Canada’s advanced economy relies chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed trade networks which is a proof of its effective road network which covers a distance of 1,042,300 km. 5. Japan Japan, which is also referred to as “land of the rising sun” is an island nation in East Asia. Japan has the world’s tenth-largest population, with over 126 million people; This crowded country definitely need an effective and dense road network for transportation; the country has 1,210,251 km covered by its road network. 4. Brazil Brazil is the largest country in South America. The country’s road network wraps a distance of 1,751,868 km. It is also the world’s fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population; it borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile and occupies 47% of the continent of South America. 3. India India is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. This large country has 4,020,000 km covered by its dense road network. 2. China China is a sovereign state located in East Asia. It is the world’s most heavily populated country, with a population of over 1.35 billion. It has a very effective road network which covers a distance of 4,193,000 km. 1. United States of America United States of America is a federal republic consisting of 50 states. The country has five populated and nine unpopulated territories in the Pacific and the Caribbean. USA has the largest and most advanced road network in the world having a distance of 6,506,204 km covered by roads.

Top 10 Things Women do Better than Men: Enough of proving and fighting of the genders, on who is better than whom and in what! Women without any doubt have been able to touch the skies during the 21stCentury. But what can be better than knowing those top ten things which with statistics prove that women do better than men in any concern. So if you’re a guy and going to read this then make sure that you will help yourself and your friends do a better job in future, because women have clean swiped all these top tens! 10. Women learn better No wonder they attempt multitasks most of the times and prove that they are remarkably good. A study done at the University of Georgia and Columbia University proved it that Women are better learners than men. They have a capability to expand their mind and tend to be more focused, flexible and organized. This makes most of the women understand the task better and quicker than their male fellows. 9. Women are cleaner We have definitely seen more clean girls than clean boys! Not only they themselves but they have a habit of to keep their environment clean for themselves too, their room, workspace, washrooms and cars. A study at the San Diego State University of offices across the United States discovered that men had 10%-20% more bacteria on their workspaces compared to women, who have a cleaner and more hygienic space. 8. Women Interview better No matter how confused and chaotic a woman seems during a test or an interview, they end it up quite perfectly. A Study at the University of Western Ontario resulted in proving that women are better in handling a stress of a job interview. The researchers said that even though they freak out before the actual exam day but they prepare for it better than men that make them interview better. 7. Women evolve prettier Looking through the advancement and evolution a study revealed that women are getting beautiful day by day whereas men in one way or another are the same. Attractive women giving births to more children resulting in more baby girls means another pretty girl in the world. So if you recently had or are going to have a baby girl then she’s going to be one of those pretty ones too. 6. Women survive car accidents more often Many point women for having bad driving skills! But here we are with another study at the Carnegie Mellon University that proved that 77% men are more likely to die in a car accident than women. So try keeping you seatbelts tight when you sit in a car without a girl! 5. Women are better at pursuing comfort A mind survey of about 2000 people revealed that Women are better at seeking comfort from. Women are chosen to be a better option by many to talk out their problems to. So when your girl-friend asks you what is stressing you out you may tell her, she might have an option to solve your stress. Mothers in that account can be put as the best comfort providers. 4. Women graduate more often How many of you boys have taken more than five years to complete their bachelor’s degree? Well women don’t really appreciate that; they like to do the work right on time. The department of Education’s Statistics discloses that men are less likely than women to get their bachelor’s degree. The enrolment of girls is also higher than boys in most of the Universities. 3. Women have a stronger immune system Women fight through the sniffles and fevers better than the baby boys out there! A study done by McGill University discovered women’s secret weapon that keeps them strong against all the odds and bacteria, which is Estrogen. Estrogen according to the study gives a woman a strong edge when it comes to infections and medical problems; estrogen confronts a certain enzyme that often stays the body’s first line of protection against the virus. 2. Women invest better Having an amazing preplanned system and thinking of far-headed women are the ones who invest better than men. A study of 100,000 portfolios resulted in showing that women’s investment outperformed compared to many men’s. Being more concern and practical women are the ones who can deal well with the money too, so do not underestimate the girl power with the money. 1. Women live longer With these top ten qualities and many more not mentioned, Women tend to live longer than men. According to a new England Centenarian study, among the population of the world above hundred 85% are women. It is also proved in general that women live 5-10 years longer than men do. Take them seriously; they might live after you die!

Top 10 Armed Forces of the World: Armed forces are referred to as the land arm of any country that has a Military Force. Among many countries in the world that hold the strongest armies some of them out class the others in regard to their position, strength of force, equipment and most importantly their abilities, which take these armies to a level on the list. Our Top Ten’s list has combined together the Top Ten armed Forces of the World in 2013. Check out our list for ten best Armies of the World. 10. Brazil The land Army of the Brazilian Armed forces is on the number 10 in our list. The Brazilian army has been a part of many international battles, taking South America an example, in the 19thCentury. It played a role as an Allied force in World War I as well as in World War II and participated in the UN peacekeeping missions. Founded in 1822 it has an active personnel of 371,199 and active reserve of 1,340,000 till now. 9. Italy On number 9 we have the ground defense force of the Italian Armed Forces that was founded back in 1861. The fights of the army include; colonial engagements in China-Libya, against Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I, have been a part of World War II and Cold War, whereas after the Cold war the Italian army has been active enough for the peacekeeping in Afghanistan and Iraq. It has active personnel of about 108,355. 8. South Korea The republic of Korea’s army which is also known as ROK army is responsible for the warfare on ground. This Army which is on the number eight position has been active since 1948 and follows strict rules regarding military services and maintenance. Having a large number of personnel of about 506,000 has made it strong enough in a lesser time period and makes its place on our list. 7. Germany Found in 1955 the land army of the Federal Republic of Germany is on the 7thrank on our list. After World War II when Germany was split into two sovereign states, both of them came up with two different armies of their own. But until the Cold war Germany itself had its very own and official army in 1955. With the latest equipment in the army and a total number of 148,996 personnel, German Army marks itself on the list too. 6. France On number six is the French Army, Backbone of the French Government and the largest part of the French Armed Forces. Though it started back in the 15thcentury, it issued the Code of a French soldier in the year 1999 which included these commands: “Mastering his own strength, he respects his opponent and is careful to spare civilians. He obeys orders while respecting laws, customs of war and international conventions. He is aware of global societies and respects their differences.” The French army stands firm with 122,328 of total personnel. 5. United Kingdom Founded in 1707 the British army is the modern land warfare army of the world. On number five The British Army has been a part of the World’s major wars, like; Seven Years wars, Napoleonic Wars, Crimean War, World War I and World War II. Being the leading and victorious army in all these wars, British army had been establishing itself as the military and economic power around the World. The personnel of the army are 129,450 in total. 4. India Largest component of the Indian Armed forces is the Indian Army that takes hold of the ground warfare. The major missions of the Indian Army are to provide national security, defend the country from external belligerences and deliver unity. The army had fought five wars in total, from which four with Pakistan and one with China. With a personnel number of 1,129,900 it stands firm on number four. 3. China The People’s Liberation Army is number three on our list. The armed forces of the People’s Republic of China are the largest military force in the whole World with the strength of about 2,250,000 personnel. Founded in the year 1927 the People’s Liberation Army came through ups and downs and made itself capable enough to be one of the strongest Military forces in the world. 2. Russia Ground Forces of the Russian Federation came into being in 1992. Coming through from not a very long period of time it still makes itself capable enough to be world’s second strongest military force in the world. It went through Chechyen War, peacekeeping and some operations in the Soviet successor state. Whereas the recent war it had was with Georgian Forces of South Ossetia War of 2008. It has total personnel of 360,000. 1. United States The main branch of the United States Armed Forces tops our list, The United States Army came into being in 1775 and today it has total 546,047 personnel. The main mission of the army is “to fight and win our Nation’s wars by providing prompt, sustained land dominance across the full range of military operations and spectrum of conflict in support of combatant commanders.” Having the latest equipment and large number of soldiers to operate The United States Army definitely wins the list.

Top 10 Armed Forces of the World: Armed forces are referred to as the land arm of any country that has a Military Force. Among many countries in the world that hold the strongest armies some of them out class the others in regard to their position, strength of force, equipment and most importantly their abilities, which take these armies to a level on the list. Our Top Ten’s list has combined together the Top Ten armed Forces of the World in 2013. Check out our list for ten best Armies of the World. 10. Brazil The land Army of the Brazilian Armed forces is on the number 10 in our list. The Brazilian army has been a part of many international battles, taking South America an example, in the 19thCentury. It played a role as an Allied force in World War I as well as in World War II and participated in the UN peacekeeping missions. Founded in 1822 it has an active personnel of 371,199 and active reserve of 1,340,000 till now. 9. Italy On number 9 we have the ground defense force of the Italian Armed Forces that was founded back in 1861. The fights of the army include; colonial engagements in China-Libya, against Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I, have been a part of World War II and Cold War, whereas after the Cold war the Italian army has been active enough for the peacekeeping in Afghanistan and Iraq. It has active personnel of about 108,355. 8. South Korea The republic of Korea’s army which is also known as ROK army is responsible for the warfare on ground. This Army which is on the number eight position has been active since 1948 and follows strict rules regarding military services and maintenance. Having a large number of personnel of about 506,000 has made it strong enough in a lesser time period and makes its place on our list. 7. Germany Found in 1955 the land army of the Federal Republic of Germany is on the 7thrank on our list. After World War II when Germany was split into two sovereign states, both of them came up with two different armies of their own. But until the Cold war Germany itself had its very own and official army in 1955. With the latest equipment in the army and a total number of 148,996 personnel, German Army marks itself on the list too. 6. France On number six is the French Army, Backbone of the French Government and the largest part of the French Armed Forces. Though it started back in the 15thcentury, it issued the Code of a French soldier in the year 1999 which included these commands: “Mastering his own strength, he respects his opponent and is careful to spare civilians. He obeys orders while respecting laws, customs of war and international conventions. He is aware of global societies and respects their differences.” The French army stands firm with 122,328 of total personnel. 5. United Kingdom Founded in 1707 the British army is the modern land warfare army of the world. On number five The British Army has been a part of the World’s major wars, like; Seven Years wars, Napoleonic Wars, Crimean War, World War I and World War II. Being the leading and victorious army in all these wars, British army had been establishing itself as the military and economic power around the World. The personnel of the army are 129,450 in total. 4. India Largest component of the Indian Armed forces is the Indian Army that takes hold of the ground warfare. The major missions of the Indian Army are to provide national security, defend the country from external belligerences and deliver unity. The army had fought five wars in total, from which four with Pakistan and one with China. With a personnel number of 1,129,900 it stands firm on number four. 3. China The People’s Liberation Army is number three on our list. The armed forces of the People’s Republic of China are the largest military force in the whole World with the strength of about 2,250,000 personnel. Founded in the year 1927 the People’s Liberation Army came through ups and downs and made itself capable enough to be one of the strongest Military forces in the world. 2. Russia Ground Forces of the Russian Federation came into being in 1992. Coming through from not a very long period of time it still makes itself capable enough to be world’s second strongest military force in the world. It went through Chechyen War, peacekeeping and some operations in the Soviet successor state. Whereas the recent war it had was with Georgian Forces of South Ossetia War of 2008. It has total personnel of 360,000. 1. United States The main branch of the United States Armed Forces tops our list, The United States Army came into being in 1775 and today it has total 546,047 personnel. The main mission of the army is “to fight and win our Nation’s wars by providing prompt, sustained land dominance across the full range of military operations and spectrum of conflict in support of combatant commanders.” Having the latest equipment and large number of soldiers to operate The United States Army definitely wins the list.

Top 10 Gift Ideas for Your Girl Friend: Choosing a perfect gift for your girlfriend can be a nightmare.At Top Tens we have compiled a list to help you in this regard.We have taken into account what the majority of girls prefer to receive as gifts from the man in their life.If you don’t have any idea as to what to buy your girlfriend, this list will help to alleviate your problem.Here goes and hoping your girl friend will appreciate your gift as we at Top Tens have enjoyed making up the top ranking gift. ideas. 10.CLOTHES Every girl loves shopping for clothes.Why not take her out to her favorite outlet and let her choose what she wants and may be she will choose something which you want to see her in .Never buy a girl clothes yourself,She may not like them ,and may have to pretend to like them and surely that would not be what you want. 9.GADGETS Gadgets are a useful part of everyday life,if your girl friend is one to use them it would be a great idea to buy her one as a gift.If she already has what she needs may be an upgrade would be a good idea.Get an idea of what she wants and surprize her with a useful gift she will love. 8.SURPRISE HOLIDAY TRIP What could be nicer than getting away from an everyday mundane routine. If you cannot afford to go to a far off holiday destination, maybe a weekend trip to some nearby holiday resort would be a perfect way to show how much you care for her. 7.CUTE PETS Pets are friendly, is your girlfriend the type to appreciate them.Make sure your girlfriend is not allergic to them or just detests them, before you go out to buy her that furry bundle of joy.Cats are tops in this section while puppies are not far behind,talk about animals in general before actually going out buying her a pet. 6.CHOCOLATES OR CANDIES Most girls love the rich indulgent taste of chocolate.A large box of selected chocolates would be an ideal gift to spoil your girlfriend with A colorful choice of candies and sweets presented in a fancy basket will make her feel special. 5.CUDDLEY TOYS If the girl in your life does not like pets, she is surely going to love a fluffy, lovable, cuddley toy.Lets face it who can resist the charm of some of those cute furry hugable toys.Teddy bears are a top favourite in this category. 4.PERFUMES Perfumes are an all time favorite wi th women of all ages.Girls especially love to smell nice .There are a whole variety of fragrances to choose from.Some girls prefer light flowery tones, while others prefer heavy musks.What ever the mood there is always a perfume to match it.French perfumes are famous the world over and the blends of under tones and overtones are carefully mixed to make them irresistable. Go on and splash out ,She will love you for it. 3.FLOWERS Who would not love to receive a lovely bouquet of flowers what ever the special occasion. Flowers are an intimate expression of one’s inner feelings ,may it be a single red rose or a large colorful bouquet. Flowers are a winner every time. 2.JEWELLERY Girls love to adorn themselves withe various items of jewellery.Jewellery is coveted by most young girls,Although expensive, it is made to last and be cherished for generations.Expression of love can be shown by giving an item of jewellery like a bracelet or a locket,rings are given mainly for engagament or eternity. 1.CANDLE-LIGHT DINNER What can be more romantic than an intimate candle-lit dinner for two.Choose a fine restaurant to set the mood accompanied by her favourite cuisine.Maybe a seaside setting could be her ideal!This could be the perfect time for you to propose to her, be prepared with your engagement ring in your pocket!

Top 10 Best Things You Can Do in Your Spare Time: With the increasingly hectic lives we lead in today’s society, we get little spare time to break away from our grueling routines to spend tie sole on us. When time taken, it is often difficult to choose between the array of options in order to decide what to do or what not to. We want to make the most of or free time and exploit the opportunity accordingly. There a few pastimes it seems that are popular amongst many. We’ve compiled a list of ten things that you might want to in order to make the most of your spare time 10. Cook a Great Meal How about honing or developing a skill, such as cooking. Find some great recipes from internet or get a cooking magazine from the market, grab some interesting ingredients and make one of your favourite meals. Won’t it be great to cook something you like to eat, and even if you don’t know how to cook, practice and share it with your friends and family, they’ll love the experience 9. Visit your Friends and Family Too much work does not let you be with your loved ones. If you do get a bit of spare time away from work, call your friends or family. Plan a day out. Plan days in. Rekindle old connections. 8. Surf the Internet The internet is full of new, wonderful, interesting and strange things. Switch on your laptop or tablet and Google some interesting things you might want to know about it. 7. Watch some Television Your free time is supposed to be for chilling. The best way you can chill and enjoy it is to watch television. Get your favorite movie on a DVD player or maybe just sit back on your couch and escape from reality for a few hours! 6. Catch up on your Bills Okay- this probably not something many of us would choose to do during our free time, however using your free time to get your finances in order means you have less to worry about whilst you work. It will also benefit you in the long term keeping an account of all you’re spending so that you don’t panic at the end of the week. 5. Relax and Calm your mind A hectic routine can make you feel very tense and stressed. Use your free time to relax both your body and mind. Book an appointment to get a massage, or go to the sauna or take yoga classes This will help you to keep yourself cool and calm throughout the working day. 4. Exercise and Physical fitness What would be better than making yourself fit and strong? Exercise develops health and strength; a walk in a park or an exercise schedule in a gym will definitely make you feel energized and strong. 3. Clean up your home You have a tough schedule and you cannot take time out for your own house, this might end up with you having an untidy house! So whenever you have free time you should clean up or perhaps engage in some DIY. As the old adage goes ‘a cluttered house results in a cluttered mind and you definitely don’t want to come home after a busy day and have to contend with a cluttered mind! 2. Read a little If you like to read, then this will be the favorite thing you want to do in your spare time. Grab yourself a book, catch up on some latest magazines or go to the nearest library. Books can be a great form of escapism and will help you relax and unwind. 1. Rest or Sleep Going to work, going to the gym, writing, reading and all that stuff that you do when you are awake makes you tired. So the best thing that you could do in your spare time is sleep. Take time out. Take a nap when you are free so that you can get up feeling refreshed. Sleep is the best pastime.

বাংলাদেশের জাতীয় দিবস ২৬শে মার্চ

জাতিসংঘ দিবস ২৪ অক্টোবর। জাতিসংঘের সদর দপ্তর নিউইয়র্কে অবস্থিত। এর বর্তমান সদস্য সংখ্যা ১৯৩ টি দেশ। বর্তমান জাতিসংঘের মহাসচিব বান কি মুন। বান কি মুন দক্ষিণ কোরিয়ার নাগরিক।

কাজী নজরুল ইসলাম ১৮৯৯ সালের ২৫ই মে (১১ই জ্যৈষ্ঠ ১৪০৭ বঙ্গাব্দ) ভারতের কলকাতার আসানসোল মহকুমার চুরুলিয়া গ্রামে জন্মগ্রহন করেন। ছোটবেলায় তাঁর নাম ছিল দুখু মিয়া। তিনি বাংলাদেশের জাতীয় কবি। ১৯৪২ সালে তিনি এক দুরারোগ্য ব্যধিতে আক্রান্ত হন। পরে তিনি আর ভালো হন নি। তাঁকে ১৯৭২ সালে বাংলাদেশে এনে বাংলাদেশের নাগরিকত্ব দেওয়া হয়।

Top 10 Best Things You Can Do in Your Spare Time: With the increasingly hectic lives we lead in today’s society, we get little spare time to break away from our grueling routines to spend tie sole on us. When time taken, it is often difficult to choose between the array of options in order to decide what to do or what not to. We want to make the most of or free time and exploit the opportunity accordingly. There a few pastimes it seems that are popular amongst many. We’ve compiled a list of ten things that you might want to in order to make the most of your spare time 10. Cook a Great Meal How about honing or developing a skill, such as cooking. Find some great recipes from internet or get a cooking magazine from the market, grab some interesting ingredients and make one of your favourite meals. Won’t it be great to cook something you like to eat, and even if you don’t know how to cook, practice and share it with your friends and family, they’ll love the experience 9. Visit your Friends and Family Too much work does not let you be with your loved ones. If you do get a bit of spare time away from work, call your friends or family. Plan a day out. Plan days in. Rekindle old connections. 8. Surf the Internet The internet is full of new, wonderful, interesting and strange things. Switch on your laptop or tablet and Google some interesting things you might want to know about it. 7. Watch some Television Your free time is supposed to be for chilling. The best way you can chill and enjoy it is to watch television. Get your favorite movie on a DVD player or maybe just sit back on your couch and escape from reality for a few hours! 6. Catch up on your Bills Okay- this probably not something many of us would choose to do during our free time, however using your free time to get your finances in order means you have less to worry about whilst you work. It will also benefit you in the long term keeping an account of all you’re spending so that you don’t panic at the end of the week. 5. Relax and Calm your mind A hectic routine can make you feel very tense and stressed. Use your free time to relax both your body and mind. Book an appointment to get a massage, or go to the sauna or take yoga classes This will help you to keep yourself cool and calm throughout the working day. 4. Exercise and Physical fitness What would be better than making yourself fit and strong? Exercise develops health and strength; a walk in a park or an exercise schedule in a gym will definitely make you feel energized and strong. 3. Clean up your home You have a tough schedule and you cannot take time out for your own house, this might end up with you having an untidy house! So whenever you have free time you should clean up or perhaps engage in some DIY. As the old adage goes ‘a cluttered house results in a cluttered mind and you definitely don’t want to come home after a busy day and have to contend with a cluttered mind! 2. Read a little If you like to read, then this will be the favorite thing you want to do in your spare time. Grab yourself a book, catch up on some latest magazines or go to the nearest library. Books can be a great form of escapism and will help you relax and unwind. 1. Rest or Sleep Going to work, going to the gym, writing, reading and all that stuff that you do when you are awake makes you tired. So the best thing that you could do in your spare time is sleep. Take time out. Take a nap when you are free so that you can get up feeling refreshed. Sleep is the best pastime.

Top 10 Terrorist Countries of The World: Freedom fighters can be considered to be heroes, unfortunately because of false media information portraying them as rebels, radicals or thugs they can be misconstrued as terrorists. It is the right of every living being that if anybody hit him/her without reason, he/she will hit back. As we have been taught that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Here’s the list we prepared for you of top ten terrorist countries. 10.DENMARK The Danish government may not be involved in spreading terrorism all around the world ,but by providing protection to those people who are involved in the growing hatred, revolt and rebellion against Islam (and especially against Prophet Muhammad (SAW)) We fuelling terror. When anybody disrespecting any religion, prophet then he/she is committing crime and spreading terrorism. 9.IRAN Iran is a very strong Muslim country, but is also involved in terrorist activity .Iran is supporting and aiding militant groups in the Middle East.and South Asia.Iran is also supporting Bashar Hafez al-Assad’s government against the will of the Syrian people.Iran is also involved in killing hundreds of children. 8.SYRIA The Syrian government is also spreading terrorism .The Syrian government is using its armed forces against its own people. The Syrian government is also promoting terrorism in its neighbouring countries. The government has been bombing and firing and using various chemical weapons against own peoples. 7.AFGHANISTAN Afghanistan has become a most dangerous place after the American attack. It is becoming the center of attention for most intelligence agencies like RAW and CIA, after the Soviet Union war. These agencies are promoting various terrorist groups in South Asia, especially in Pakistan like Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan, Balochistan Liberation Army and various others. These militants are challenging the writ of the Pakistan government. Many militant groups are also interfering in Iran, China and other neighbouring countries. 6.INDIA When we talk about India, it is not less than any other country in spreading terrorism. India is aiding and supporting terrorist groups in Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Above all India has physically invaded and has been using military power against innocent people of occupied Jammu Kashmir for the past 66 years. 5.FRANCE The French were a colonizing nation in the 17th century well before the British Empire had evolved. There was rivalry between the British and French for colonising North America. Later they concentrated on North Africa and Asia. In 1985, France attacked New Zealand.. After this France always support America in every war and every terrorist activity. France sent its army to Iraq and Afghanistan like America. 4.RUSSIA Russia has a long history starting from the times of the Russian Empire. Terrorism, in the modern sense, means violence against civilians to achieve political or ideological objectives by creating fear, terrorism tactics, such as hostage-taking, were widely used by the Soviet secret agencies, most notably during the Red Terror campaigns, against the population of their own country. Russia also attacked Afghanistan in December 1979. 3.UNITED KINGDOM When we talk about United Kingdom, it has got a very strong history of terrorism .First,in the early eighteenth century, they penetrated Indian subcontinent and destroyed their government by acting on the policy of divide and rule. They took their historical artefacts, books and jewels. Even the large diamond the famous Koh-i-Noor in the queen’s crown is not their own and was instead attained by confiscation from the subcontinent. Then British attacked Ireland in 1955. British army was with America in Iraq war and in the occupation of Afghanistan. Now the United Kingdom is supporting terrorist activity in Karachi, Pakistan by giving protection to MQM leader Altaf Hussain. 2.ISRAEL Israel is a terrorist state too. Israel is spreading terrorism all over the world, especially in Muslim countries like Lebanon, Iran Syria, Jordan, Turkey Egypt, Pakistan and Palestine. Israel has engaged in many terrorist attacks and bombing against the civilians of Gaza; Palestine. They even attacked the Freedom-flotilla which was organized by 22 NGOs for the besieged people of Gaza; Palestine. Now Israel is again planning to attack Syria. 1.UNITED STATE OF AMERICA America is the biggest terrorist country in the world. America wages war just to run its own weapons industries. America has undertaken terrorist activity in the past. The major terrorist activity was atomic bombings of the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan during the Second World War. The Korean War of 1950-1953 and the Vietnam War of 1964-1975 are prime examples of terrorist atrocities. Recently, they attacked Iraq and Afghanistan. Now they are going to attack Syria. Oh sorry, will organize a ‘limited operation’ against Syria.

Top 10 Places You Cannot Visit: Various sites on the internet inform us about the beautiful, adventurous and historical places to visit, but on the earth there are many places which either you cannot go, or you are not allowed to.Our earth is full of mysterious, occult and cabbalistic places. There are many topographic points on earth which are not allowed to be visited by the general public. Here at TopTens’ World we have come up with the top ten places where the general public won’t dare to visit. 10.Mezhgorye, Russia Mezhgorye, Russia is Russia’s massive secret underground facility at Yamantau Mountain and the city of Mezhgorye is rumoured that the Yamantau project was associated with so-called ‘dead hand’ nuclear retaliatory command and control system for strategic missiles. 9.Vatican secret archives Vatican secret archives, which are as vast as they are old, like the Vatican library another rumoured store house of secrets, they partially open today to few approved scholars who are let in only with specific purposes and permission of the pope. 8.Club 33, D Disneyland, California Club 33, D Disneyland, California in 1967 Walt Disney felt that he needed a special private place where he could entertain sponsors meet other guests after he had died Disney land decided to make Club 33 open only to special members ,as June 2007 the membership waiting list was 14 years. 7.Masco Metro-2 Russia Masco Metro-2 Russia has a secret underground metro system which runs parallel to the public Moscow metro, it is said to connect the Kremlin with the FSB headquarters, the government airport at tvnukovo-2. In the late 1940 Stalin had created the tunnels in the event of a nuclear war. 6.White’s Gentlemen’s Club, London England White’s Gentleman’s Club, London England it was established in 1693 to sell hot chocolate, a rare and expansive commodity at the time, now its membership is reserved for the wealthiest and most influential members of society. 5.Area 51, Nevada United States Area 51, Nevada United States it is known for its secretive nature and its undoubted connection to classified aircraft research ,together with reports of unusual phenomena, have lead area 51 to become focused of modern UFO and conspiracy theories, located at Groom Lake ,at is large secretive military base. 4.Room 39.North Korea Room 39.North Korea it is one of the most secret organization in arguably the world’s most secretive state. Its mission is to obtain foreign currency for supreme leader of north korea.the powerful, entity which has existed for decades is believed to raise funds through business ventures, and some legitimate to be located inside ruling workers party building in Pyongyang. 3.Ise Grand Shrine, Japan Ise Grand Shrine, Japan it is located in Japan and is considered arguably one of the most sacred holiest and important places in Japan shrine is demolished and rebuilt once every twenty years; the only people who are able to access the shrine are the Japanese imperial family and high priestesses and priests. 2.Mount Weather Emergency Operations Centre, USA Mount Weather Emergency Operations Centre, USA it is also known as ”the high point special facility ‘the facility is a major relocation site for the highest level of civilian and military officials in case of national disaster. It is also the home of the FEMA national radio system, which connects most federal, public safety agencies and us military with most of the states. 1.RAF Menwith Hill, United Kingdom RAF Menwith Hill, United Kingdom it is a Royal Air Force station near Harrogate, North Yorkshire, England which provides communications and intelligence support services to the United Kingdom and USA. The site contains an extensive satellite ground station and communications intercept and missile warning site and has been described as the largest electronic monitoring station in the world.

Top 10 Naval Forces in The World: 10. Republic of China Navy The first naval army that we will discuss is one of the two Naval Armies of China on the list. On number ten we have Republic of China Navy. The main mission of the ROC navy is to protect and defend the territories and sea boundaries of Taiwan. The operations of the Republic of China Navy include maritime perambulations in the Taiwan Passage and the waters that surround, counter-strike and counter- invasion operations during the time of war. The ROC navy is active since 1924 and today it has 38,000 personnel with approximately 48 total Warships. 9. Italian Navy / Marina Militare The navy of the Italian Republic stands as the ninth Naval force on our list. One of the four branches of the Italian Armed forces is known as marine Militare in Italy and was founded back in 1946. After battling the World War II the leftovers of the Royal navy joined in to make the naval army of Italy and as of today it holds 35,200 workers and total of 60 ships altogether. 8. Indian Navy Although the Indian Armed forces had Royal Indian Navy before the independence of India but it was not until the independence that the country had their own official Indian Navy in 1947. Apart from securing the sea borders of the country the Indian Navy plays an important role in creating good relations with the neighboring countries, by visiting ports and aiding in other various issues. Indian Navy has modernized their equipment in the previous years, as for today The Indian Navy has approximately 58,350 personnel and 155 total warships. 7. Republic of Korea Navy Part of the South Korean Armed Forces, the Republic of Korean Navy stands as the eighth navy force in the World. Korean Navy has been the oldest branch of the Armed Forces of Korea that was found back in 1945. Today it has almost 68,000 active personnel and 170 custom-built ships. Creating a well performing naval force to fight war, promoting national interests through the protection of maritime activities are some of the objectives of the Korean Navy. 6. French Navy One of the oldest and historic Naval Force is on the number six. French Navy came into being in 1624 and played a significant part in forming the French colonial empire. The roles of the French Navy have been increased by signifying the duties of protecting population, maintaining intelligence, prevent crisis and re-establishing peace. Now it has 38,643 personnel and 98 ships which makes it powerful enough to be on the list. 5. Royal Navy Another old number on the list is a branch of the British Armed Forces, The Royal Navy make its origins from the 16thCentury. Since then it has been an important and senior part of the British Force. From late 17thCentury till the 20thof Century Royal Navy had been the most powerful Navy Force in the entire world. Finding victory in World War I the Royal Navy reduced in size, but that too could not let it down, until the end of World War II it was yet again the largest and the powerful Navy of all. Today it has 97 ships and 36,600 personnel. 4. Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force On number four we have the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force that is a marine branch of the Japan Self-Defense Forces. Coming from the year 1952 the main task of the Japan Maritime is to control and protect the nation’s sea lanes and to guard the regional waters. The large number of personnel of 45,800 and 114 ships altogether makes an incredible Force of Japan. 3. People’s Liberation Army Navy China’s second Navy Army is the top third on the list which takes People’s liberation Army Navy to another level! The branch has been started since the 1950 and today the People’s Liberation Army Navy has its own five branches that are; People’s Liberation Army Submarine Force, People’s Liberation Army Surface Force, People’s Liberation Army Navy Coastal Defense Force, People’s Liberation Army Marine Corps and People’s Liberation Army Naval Air Force. With a large number of personnel of approximately 290,000 and more than 515 ships, This Navy Army controls a lot. 2. Russian Navy 140,000 personnel and modernized 282 ships make it the second on the list. Although this naval army had its origins from the 6thcentury but it had to struggle a lot to make itself an official state army branch which took place after a long period in 1992. Taking forward the late experience and modern technology the Russian Navy has marked itself as one of the top naval armies in the World. 1. United States Navy The naval warfare branch of the United States Armed Forces, The United States Navy tops the list of the top ten Naval Forces in the World. The services have 317,054 active personnel and 286 ships in total that make possible for one of the largest Navies in the world capable of performing all the duties that are granted to it.

Top 10 Largest Rivers in United Kingdom: United Kingdom is known for many of its famous things like, The Royalty, Big Red buses, David Beckham, Oasis and the black cabs. How could we forget all the rivers that it has in it? From all 1000 Rivers flowing in the United Kingdom (small and big) there are 20 major rivers that are usually known by any person. But here we have come to make an order list of the longest Rivers in the United Kingdom ranking from the less long to the longest of all. 10. River Nene The tenth largest river of the United Kingdom is the River Nene; this river is situated in the East of England. The length of the river is approximately 161 km and the region where it rises is the sections of Northampton shire, Cambridge shire, Lincoln shire and Norfolk. It starts from the Arbury hills and ends at the Northampton water fall. The name ‘Nene’ is a Celtic word, which passed its name to the former Nene College of Higher Education in Northampton. 9. River Clyde The Third longest in Scotland and ninth largest in the whole United Kingdom is the River Clyde. Situated in Scotland it flows through an important city, which is Glasgow. This river played an important role in shipbuilding and trade in the era of British Empire. The length of the river is 172 km; it starts from the Lowther hills in South Lanark shire and ends at the Firth of Clyde. 8. River Spey The Eighth largest river is also situated in Scotland, to a north eastern direction. It is also known as to be the fastest and longest flowing river in Scotland which is important for the fishing of Salmon fishes and also in Whisky making. The Length of the river is known to be 172 km which starts from Moray Firth at Spey- Bay. 7. River Tay With the length of 188 km, River Tay stands as the seventh longest river of the United Kingdom. The river starts from the Ben lui, Scottish Highlands and ends at the North Sea, Firth of Tay. Attracting anglers from around the world, River Tay is the best river of Salmon fishes and is best for the fishing of that kind. 6. River Ure/ River Ouse Starting from Ure head and ending at the River Ouse in North Yorkshire in England, River Ure is 208 km in length. River Ure is one of those many rivers which drain into the River Ouse, and that is why it is also called as the River Ouse as well as River Ure. 5. River Wye The River Wye forms its borders in England and Wales. It is a part of the Wye Valley which is an important place regarding beautiful nature and amazing recreation. The River Wye is 215 km long in length and starts at the Plynlimon whereas it ends at the Chepstow, Severn Estuary. The Roman name for the river was ‘Vaga’ which meant ‘to roam’ as it was derived from vagor. 4. River Great Ouse England’s other long river comes up named River Great Ouse, it flows into East Anglia to the North Sea. The River is 230 km long and is considered as very important for commercial navigation. The name ‘Ouse’ is from the Celtic which simply means ‘slow moving water’. The river brings in many other drains from other smaller rivers. With all that it’s the fourth longest river of the United Kingdom. 3. River Trent River Trent stands as the third longest river of the United Kingdom with the total length of 297 km. The source of the River Trent in the Stafford shire and ends at the Trent falls, Humber Estuary, Lincoln shire and York shire. The name ‘Trent’ comes from the Celtic word meaning ‘strongly flooding’. 2. River Thames With the length of 346 km, River Thames holds the second position in being the longest river of the United Kingdom. Flowing throw the Southern England it is the longest in England itself. The name of the River is derived from many political and geographical beings. It starts from the Thames Head and ends at the Thames Estuary and North Sea. 1. River Severn And the longest river from those rivers in the United Kingdom altogether is the River Severn, which has the length of 354 km in total. It is also known to be the greatest river regarding its water flow in England and Wales. The source of the River Severn is in the Plynlimon, Ceredigion and Wales and ends up at Severn Estuary. The name of the river was originally derived from the Celtic word which further turned and developed in different languages, ‘Sabrina’ to the Romans, ‘Hefren’ in Weldh and ‘Severn’ in English.

The 10 Worst Things You Do to Damage Your Hair: Hair care are simple and finite, there are plenty of ways you may be harming your precious strands without even knowing it. Here’s how to stop the damage. Take look how do you harm your hair even without knowing it !!! 10. Keeping the same shampoo for changing hair Most women seem to think that they need to routinely switch their shampoo in order to keep locks from building up a tolerance to product. Additionally, many women tend to experience some type of hair loss during pregnancy. 9. Slathering on too many products The last things you want to do are cause build-up and strip your hair of its natural oils. If you have fine hair, your locks will end up weighed down, creating the opposite effect of what you’re trying to achieve. If you want to use additional products or are unsure if you’re putting too much in, try applying products to wet hands to thin them out a little you can always add more. 8. Handling wet hair roughly When hair is wet, cuticle scales can lift, making moist strands more delicate and more susceptible to breakage and split ends than dry hair. Using a brush or narrow-tooth comb can be too rough because it pulls too harshly causing snaps and breakage. 7. Brushing from the roots down Brushing your locks from top to bottom can cause snags and breakage. To go about it in a gentler way, divide your hair into three-to-four-inch sections and smooth from the bottom up.To do this, grab hair a few inches from the bottom, and brush down from where your hand is. 6. Going too long between haircuts While picking at split ends might be a great procrastinating tool, it’s also a wake-up call that you’re due for a trim. Over time, split ends tend to divide into even bigger split ends, causing your hair to thin and weaken. To keep your hair looking healthy and whole try cutting 1/2-inch off your ends every month, or every other month if you’re trying to grow hair long. Dead ends don’t add to your length anyway. 5.Skipping heat protectant Heat protectant spray is important to prevent damage to the hair shaft.Make sure it coats each section that is going to be exposed to heat, but not so much that your hair is sopping wet again.A light spray will do the trick. 4. Setting the heat too high Excess heat strips hair of its natural moisture, causing your cuticles to dry and snap off — leading to some thirsty-looking strands. While hair blowing or hair drying or straightening don’t turn the dial above “medium.” don’t blow dry when it’s dripping wet, instead wait until it’s damp. 3. Hair treatments with too many chemicals Too much coloring, keratin-ing, and relaxing can cause breakage and damage. Make sure you keep the number of chemical processes to a minimum, and consider establishing a routine that involves preemptive care before undergoing chemical treatments, like a scalp mask or an pre-shampoo protective treatment a couple days prior to visiting the hairdresser. 2. Using rough elastic The best type of elastic to use in your hair is something covered in fabric — a dense, thin hair tie can irritate your strands causing breakage if pulled to tightly. If you just want to get your hair out of your face, try gently pulling it back using bobby pins. Anything too tight is damaging, so try to think loose. 1. Clean out your hair you should make sure to clean out those hairy brushes, which are breeding grounds for germs and old residue things no one wants in their hair. Remove the hair from the brush after each styling session. Once a month, clean brushes and combs with a little baking soda and water, dissolving well, soaking for a couple of minutes, and rinsing thoroughly.

Top 10 Tips To Combat Baldness: Whatever the reason for our baldness we are always open to new suggestions to encourage hair growth.Some of these are oldwives home remedies while some have been gathered from around the world.The best advice is to avoid too many hair treatments like bleaching perming,tonging, harsh shampoo’s and hot showers.Warm water is advised as hot water weakens the hair roots.Oiling once a week is now even advised by top hair experts , and is also added to some shampoo’s .Brushing and massaging encourages blood circulation,which in turn provides the necessary nutrients.Are you getting a healthy balanced diet?Maybe one of the following treatments will work for you. 10 Grind and make a paste using pomegranate leaves,apply to scalp to overcome hair loss problems. 9 Application of lemon juice on the scalp encourages hair growth. 8 Use a mixture of Amla oil with an equal amount of fresh lemon juice,use as a shampoo. 7 Banana pulp mixed with lemon juice used regularly helps to combat baldness. 6 Applying neem oil on the bald areas for a period of time has been known to promote hair growth. 5 A paste made from fresh onions is deemed helpful to cure baldness. 4 Take four tbsp of camphor oil and mix with four tbsp of yoghurt leave the mixture on to soak right in for 2-3 hours .Wash with luke warm water. 3 A good massage with aloe vera gel or coconut milk is also an effective baldness remedy. 2 Salt and black pepper ( powdered) rubbed into the scalp with a thick slice of onion keeps a check on ringworm ,which could be the cause of your baldness. 1 A mixture of salt, oven clay and fresh ground garlic encourages hair growth on bald areas.

Top 10 Most Seductive Perfumes for Men of 2013: It’s human nature to admire something beautiful and worth watching , so is the case with fragrances and perfumes. A good smell can bring positivity to the surrounding. Perfumes are known to exist since the existence of the human race ,traces of them can be found in pre-historic text and ancient digs. Perfumes have majestic aroma that give others a soothing and pleasant scent that is cheerful and relaxing. With the evolution of human race perfumes have evolved with time as well , now a days irresistible fragrances are readily available in the market. We have compiled a top ten list of irresistible seductive perfumes for men , the list is based on the customers demand and reviews of the products. 10. Giorgio Armani, Armani Code Pour Homme Giorgio Armani is a famous Italian fashion designer deemed for his mens fashion wear. The tenth spot on our list goes to ” Giorgio Armani, Armani Code Pour Homme” because it’s a subtle fragrance and is blend of two perfumes and very elegant in aroma and rich in scent .1.7 oz costs 65$. 9. Obsession by Calvin Klein On the number nine we have an American sensation the world famous ” Obsession by Calvin Klein” , Calvin Klein inc is a famous fashion house founded by Calvin Klein . The perfume is quite similar to its name with seductive fragrance and head turning aroma , the perfume is famous world over and its cost is 43$ . 8. Odin 04 by Petrana Odin 04 by Petrana has strong floral aroma of Jordanian desert , it’s an exclusive and perfume of the elite class. Odin is very famous among men of middle ages .It is named after a famous Viking God .It.Retail price is $110 for 3/4 fl oz. 7. Gucci Guilty Gucci is world’s leading luxury brand founded in Florence , 1921 . Gucci Guilty is one of the famous men perfume reckoned for its iconic fragrance and majestic aroma , This perfume has a persistent smell and is soothing in nature. 2.5 oz cost is around 64$. 6. Diesel Only the Brave & Only the Brave Tattoo Diesel is an Italian luxurious brand for the rich and famous this diesel product is a must buy for men. It is a complete mixture of sensuality and masculinity. The odor is pleasant for almost every nose , the price of this perfume is higher 57 $ for 2.5 oz. 5. Issey Miyake, L’Eau d’Issey Pour Homme On the sixth place we have ” Issey Miyake, L’Eau d’Issey Pour Homme” it is rich , iconic fragrance with alluring aroma .Issey Miyake is a famous Japanese fashion designer known for different but appealing fashion sense .This perfume has wooden blends with sophisticated scent and is the one of the famous perfumes for men in 2013.The 2.5 oz is for 55 $ 4. Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male Jean Paul Gaultier is a famous French designer and Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male is his famous perfume for men . The perfume is eloquent mixture of scents and its odor is irresistible . This perfume is amongst most best selling brands in US and Europe .The price for 4.2 oz is 75$. 3. Eau de Lacoste On the third place we have another French elegance ” Eau de Lacoste” . The company lacoste was founded in 1933 as a fashion brand for clothing and evolved with time and is now one of the leading brands in the world. This perfume has alluring aroma and is a perfect blend of seductive fragrance and is desired by most of the men now a days.The 1.0 oz bottle is 41$. 2. Paco Rabanne 1 Million Paco Rabanne 1 Million is a fresh fragrance for men ,its a blend of tangy fruits , cinnamon extracts and much more that makes it an irresistible scent with arousing aroma with seductive smell . It is a leading perfume brand that men like to wear in 2013 .1 million 3.4oz costs 37$. 1. Bleu de Chanel The list’s topper is ” Bleu de Chanel ” , Chanel is a famous French brand founded 1909 . Chanel is a leading luxurious brand in the world at the moment and is admired around the globe by both men and women for exclusive products and clothes . This perfume has sensational fragrance and is balanced blend of woody aromatic scent for men who defy convention, and resists the ordinary every day and are eager to do unexpected, the odor is charismatic, appealing and attracts women .So without any hesitation ” Bleu de Chanel” is the number one on our list of top ten seductive perfumes for men .It costs 62 $ for 3.4oz.

Top 10 Makeup Brands of 2013: 10. NARS full line of NARS cosmetics, makeup and skincare products, with available complimentary shipping. Discover the latest Collections.. NARS is known for its adventurous color, rich textures and exquisite designs.NARS Cosmetics is a Shiseido-owned cosmetics and skin care company founded by François Nars, make-up artist and photographer. The cosmetics line began with twelve lipsticks sold at Barneys New York. Since then, NARS have created various multi-use beauty products. The minimalist packaging was created by Fabien Baron and has been hailed as a modern design icon. 9. Avon Avon Products, Inc. known simply as Avon is an American international manufacturer and distributor of beauty, household, and personal care company that sells products through representatives in over 140 countries across the world.In 1886, David H. McConnell started the business in a small office at 126 Chambers Street, in lower New York City.Avon Products, Inc. As of 2012, Avon had annual sales of $10.7 billion worldwide.It is the fifth-largest beauty company and second largest direct selling enterprise in the world, with 6.4 million representatives.Avon Products is a multi-level marketing company. 8. Urban Decay Urban Decay offers trend-setting cosmetics from eye shadow, lip gloss, eyeliner, lip plumper, bronzer, mineral makeup, & other cosmetics.Urban Decay is beauty with an edge. Known for their daring shade names & innovative products, Urban Decay carries the wildest selection in beauty.Urban decay (also known as urban rot and urban blight) is the process whereby a previously functioning city, or part of a city, falls into disrepair and decrepitude. 7.Etude Korea’s first make-up brand Etude has a philosophy that make-up should be fun and new activity rather than being a repetitive everyday thing. Etude House released a rather interesting Spring Collection this year and of course the Muse couldn’t resist picking up most of it. 6.Maybelline New York Maybelline is an American makeup brand sold worldwide and owned by the French cosmetics giant .The Maybelline Company was created by New York chemist T.L. Williams in 1915.the first modern eye cosmetic for everyday use” and Ultra Lash in the 1960s, which was the first mass-market automatic.Dare to come alive with new Color Sensational Vivids. 5. Olay Olay is a product truly born from love, as it was created by a man as a gift for his wife. In the 1950s, chemist Graham Wulff saw his wife Dinah’s frustration with the thick,Olay is an American skin care line. It is one of Procter & Gamble’s multi-billion dollar brands. For the 2009 fiscal year ended June 30, Olay accounted for an estimated $2.8 billion of P&G’s $79 billion in revenue.Olay originated in South Africa as Oil of Olay. Graham Wulff . 4. Clinique Clinique was first launched in 1968 with skincare and make-up products that are all allergy tested and 100% fragrance free.it is is a manufacturer of skincare, cosmetics, toiletries and fragrances, owned by the Estée Lauder Corporation.In 2008, Clinique announced a partnership[8] with Allergan, the maker of Botox and former cosmeceutical partner of Elizabeth Arden, with the result being a new line called Clinique Medical. The line is only available in physician’s offices. 3. The Body Shop The Body Shop offers more than 900 natural beauty products.The Body Shop International plc, known as The Body Shop, has 2,400 stores in 61 countries. The company, which has its headquarters in Littlehampton, West Sussex, England, was founded in 1976 by Anita Roddick and is now part of the L’Oréal corporate group.The natural, environmentally-minded and intimate cosmetics shop inspired Anita Roddick to open her own shop in the UK in 1976. In 1987, Roddick purchased the naming rights from the original Body Shop.In April 2013 it was revealed that Bodyshop was charging Irish consumers up to 50% more than their British counterparts. 2. L’Oreal The L’Oréal Group is the world’s largest cosmetics and beauty company. With its registered office in Paris and head office in the Paris suburb of Clichy, Hauts-de-Seine, France, it has developed activities in the field of cosmetics. Concentrating on hair colour, skin care, sun protection, make-up, perfumes and hair care, the company is active in the dermatological, tissue engineering and pharmaceutical fields and is the top nanotechnology patent-holder in the United States. 1. MAC Mac is the short name of makeup art cosmetics, Mac can also be written into M•A•C. It is originated from Canada, established by Frank Toskan and Frank Angelo in 1985. Frank Toskan is a professional makeup artist and cameraman while Frank Angelo is a businessman. They both found that there were no right cosmetics in fashion photography so they set up Mac. There are many products in hot sale such as Mac foundations, lip sticks, blush, brush, eye pencil and so on.Mac cosmetics was established Frank Tosken and Frank angleo.

Top 10 Ways To Reduce High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) Without Drugs: Hypertension is commonly known as High blood pressure. About one in four of adults suffer from hypertension. The exact cause of hypertension is unidentified but there are various factors and conditions which contribute to raise the rate of blood pressure. May be few medicines of yours are increasing your blood pressure. You can shield yourself from this serious health disorder, all you need to understand and take care of your blood pressure, learn the causes, symptoms and prevention. Discover natural ways to fight against your high blood pressure and stay in the pink. So let’s get started to change those risk factors you can control naturally. 1.Exercise Regularly The healthiest rate of blood pressure is 120/80, exercise is the simplest way to keep your blood pressure rate ideal. It not only reduces the risk factors of hypertension, anxiety and being overweight but also keeps your heart work efficiently. The more you lose weight the more you are going away from the risk of hypertension, so increase your exercise level to get lower blood pressure. Do it on regular basis at least 30 to 60 minutes a day. 2. Limit Alcohol Amount Alcohol works in both ways for high blood pressure, decreases hypertension if only you are having one drink in a day and vice versa if you are having more of it, plus it reduces the effects of hypertension medicines. It is recommended not to take more than one drink per day. 3. Reduce Caffeine Caffeine is considered to increase the blood pressure temporarily but it hasn’t proven yet, its role in blood pressure is debatable. Coffee and tea have some benefits but they don’t bring down your blood pressure that means caffeine containing beverages aren’t t good for people with hypertension. So try not to take more than two cups of tea or coffee in a day. 4.Quit smoking/Tobacco Products A colourless oily acrid toxic liquid “nicotine” found in tobacco is on top of other risks of smoking. It raises blood pressure continuously during smoking. Second-hand smoking is also very hazardous for healthiness as it causes high blood pressure and heart syndromes .Not only for hypertension, there are numerous other reasons you should quit smoking. 5.Retain Your Ideal Weight If you are chubby that means you have six times more chances of having hypertension than if you are having your ideal weight. Reducing weight in slighter amount can be supportive to prevent high blood pressure. Excess weight makes your heart to work more which results high blood pressure so drop few pounds and help your heart to work without any extra pressure. 6. Cut down salt/sodium The first advice to reduce high blood pressure is always to cut salt in your diet. It’s just not only salt which increase blood pressure but food like biscuits, readymade meals, takeaways, breakfast cereals and etc., which have high amount of salt or sodium. A person having high blood pressure should go for whole food. 7. De-Stress Stress and anxiety can be a cause of hypertension. Managing stress can be helpful in reducing high blood pressure. Take time to get to know what reasons of your stress are and try to work on them. You can’t exclude all of your stressors but can handle them. Try different ways to avoid stress by your hobbies, exercising, driving and etc. 8.Have Healthy Diet Taking nourishment that is healthy, which includes whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and etc. can reduce the high blood pressure. Add fish oils, magnesium, potassium, garlic to your diet. They are helpful to combat against hypertension, lacking or having low quantity of these can raise the rate of blood pressure. Banana, orange, and potatoes are also beneficial for hypertension. 9. Get Closer to Your Relations It’s always your close ones who stand beside you in rough time. Family, friends and support of your loved one gives you strength to fight against any problem. Spend more time and share your problems with them to release stress. Researchers have found that happily wedded adults have better blood pressure as compare to happily singles. 10. Adopt a Pet It is observed that pet owners are much happier, healthier, have low blood pressure and cholesterol as compare to non-owners. Pets are always a good source of social and emotional support. According to a study pets help to feel calmer and more encouraged.

Top 10 Hydrating Fruits in Summer Season: What a blessed time of year when the glorious God connects with His sweet summer season. All this heat though, will tire us out quicker in this season. So, these are ten fruits known to keep us hydrated and healthy. 10. Mango The king of the fruit jungle, mangoes provide a lot of bang for their 135 calories, and they’re a good source of vitamins A, B6, and C, plus fibre. British weather is too cool to produce spectacularly sweet mangoes thus they get them imported! JUST BUY & EAT IT! There’s no need to mess with this fruit. Slice to eat or cut in a cross-cross fashion to turn out a ‘hedgehog’ design. Open mouth and consume. 9. Pineapple This exceptionally juicy fruit is packed with bromelain, a mixture of compounds with potent anti-inflammatory powers. In other words, eat pineapple now and you may avoid pain meds in the future.Pan fry pineapple rings (without the skin) to caramalise and eat with yoghurt/ ice cream or create fruit kebabs by piercing bitesize chunks onto wooden skewers with strawberries, grapes and melon. 8. Cantaloupe Hydration rating of 89%. Cantaloupe is an exceptionally good fruit for supporting energy production and the ability to keep the blood sugar stable. With all that goodness and flavour this is a top munchable fruit. Blend the flesh into pulp and freeze for instant sorbet, or skin and cut into chunks for a mixed watermelon/sweet melon salad. 7. Coconut water Hydration rating 95%. Coconut water (not milk) is the liquid found in young green coconuts that gets absorbed as the coconut fruit matures. It has a relatively low sodium and carbohydrate content and tastes dry but refreshing. Avoid the hype around coconut water but drink it as a blessing and nourishing fruit.Buy fresh and buy from local greengrocers. Avoid the packed cartons which tend to include preservatives for a long shelf-life and dilute the drink. 6. Grapefruit Hydration rating 90% water. Sweet but zingy, grapefruits contain only 30 calories and the detoxifying limonoids, which according to research, may inhibit cancer tumours. Either way, eating natural is always healthier, happier.Pan fry segments to caramalise grapefruit and eat with waffles. Cut a fruit in half, sprinkle with fairtrade sugar and scoop to eat with a spoon. 5. Grapes These hydration gems are known for their extremely high content of Resveratrol, a substance that acts as an antioxidant and is heart-friendly. Bursting water with each bite, take your pick from purple, red, black or green. One of summer’s most delicious fruits. Slice into fruit salads or just eat whole. One my favourite mix-ups is eating a single grape with a morsel of cheese and sprinkling of coffee granules. Sounds weird but tastes gooood! 4. Figs These summer beauties are indulgent fudgy fruits with a high-output on the health scale. They’re known to lower blood pressure, improve digestion, help with weight loss; even the leaves of the fig tree lower the insulin required by diabetics. As one of the world’s healthiest foods, figs provide the fibre energy to keep moving.have Slice fruits with coconut milk ice cream/Kulfi,or make a fig smoothie with some dates. 3. Berries Strawberries Rank as the 4th strongest antioxidant fruit and are made up of 92% water. Raspberries and blueberries are also at their peak during the summer. Full of vitamin C, berries are known to clear the arteries, regulate blood sugar and taste awesome. Go for organic, eat a handful each day. Eat berries with cereal for Suhoor (morning meal) or as a parfait with yoghurt and granola 2. Oranges Hydration rating 87% water. Oranges are sweet and packed with more than 100% of the daily recommended value for vitamin C.eat as it is, or Squeeze fresh orange juice into chocolate drinks and cut up segments into fruit salads. 1. Watermelon Hydration rating 92%. As this fruit is mostly water and sugar it’s packed with essential rehydration salts magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium so it can actually hydrate as well mantain your electrolyte balance more effectively than water.ITS BETTER EAT AS IT IS OR Blend watermelon chunks with ice and coconut palm sugar for a light Iftaar dessert.

Top 10 Ways to Improve Your Memory: Memory is known as a process in which a piece of information is first acquired, stored and further retrieved when needed. When we need to make or start up to make new memories, we first encode the information which is later stored in your brain to be retrieved when required. We are often unaware of most of the information stored in our brain. Memory loss is when we are unable to act upon the third process that is ‘retrieving’. We become frustrated and angry after forgetting things to avoid that we entirely need to register the information and retrieve it in a better way, to do that we’ll look up to the top ten’s list of improving Memory. 10. Sleep and Exercise Sleeping and exercising are two important factors that will allow you to keep your mind fresh and will help you remember your information more accurately. Regarding sleep, you at least need to sleep for six uninterrupted hours which will allow your brain to take rest and wake up with fresh and active memory. Whereas exercise will help increase the blood flow in your body and hence increasing it in your brain, which will make it work more actively and help you memorize things more accurately. Further you can also give your brain a little mental exercise, like problem solving, puzzles and crosswords to make your brain energetic. 9. Food Eating the right thing is also known to be an important point regarding keeping the memory power at a nice level. Almonds, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, red apples, berries and walnuts are said to be some vital foods that are good for improving the brain functions and hence improving the memory power. To improve memory one should avoid alcohol and drink a suitable amount of water, whereas skipping meals should not be your thing to do if you want your memory to improve. 8. Repetition Repeating things more than one time is another way to improve your memory. It is a way to learn as well; when a person repeats a line several times he is actually transferring his information from short term memory to long term memory. 7. Chunking information A large piece of information is always difficult to memorize, thus what you are supposed to do with it is break it up into pieces. Make smaller chunks of this huge information and take a look into each of these chunks one by one, understand them and then combine them together to make sense. Once you know the smaller chunks, it will be easier for you to memorize the whole information. 6. Writing down Written words have a command to energize your memory and when these words are written by you then this power becomes even more aesthetic. Writing helps your brain to retain the memory faster and it engages more than one sense which helps you to remember the information more accurately. 5. Visualize Information seems to make sense automatically when you visualize it in your own way. Making an image of it in your mind when you see, hear or read it will help you to memorize a particular thing more accurately and you can recall it in a better way and more quickly. 4. Relate Connecting new information to older ones which you never forget will definitely make you memorize the information in future. When you relate the things with previous information it will help you make a chain of memory that you will never forget in future as well. 3. Mnemonics Did you ever think why do you remember a song better than a science chapter? Mnemonics it is! Mnemonics is a very useful tool to help you memorize things in a much faster and accurate way. Anything that comes with a rhyme, song, acronyms or tune will be remembered in a better pattern and in a precise way. 2. Structure and Organize A structured and organized data is always easier to understand, acquire and later retrieve. When information is set before you in a planned and formed way, it will definitely be easier for you to memorize it and later when you will have to retrieve it, you will easily take up the same organized data that you understood at the first place and use it where so ever you need to. Scrambled up and clustered data is one of the worst things that can give you and your memory a tough time. 1. Focus The most important thing you must do to retain information is give your 100% when you are getting it. Do not try to do several tasks at a time, concentrate on one thing at a time. Give your full attention to the information and avoid any other blockage in the way to information and your brain. Once you focus and understand the information you will be able to retain it in the best way.

Top 10 Snacks That Help to Burn Fat: Everyone loves to snack almost as much as we want to lose weight. But according to recent research by the USDA, our snacking habits are adding too many calories and too few nutrients to our diets. It doesn’t have to be this way: 10. Almonds: Eating snacks with the right ratio of nutrients, with the right calories, will help keep you body energized and help you lose weight. Protein (plus exercise) fuels the growth of lean muscle mass, which boosts metabolic rate and increases calorie burn. Fiber, meanwhile, helps improve digestion and keeps you from binging on fats and sugars. 9. An apple and skim milk: Almost any fruit is going to make a great snack, but you usually want to pair it with a bit of protein to make it more satisfying. Our pick for a protein-fruit pairing: one large apple and one cup of skim milk. This duo will give you 10 grams of protein and 5 grams of fiber for just over 200 calories. 8. Edamame: One cup of edamame, or boiled soybeans, contains 17 grams of protein, 8 grams of fiber, and 189 calories. A perfect snack all by itself! Serve hot or cold, season with salt, and enjoy. 7. Whole-wheat crackers: These are a great source of lean protein plus healthy Omega-3s. For about 200 calories, you can enjoy 3 ounces of light tuna and 6 whole-wheat crackers—complete with 3 grams of fiber and 20 grams of protein. 6. Sunflower lentil spread with pita bread: Lentils are a good source of iron, a metabolism-boosting nutrient that 20% of us don’t get enough of. This savory recipe makes four 180-calorie servings, with 10 grams each of protein and fiber. 5. Chicken pita sandwich: In the morning, and split it in half for two snacks throughout the day. Each half contains 200 calories, 3 grams of fiber, and more than 20 grams of protein. 4. Cauliflower with white bean dip: In the beginning of the week spread it on crackers and eat with veggies when hunger strikes. Pair a quarter-cup serving with 2 cups of raw, chopped cauliflower, for example, for a total of 11 grams protein, 8 grams fiber, and 199 calories. 3. Toast with walnut: Toast with walnut is a healthy mid-day snack with 200 calories, 11 grams protein, and 3.5 grams fiber. Not only will it help prep your body for fat burn, but it may also boost your energy levels 2.Lentil salad with tomatoes: Salads aren’t just for mealtime—when they’re about 200 calories, they make a great afternoon snack, as well. This one has 11 grams of protein and 8 grams of fiber, thanks to super food lentils and plenty of veggies. 1. Mint iced green tea: Green tea has been shown to help dieters lose more weight, according to a study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, thanks to its metabolism-boosting antioxidant compound called EGCG. Most research on green tea for weight loss has been inconclusive, but that either way it’s a healthy, tasty way to stay hydrated throughout the day

Top 7 Cuisines Around the Globe: For all the food lovers out there, travelling is essential, if you want to taste everything the world has to offer. That is why we have rounded up the most delicious flavours from around the globe, the most colourful dishes and the tastiest bites. Here are the top 10 cuisines from around the world. 7. Japanese Cuisine Known for its variety, aspect and quality of ingredients, Japanese cuisines are rapidly becoming a trend worldwide. White rice and soybeans are the main ingredients you should expect to find in almost all dishes. According to Michelin Guide, that ranks cities worldwide for their restaurants, Tokyo is the most ‘delicious’ city, with 150 top-ranked restaurants, as opposed to Paris and London that have 148. 6. Mexican Cuisine Known for its varied flavours and spices, Mexican Cuisine is influenced by the Spanish conquistadores’ interactions with the Aztec communities. Most of the Mexican food we eat today is a delicious combination of ancient traditions, Aztec, Mayan and Spanish. The French also had their part in the story adding baked goods, such as sweet breads and the bolillo. You can easily choose the restaurant you are going to eat in by popularity: restaurants with good food usually attract all the customers. There are also exotic options for your menu, such as iguana, insects, rattlesnake, deer and even spider monkey! 5. Thai Cuisine Thai food with its balanced mix of hot, sour, bitter and sweet, is a good enough reason to visit the country. The foods are characterised by its use of fresh herbs and flavours, such as lime juice, lemon grass and fresh coriander. Similar to many Asian cuisines, rice is the main component in Thai food, also you will often come across nam pla, a strong fish sauce, shrimp paste and noodles. Raw beef, fermented fish paste or deep fried insect larvae are mostly present in the Northeast, where eating insects in fairly common. 4. Pakistani/Indian Cuisine One of the world’s most sophisticated and diverse cuisines, only one part of this cuisine is known to the world. This food served in restaurants worldwide is North Indian, also known as Mughlai or Punjabi. There are other 3 categories of Indo-pak cuisine: South, East and West. The foods are mostly vegetarian, but many include lamb, goat, chicken meat and even fish. this cuisine is usually very spicy, so in order to enjoy the food, start slowly and in a few weeks you’ll get accustomed to the flavours. Meals are usually eaten without cutlery, while seated on the floor, but these traditions are starting to change for the restaurants oriented to the Europe or the US diners. 3. Chinese Cuisine Originating in various parts of China, this cuisine has now spread throughout the world, Chinese cuisine is eaten by a third of the world’s population every day. The cuisine is easy to create, economical and tasty. Most of the food is prepared in bite-sized pieces because the Chinese culture regards knives and forks as weapons. Usually every person at the table is given a bowl of rice while the other dishes are shared by everyone at the table. Some dishes are cooked from endangered species, such as facai moss while others come from meat you would want to avoid such as dog. 2. Italian Cuisine Perhaps one of the oldest in the world, the Italian cuisine can be traced back to the 4th century BC. It became what is today along with the discovery of the New World, that brought potatoes, tomatoes pepper or maize on the list of ingredients. An Italian meal is structured into several sections: antipasto (the appetizer), primo (pasta or rice dish), secondo (meat course), dolce (dessert). Italy is also famous for over 400 kinds of cheese, including the famous Parmigianino Reggiano, and 300 types of sausages. 1. French Cuisine Starting with the Middle Ages that brought rich banquets to the French Revolution, where refined techniques were used, French Cuisine can be called in the 21st century “haute cuisine”. It is as popular as the poetry or French arts. Pastries are a large part of French cooking. Cheese and wine are also a major part of the cuisine, being perhaps the most famous of all. The modern restaurant has its roots in French culture, so restaurants there are bountiful. In Paris alone, there are over 5,000 places to eat, with prices and menus to suit anyone’s taste.

Top 10 Diet Foods of All Times: Who wants to lose some good amount of weight without sealing their mouth up? It’s a good treat if someone gets to eat well and at the same time can help him/her to lose weight. Regarding that there are not some but various amounts of ingredients that help reduce your weight if you keep them in your meals on a regular basis. Of all those various ingredients Top tens have come up with the list of top ten best diet ingredients that will help you shed a good amount of weight in a matter of time. 10. Edamame The first that we are going to discuss is Edamame, on number ten the green soya beans are one amazing protein providers which make it easy and simple to digest compared to fats and carbohydrates. Per cup the soya beans provide 17g of protein in total. A research at the Federal University of Vicosa proved that if a person’s morning meal contained edamame that has soya proteins, he will lose 70 more calories than normal. 9. Kiwi Fruit The beautiful green fruit does not only taste good but is one of the best diet foods which have 84 milligrams of Vitamin C. A study at the Arizona State University in Mesa showed that Vitamin C has a unique feature that it helps build Carnitin, a compound which further changes fats into cell mitochondria and then it used for energy during exercise. 8. Sweet Potatoes How about a food that tells your brain not to eat any further? Sounds great! Sweet potatoes have Resistant Starch (RS) in them that turn up the fat scorching furnace in the body and RS also increase the production of the peptide hormone compounds which signal the brain not to eat more. so it would be ideal to have sweet potato in your meals avoiding the intake of fatty foods to bulk up the diet. 7. Yogurt Yogurt itself comes up as a complete meal for you. A low fat and nonfat Greek Yogurt have at least 20% of the whole calcium needs that you have to intake in a day. Further the Calcium mineral slows down the production of cortisol, which is hormone that makes your belly fat store up. 6. Eggs Boil the eggs, make an incredible jumbo omelet or low fry it for yourself. Do whatever and however you like this ingredient, although it comes with a lot of options! The eggs are full of Choline, which is a compound known for the blockage of fat absorption. According to a study in the international study of Obesity, people who ate tw0 eggs and toast for their breakfast for almost a week reduced 65% more than the others who had their normal breakfast without eggs. 5. Olive oil Olive oil is one of the main ingredients which is always discussed in the list of Diet foods. The mono-unsaturates that are found in the Olive Oil are such fats which turn on the genes that further fight against the fat and extra storage in the body. 4. Lentils These legumes at number four have a lot of Resistant Starch in them, which as discussed before help in shrinking the fat cells and reduce fats in the body. A study also showed that people who ate lentils of about ¾ cup in a day will burn up to 23% more fat compared to the people who did not have them in their meal. 3. Quinoa When we say Quinoa, we say A LOT of Protein. Quinoa provides us with a lot of Amino Acids which further help in building a great metabolic system to energize a person. The more you take these in your meals, the more you are tending to lose the fats in the body. 2. Apples ‘An Apple a day keeps the doctor away’ at number two is the incredible fruit Apple. It won’t be wrong if we say, ‘An Apple a day keeps the Fat away’. It has 5 grams of Fiber in it and it not only fills up the tummy but also fights against other fats that are built up in the body by the other foods. It fights against and lets a person reduce more weight. 1. Wild Salmon The Salmon fish stands as the number one ingredient/food for all the diet plan followers out there. The wild salmon fish has omega-3 fatty acids which help it fight against the flab more easily. It also alters some genes in the body that helps to burn the fatty material present in the body rather than storing further more. So if you love meat and want to have some amazing yummy food in your diet, grab a wild salmon fish and cook it the way you like.

Top 10 Mango Producing Countries Around The Globe 2013: 10.NIGERIA Nigeria is on tenth place with mango production of 790,200 TONS/YEAR with 3.0 percent of world’s total mango production .Right here in Nigeria we have some variants like Kerosene mango (the ellipse-shaped lime-green specie with an aftertaste) and the much loved Sheri mango (the yellow to orange delicious and fleshy kind).The outer skin of a mango is smooth and green when un-ripe mangoes but turns into golden yellow, bright yellow or orange-red when ripened depending on the cultivar (like the Kerosene mango, which remains green even when ripe). 9.PHILIPPINE Philippine is on ninth place with mango production of 823,576 TONS/YEAR with 3.6 percent of world’s total mango production .The most common variety of mango in the Philippines is what Americans refer to as champagne mango. It’s been called Manila mango, Ataulfo mango (named after its Mexican grower) and Honey mango. Filipinos call it manggang kalabaw (carabao mango) while the Philippine government refers to it as ‘Manila Super Mango’ and is reputedly in the Guinness Book of World Records as the sweetest in the world. 8.BANGLADESH Bangladesh is on eighth place with mango production of 1,047,850 TONS/YEAR with 3.9 percent of world’s total mango production . With the many varieties of mangoes in this country, there is always fresh mango available.Propagation and cultivation. There are nearly 100 cultivars of mango available in Bangladesh, but it is now, when summer is at its peak, that most mango trees bear fruit. 7.BRAZIL Brazil is on seventh place with mango production of 1,188,910TONS TONS/YEAR with 4.0 percent of world’s total mango production .January is the height of mango season in Northeastern Brazil. With the many varieties of mangoes in this country, there is always fresh mango available, but it is now, when summer is at its peak, that most mango trees bear fruit. 6.INDONESIA Indonesia is on sixth place with mango production of 1,313,540 TONS/YEARwith 4.1 percent of world’s total mango production .East Java is the main producer province for mango in Indonesia. Besides Java, the prospectives zones for mango extension are South Sulawesi, South East Sulawesi, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara and East Kalimantan.The main varieties sold for export market are Arumanis and Gedong. 5.MEXICO Mexico is on fifth place with mango production of 1,632,650 TONS/YEAR with 4.2 percent of world’s total mango production . The seeds first made their way to Mexico via the Philippines in the 17th century. Other varieties reached Mexico only during the 19th century, after following a circuitous route through Persia to Africa or Portugal and from there to the West Indies.Mexico produces five varieties of mangos for export to the U.S., each with distinctive qualities. 4.PAKISTAN Pakistan is on fourth place with mango production of,1784,300 TONS/YEAR with 4.6 percent of world’s total mango production .The Indo-Pakistan mangoes are monoembryonic and seedlings differ invariably from each other. The wide variations among the seedling progeny have been responsible for the evolution of several choice varieties in both the countries which have been further multiplied by vegetative means and grown on large scale. These varieties have thus been called as “Horticulture Varieties”. That is how a large number of standard varieties have come onto being and are cultivated in the different parts of Indo-Pakistan. 3.THAILAND Thailand is on third place with mango production of 2,550,600 TONS/YEAR with 6.5 percent of world’s total mango production .Brahm Kai Meu is a cultivar of the mango Mangifera indica, of Thai origin. Although it is relatively new in Florida, it appears to be doing very well so far, in terms of growth and yield.In Thailand, Brahm Kai Meu mango is eaten also in its green state. When ripe, Brahm Kai Meu stays relatively green with hardly any change in color.This mango is sweet and fibreless. 2.CHINA China is on second place with mango production of 4,351,593 TONS/YEAR with 11.2 percent of world’s total mango production .It was one of the most peculiar moments of the 20th century, when millions of Chinese workers started fervently worshipping mangoes in honour of Chairman Mao.The mango mania began in the autumn of 1968 when Pakistan’s Foreign minister arrived in Beijing and presented Chairman Mao with a case of the fruit. 1.INDIA India is leading at the top with mango production of 16,337,400 TONS/YEAR with 42.2 percent of world’s total mango production.Mango is the most important fruit of India. It is grown over an area of 1.23 million hectares in the country producing 10.99 million tonnes. It accounts for 22.1 per cent of total area (5.57 million ha) and 22.9 per cent of total production of fruits in the country.

Top 10 Sexiest Ladies on Globe 2013: Which woman makes your jaw drop utmost, makes you wobbly with her allure, beauty and erotic looks and make your heart feel sore?. Its time to find out which hot beauty is in full drive, reaching the topmost spot. We are bringing you the ultimate list of top ten women who are chosen as the sexiest women of 2013. 10. Elisha Cuthbert The Canadian beauty is a renowned film and television performer. Cuthbert repeatedly locks a place in FHM’s and Maxim’s “Hottest Women” grades. She was ranked on 4thposition in 2008 among 100 sexiest ladies. She won the Gemini Award for her best performance in a leading role for the movie “Lucky Girl”. Her nominated movies are 24, house of wax, the girl next door and etc. 9. Vanessa Hudgens Vanessa Hudgens is an American actress and vocalist. She was included in People’s annual “100 Most Beautiful People in 2008 and 2009.She was also ranked at 62 in 2008 and at 42 in 2009 at FHM’s Sexiest women in world. Her visible work includes High School Musical, Beastly, Spring Breakers 2 and etc. She has also worked for the television chains and movies of Disney Channel. 8. Kate Upton Kate Upton is another American actress and model, especially known for her presences in Sporting Illustrated Swimsuit matter and was the cover model of it for 2013.Her ranking in 2012 was on 5thnumber as the sexiest model on Models.com’s Top Sexiest Models. She is ranked on 3rdposition for the sexiest model of 2013.She has worked in movies like Tower Heist, The Three Stooges and etc. 7. Ashley Tisdale Here comes another American actress, producer and vocalist. The lady was ranked on 10thnumber in Maxim’s 2008 hot 100 list, at 94thon Forbes 2008 Celeb list. Ashley is graded on 7thposition on Maxim’s 2013 Hot 100 list of sexiest women and hottest celebrity. She has secured award of best TV actress for The Suite Life of Zack & Cody, Soundtrack of the Album for High School Musical and etc. 6. Jennifer Love Hewitt Jennifer is an American actress, producer, author, television director and singer-songwriter. She comes at 19 on the list of 50 sexiest women of small screen, at 1ston Maxim’s and remained in the list of top twenty of FHM’s global list for the past six years. The lady holds the extensive list of her worthy work which takes in Kids Incorporated, I know what you did last summer, Time of your life and etc. 5. Jennifer Lawrence Jennifer Lawrence has promptly become the one of favourite young leading ladies. Among top 99 most desirable women at AskMen.com the lady holds the 1strank. She became the new face of Dior in 2012.Lawrence is known as the youngest talented actress of America. She was awarded by Academy Awards for best actress, Screen Actor Guild Awards for outstanding performance in movie “Silver Linings” 4. Mila Kunis This beauty belongs to a Jewish family of Ukraine. Mila an American actress and voice artist has been represented by many journals and mass media as one of the sexiest figure of Hollywood. She seemed in a number of television sequences and advertisements. Her notable performances take account of Black swan, That 70s show, Forgetting Sarah Marshall, Family Guy and etc. 3. Rihanna Robyn Rihanna Fenty is a recording artist, actress and fashion designer. She has been at 6thnumber on Maxim’s “hot 100” list and on 2ndnumber on FHM’s “100 Sexiest Women in the World” from last seven years. Rihanna was ranked on number 17thamong the “50 Most Glamorous Women of 2009”.She placed at the complex’s #1 Hottest Women right now 2013.Rihanna has an exceptional music career. 2. Selena Gomez The young American actress and singer with stunning looks is rated at 2ndnumber by “Maxim’s Hot 100” 2013, whereas she was on 24thposition by “Maxim’s Hot 100”2012. FHM Magazine has ranked Selena Gomez at number 32 for FHM’s “100 Sexiest Women in World” 2013.While Complex gives rank 6 to Selena for “Complex’s 100 Hottest Women Right Now”. She has also worked for Disney Channel and is a famous name in music industry. 1. Miley Cyrus A young lady with great vocal sound and record breaking hits Miley Cyrus is chosen as #1 on the “Maxim’s Hot 100 list 2013”. Miley was ranked on number 13thby Forbes 2010 “celebrity 100”. In 2011 she was entitled “The Most Charted Teenager” by Guinness World Records. In 2009 Billboard Magazine ranked Miley on #4 as “the best-selling female”. Unfortunately this lady doesn’t have a good public image. But FHM’s # 1 spot of “100 Sexiest Women in the World” goes to Mila Kunis.

Top 10 Magicians in The World: Humans have always been fascinated with the supernatural and illusions since the dawn of time! Only few have the capability to show some real magic that might give Goosebumps to the audience. These few choose to take up magic as their profession to make themselves known to every street person out there and most importantly to get filthy rich as well. Top Tens’ World have come up with the list of 10 most amazing magicians of all times who had and still have their career as magic and became attractively rich! 10. Dynamo Well-known for his documentary show, Dynamo, it’s Steven Frayne who does not really work with stage props, assistants and other kitsch props. He is the opposite of slick illusion, amazing people by swallowing jewelry objects and then taking it out from his stomach again, walking on beaches and bench-pressing 155kg in gym is what are some of the things he had done. 9. Dante The greatest magician of the Golden age of Magic, Harry August Jansen was known as Dante the magician. Performing around the world with his group of 25 to 40 people, Dante had his magical words as ‘Sim Sala Bim’ which became an illustrious magic voicing. 8. Harry Blackstone Sr. Getting famous through performing at the United Sates Organizations in World War II, Harry Blackstone Sr. is the reason of many magical tricks to get popularity. Cutting a woman into half was one of those prevalent tricks, where he would tell his assistant to lay in a wooden box and would cut her in half, whereas later she would rise unharmed and happy. His son Harry Blackstone Jr. also became a magician after him but could not reach to the level of his father. 7. Jean Eugene Robert-Houdin Inspiration of another great magician Harry Houdini was the magician of the 19th Century who stands as our number seventh, Jean Eugene Robert-Houdin. The French magician had many magic tricks that gave birth to the modern age magic, one of which is ‘the second sight’. The magician would go to the audience where he would touch random items and details and his blind-folded assistant would tell what items he’d touched and all of it in great detail. 6. David Blaine He popularised the trend of the ‘Street Magic Show’; David Blaine has been famous since 1990’s. Although he had his own stylish ways to show the tricks to the random people on streets but what made him even more famous through his endurance tricks, which include; being buried for a week, frozen in an ice block for 63 hours, standing on a 100ft pillar (without attaches) for 35 hours, survived in a glass box without any food and water for 44 hours and hung upside down for 60 hours. 5. Siegfried and Roy Siegfried Fishbacher the German magician and Roy horn the outlandish animal trainer grouped together to make an astonishing magic partnership. From 1900 till 2003 they had a unique magic show at the Mirage in Las Vegas, with white tigers and lions. This show was considered as the most visited show of Vegas which made them famous enough. They ended in 2003, when Roy was bitten by his own tiger and lost much of his blood and later the group retired in 2010. 4. Criss Angel Christopher Nicholas Sarantakos earned his name from his show Criss Angel: Mind freak, which got premiered in 2005 at the A&E network. The show had some of his mind blowing tricks that include; walking on the water, cutting him in half and walking between two buildings in front of the Vegas crowd. It completed six seasons in five years and finshed in 2010. 3. Penn and Teller The famous pair of the late 80’s is of Penn Jilete and Raymond Teller. The duo was popular for their humorous magic tricks that made the audience laugh and get fascinated at the same time. Recently they started off with a television show in which they performed tricks and later told the secrets of it too, which made it even more interesting to watch. 2. Harry Houdini Harry Houdini on the second was a famous magician of 1800’s and early 1900’s who was known as the escape artist to many. Harry would roam around Europe and ask different police forces to lock him up in a straitjacket and after they did it he would escape it in no time. He did the same thing while hanging at a skyscraper, in water and was also buried alive which he scarcely survived. 1. David Copperfield The most entertaining and successful magician is David Copperfield. At the tender age of 19 he was heading a show in Hawaii, through which ABC approached him in 1977 through which he flourished his magic entertainment. He was able to make the Statue of Liberty disappear, floated over the Grand Canyon and walked the wall of China till the end. David was the only magician who showed his magic tricks while telling a storyline to keep the audience attached and interested.

Top 10 Signs Of End-Times: It could be called spiritual warfare.The moral and ethical conflicts all around us today. We are experiencing a fast change. In government,courts ,schools,business in entertainment and last but not least in places of relgious worship.In front of our very eyes there seems to be a brilliantly executed attack on traditional values and beliefs.Beliefs and values which have served us well enough since man’s beginnings. The object seems to be, to prepare us for a system in which man is totally subjugated in the system of the beast.Scriptures foretell of this system of deception where right and wrong are redefined. Chaos is deliberately being created to implant this satan backed regime.So anything religious has to be purged from the minds of the masses.We are now in the age of information,we are being watched and monitored by the eye of the dajjal or anti christ. This system of the anti christ and its minions is being established as prophesized , then Jesus will return to save the true believers from this deceptive antichrist.The armageddon will thus take place.Below you will find some signs not necessarily in chronological order but signs for those who heed. Many are referred to in the Quran and the Bible 10.DETERMINING RIGHT FROM WRONG This is the most destructive of the changes in our social and religious set-up.If a solid set of rules are not maintained, then the determination of black and white is difficult and we delve into the sea of gray.Often seen these days in judicial and moral laws. 9.UNPUNISHED CRIME We often see these days that crime is not punished by the tried and tested principles of swift harsh penalties.It is often delayed or the guilty person is shown leniency and other factors are blamed for his actions. 8.BREAKDOWN OF THE FAMILY SYSTEM The ‘ family ‘ is now being redefined as any type of union of people , not the traditional male and female and children if any.Marriages are now homosexual or heterosexual.marriage is not the only criterion for starting a family. Living together outside of matrimony is a quirk.Future generations at this rate will have even lower moral values, as religion is slowly being pushed out of our lives. The family set up is decomposing, and humans are becoming animals after lust. 7.FROM PATRIARCH TO MATRIARCHY Fron times past, the male has always been the head of the family.Now we see women competing on equal grounds in all spheres of life,business,military,religion and government The change is imminent from a patriarchal to a matriarchal society. 6.SEXUAL PERMISSIVENESS This deviance has always been manifest in past declining civilisations as well.Homosexuality and other sexual deviances are detested by God . The cities of Sodom and Gomorroh were burnt to cinders due to the behaviour of ancient gays.Gays up to the ’70′s hid their perversion but now they have parades and rallies supported by government and media.Sin has a certain attraction, and it is easy to slip from the straight and narrow. 5.INCREASE IN THE CRIME RATE This curse has its roots in spiritualism. As crime is a mirror of the moral state of society.Crime increases in societies which have moral decadence.When man decides his own rules he is leading himself to destruction. Rather than following the rules laid down by God. 4.WARS AND TURMOIL There are so many wars and conflicts present in the world.Media has made us immune to them as everyday news.Most are civil unrest, others are occupations as in Kashmir and Paelestine.The latest is ethnic and racial hatred, also religious sectarian conflicts.” Nation shall rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom”. LUKE 21:9-10 3.CARING AND CONCERN FOR EACH OTHER DIMINISHES This is the age of the ‘self’ mistrust in others.Close-knit neighbourhoods, extended families are becoming a thing of the past.Now we fear strangers ,and only think of helping ourselves. 2.IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION The modern religious institutions have left mainstream religous teachings,Stress is now on the man not the maker.Pop psychology philosphy and humanistic thinking is now prominent.The stress on repentance from sins, is now giving way to environmental concerns and social problem alleviation.Man has now become the centre of his own worship. Self esteem has subdued.Righteousness self promotion is more important than thinking of the good of humanity as a whole. 1.PREJUDICE AGAINST THE TRUE RELIGIONS In this day and age a true believer is labelled as an extremist.A freedom fighter is termed as a fanatic or terrorist.Religion as a whole does not get any positive publicity or media coverage.True believers are looked down upon as old-fashioned with archaic ideas. Science and technology, are respected and promoted even if they have a negative impact on the future of the human race.

Top 10 Coolest Ideas For Halloween Parties: Do you believe in ghosts? If not then Halloween is the time to believe. It’s all about tricks or treats or partying all night with all the venomous costumes one can imagine. Ghosts and goblins, witches and scare crows, kids, youngsters and even old aged people everyone looks for a fearsome fun and dreadful parties. Jack-o-lantern seen everywhere not only scares you but they are also used to frighten the evil spirits. It is the night to face all your fears and triumph over them being most fearless ever. People party all night laughing and dancing in the face of apprehension and horror. Here are 10 most interesting ideas to celebrate and party on this night. 10. Masquerade Ball Let’s celebrate Halloween by throwing a masquerade party. It sounds fun doesn’t it? Masquerade party is basically a costume party but one can decide of a theme and go according to it. And as it is a masquerade ball so masks are an obligation. Plan a contest for the party as well. Who is the scariest? Most elegant? Best dress up according to the theme, voted by the guests. Arrange a Halloween playlist and groove on the deadly beats after all what’s a party without music. 9. Pumpkin Cravings Jack-o-lantern is seen everywhere on Halloween. It is used to scare away the evil spirits. Jack-o-lanterns are basically big, fully ripped pumpkins. Collect some of them or make it cost effective by asking the guests to bring their own pumpkins.. smart enough!!! Ask your guests to design the pumpkins according to their own desire and then arrange a contest for the funniest, scariest, creative or whatever categories you decide upon. After that roast the pumpkins and enjoy the party. 8. Dead Celebrities Dressing up like a favorite actor is very common on Halloweens. Ask your guests to dress up like your favorite dead celebrities. You can also choose to be other then actor. No one would appreciate dozens of similar costumed guests on a party. Go for any rock star or poet or any historical figure. Mummies and zombies are also welcome to spice up the party. 7.Haunted House Decorate you place with all the deadly stuff you find to create look of a haunted house. Starting from outside make some artificial graves or even a complete grave yard with all the lights off and some spot lights to make it spooky. Arrange the party in your basements and decorate it with skeletons, spiders, scary pumpkins, webs and artificial smoke. Keep the lights dim with slow and scary background music. a well played scream can add more drama to your night. 6.Things that go bump in night Most of the people believe that ghosts exist and some have also seen ghost in one form or another. Invite all your friends believers or not and arrange the party with candles and gauzy, ethereal or fabric material. You can invite a palm reader or a tarot card reader if it makes it to your budget. 5.Murder Mystery Make this Halloween more interesting by arranging a murder mystery drama. Your friends and family members would make up a story and assign characters to each other. And then mumble murderer’s name. Even the murderer wouldn’t know who done it until the very end. Sounds interesting? 4.Villains and Heroes This cool party idea works for all age groups so it doubles the fun. Arrange a party and decide a theme of villains and heroes. Ask your guests to dress up In your favorite hero or villain from any movie, book, novel or comic. The Power puff girls and mojo jojo, Batman and joker, harry pottar and Lucius Malfoy, cindrella and her step mother, throwing a party like this would be hell of fun. Play games where hero battles with the villain and give prizes accordingly. 3.Cult Movie Party Arrange a movie for the night. It can be a cult movie as most of the cult movies are Halloween themed. And ask your guests to dress up like the characters of the movie you choose. Also choose some songs according to the Halloween-y theme. This would spice up the whole atmosphere. 2. Canni-Ball Arrange your Halloween party with all stuffed with food. Guests come dresses up as hungry zombies looking for all the meat to eat. You can shape the food as human body parts like arm, legs, feet, fingers etc. the menu may also include brain made of mashed potatoes or intestines made of sausages and hot dogs. You can be as creative as you want to be. Feeling thirsty? Blood colored drinks would play their part. Soda with little red food colored mixing would be a good idea. 1.Gothic Celebrate you Halloween with throwing a gothic party. Keep everything black and dark colored. Ask your guests to dress up black, red or purple with beautiful and pale faces. You can get inspiration from The Adam’s Family or Dracula from ‘Twilight’ movie or novel. Use black ribbons or piece of cloth, dried roses with dim lights to add more to the theme.

Top 10 Funny Movies Releasing in 2013: Luckily for movie lovers 2013 is going to a mouth-watering treat , loads of good stuff is on way to entertain you guys and make you go crazy like anything . 2013 is going to bring a series of funny movies. While the directors have, as always, been stingy with spoilers and details, we have gathered enough information to build a top 10 list of the funniest movies to be released in 2013. 10. Don Jon (Oct 18, 2013) this laughter is about a guy who is always questioning ,Jon Martello is the kind of guy who objectifies everything in his life, from his apartment to the church and, of course, women. Addicted to porn, he takes on a journey to find a more fulfilling sex life, but ends up with another lesson of life. 9. The Kings of Summer (May 31, 2013) Three teenage friends, in the ultimate act of independence, decide to spend their summer building a house in the woods and living off the land. Joe Toy, Patrick and Biaggio are three teenagers who decide to spend their summer in the woods, in an ultimate act of rebellion. They plan to build a house there and live away from parents and responsibilities. 8. R.I.P.D (July 19, 2013) A recently slain cop joins a team of undead police officers working for the Rest in Peace Department and tries to find the man who murdered him. 7. The Spectacular Now (August 2, 2013) Sutter Keely is the smart kid in his high school. He is charming, smart and quite the life of a party. But when his girlfriend dumps him, he gets destructed and wakes up on the front lawn of his classmate Aimee. She’s not one of the cool kids, but the two are drawn towards each other. 6. Anchorman: The Legend Continues (December 20, 2013) anchorman-2-poster- 620x375111 This is a sequel to Anchorman from 2004. Director Adam McKay revealed very little about the script – all that we know is that the movie is a continuation of the on-set adventures of the famous classy newsman, and this time there will be a custody battle involved too, the movie is full of cheers and sparks. 5. The World’s End (October 25, 2013) Five old friends gather around after 20 years to recreate a legendary pub crawl from their youths. When they try to reach this pub named “The World’s End”, they realize that they don’t only have to fight the alcohol, but also a bunch of aliens. 4. The Delivery Man (October 4, 2013) Halfway through our top 10 funny movies releasing in 2013 we find Ken Scott’s hilarious “The Delivery Man”. The story is about a slacker (Vince Vaughn) who finds that, as a sperm donor, he has fathered over 500 children. When a large group petitions the sperm bank to reveal the identity of the donor, he is facing a huge moral dilemma. 3. Last Vegas (December 20, 2013) When Michael Douglas, Morgan Freeman, Kevin Kline and Robert Deniro star in the same movie, it can only be a masterpiece. They play the roles of four best friends who are close to the venerable age of 70 and decide to throw a bachelor party for the last one of them who got married. 2. Grown Ups 2 (July 12, 2013) This one is the sequel of ” Grown Ups ” the movie will be setting new tones and the cheers and entertainment will be ultra more than the last one , the film starts with Adam Sandler, Chris Rock, Kevin James and Salma Hayek are a couple of childhood friends who reunite years later. Much like its predecessor, this movie should be watched by both Adam Sandler and non-Adam Sandler fans. And since the original Grown Ups made a whopping $182m in the US alone, we should expect this one to be an equal success. 1. The Hangover III (May 24, 2013) O boy , yes the crazies are back with yet another sequel of madness and entertainment , this time the there will be more energy and much fun to see for you guys , so without any hesitation this amazing sequel gets the first spot on our list . Just in case some of you are curious this time there is no wedding , no bachelor party , so what possibly can go wrong ? you guys have to hold that thought and get the tickets of the first show to know what’s this one about . 10 Funny Movies Releasing in 2013

Top 10 Most Loved Cartoon Characters: Cartoon industry has produced wonderful cartoons in the previous century . These cartoons have resulted from the creative minds of some people. Cartoons are basically the animations and drawings made by artists that are made to run at very high speeds. from decades, these cartoons are inciting our funny bone. all in all, cartoons are legends galvanizing our lives since our childhood. cartoons adjure minds of all ages from a two year baby to a thirty year guy. these cartoons are multifarious not only in their nature but also in mirthfulness provided by them to its viewers. In short, cartoons have reigned over our hearts at all times. For example Dexter is a cartoon that shows a kid , basically a genius of science who has a private lab in his house’s basement and invents new things that are unknown to the whole world. Following is the list of top ten cartoon characters that have made mark in the history of cartoons and are loved by many . 10 . SUPERMAN Among all of the superheroes this guy has earned his name gracefully as he is the father of superheroes. He can fly and have a steel-like body. Known to be the only survivor from a far planet. He is also the head of the justice league as his responsibility is to uproot injustice. So that is why he gets a tenth spot on the list. 9. BATMAN By far the only superhero which is closer to reality while keeping in view the fact that cartoon is fiction. He is a billionaire of Gotham city and also have scientific knowledge. His power is technology which helps him to fight thugs, mobs and evil geniuses prevailing in that city. 8.Rocky and Bullwinkle Basically a humorous cartoon designed to appeal adults and children as well . This cartoon consists of puns, jokes and satire of all kind. the series is hardly known to the current age. It was aired in 1960′s on NBC network. obviously, It rose into estimation of people of that time and made an eighth place in our list. 7.GARFIELD The hero of the cartoon is a sluggish asinine. His wishes are that of a lazy animal. Eats cannelloni and takes lengthy naps. Apart from that he also likes to kick its ill-starred feline. The owner of Garfield is Jon Arbuckle starred in this series. 6.IRON MAN Another science genius cartoon of this century ,is this guy. Having seductive personality, the man shows dexterity in the field of science. His father TONY STARK was a scientist and son followed the suit. Iron man is the owner of the stark group and stark tower. basically a philanthropist and known for ground breaking techniques in science. Having radical views as are self-evident from its character the guy got a sixth spot on our list 5.THE FLINSTONES The only cartoon which every 90′s kid could remember. The story is about the person living in the stone age. The depiction of characters is so simple that a person viewing it considers himself behind the screen. If someone would have yearned to be in stone age then definitely he ought to watch this series. 4. MICKEY MOUSE when we cast a glance over history, the cartoon recognized even by grandparents includes the name MICKEY mouse his common trick is to rub shoulders , it is an offensive animal but it is still the favorite of all children from humble beginnings it is rocking the world up till now , due to the above mentioned reasons the fierce but a good looking animal got fourth position on our list . 3.SCOOBY-DOO The room for the third place is being filled by the our famous doggie the one and only Scooby doo. Shaggy is a bachelor guy and his canine is Scooby doo. They make adventures with their companions on the van called the MYSTERY MACHINE. On the whole shaggy and Scooby are cowards but inwardly they have the capacity to capture the frauds and to break the disguise of the people. 2. BUGS BUNNY Bugs bunny is the most watched character and got a second rank on our list . The story characterizes a hare constantly breaking the laws of physics by bending in different ways at his caprice . His famous habit is to outfoxing his adversaries and foes. 1. TOM And JERRY The history and present of cartoons cannot be completed without praising about A CAT and A MOUSE .The story delineates that cat and mouse are never friends. It starred jerry the mouse and tom the cat.they are the only cartoon which everyone is tending to talk about or to watch even if he has watched it for more than a hundred times. This inspiring animation has made it on the top of our list.

Best Soccer (Football) Players of All Time: The most watched game on this planet is ” Football ” or known as soccer .Its governing body is called FIFA that regularizes all the events and players , it’s a fact that FIFA has more members than UN. This game has witnessed some of the best and versatile players ever in the history, who took the game to new level. It’s not easy to rate the phenomenal players who made histories in this game we have compiled a list of top ten players based on people’s choice and accomplishments of the individuals themselves. 10. George Best (1963-1984) George Best belongs to Northern Ireland , he was an alcoholic and his career was quite affected due to his drinking habits . He was majestic in the field and proved himself as a devastating force against the opponents .He was a skilled dribbler and was known for his tricks in the field .He won the 1968 European Championship and two titles with the club Manchester United as well .He was an attacking midfielder and scored massive 205 goals in 579 matches , he died in 2005 . 9. Michel Platini OMF He holds the record for most goals scored in European Championship final and makes 9th place in our top ten list . This French midfielder was an amazing dribbler but got famous for his long sprints .He was considered as the core element in French nation team in 1980′s .He is also deemed as best free kick specialist of all times . 8. Zinedine Zidane Another French sensation and 8th in our list is Zinedine Zidane. He is known personal skills , passing and dribbling .Zinedine is remarkable footballer who jolted opposition many times , his best performances were in the most crucial matches .He scored 159 goals in 789 matches , he won 1998 World Cup with France and 2000 European Championship with Juventus . 7. Ferenc Puskas Hungarian footballer Pusaks is the seventh best players on our list , known for his individual skills and to attacking play one of the sensational footballers of all time known for precision strikes at goal . He scored 700 goals in 705 appearances during the time span of 1943-1966. 6. Franz Beckenbauer On 6th in our list we have a German footballer who has pleased many of his fans and is force to reckon with in history of this game. He played for Bayern Munich , scored 111 goals in 776 appearances. He was one of the greatest caption every with mind boggling skills. He won the 1974 world cup and 1972 European Championship. 5. Michel Platini The legend of the game is a French footballer and the most sensational player ever seen in the field . He was an attacking midfielder and scored massive 353 goals in 652 matches he appeared in . He was an expert dribbler , passer and free kick taker , his accomplishments are guiding France in 1984 European championship almost by himself in the process scoring nine goals in the championship. 4. Zico This golden leg boy is on fourth place in our list. He is reckon as an under achiever and mostly people don’t rate him in top ten but Zico ‘s ability with the football is unparallel. This brazilin chum is exquisite with the timing and control of the football during passing and receiving it .He was one of the best strikers in the history . 3. Johann Cruyff He belongs to Netherland s , the guy had skills , control ,speed and sense of the game .He was sensational in the field and was one of the best sprinters in his time. He was clinical in precision and pass giving ability also a very good free kick striker. He score 401 goals in 710 appearances as attacking midfielder , winning 3 European titles and ten league titles. 2. Pele The greats of the game , the legend of legends and the master of achievement the unachievable is the one of the best Brazilian attacking midfielder was Pele . Pele is known for his passion for the game and because of him this sport got more hype and audience . He scored staggering 1282 goals in 1366 appearances .His goal scoring abilities were able to seek Brazil through the World Cups of 1958 , 1962 and 1970. 1. Diego Maradona The list topper is none other than the Argentinean heartthrob the heart stopping Diego Maradona. He is known as the “King of the game ” , possesses amazing individual skills , leopard speed and agility. He was an attacking midfielder and scored massive 345 goals in 650 matches .He won 1986 world Cup for Argentina as well as 3 league titles and UEFA cup with Napoli. He is the greatest even on filed and deserves to be on the top of our list.

Top 10 Hairstyles For Women in 2013: Women want to look beautiful; and the things that attract their attention the most are clothing and hair dos. Usually, it is really challenging to decide which hairstyle would complement which dress. Another big dilemma is finding out what’s in and what’s not in trend these days. Putting all of this to thought, we have complied for you, the best 10 and easy to- do hairstyles. Be the judge and pick your favourite! 10. Braids The best thing about braids is that they remain in forever. There are a number of trendy stylish braids. French braids and fish tails are always in trend. French braids can be styles using beads or other innovative hair accessories. French braids look fabulous on long hair. Fish tail side braids look cute and trendy especially on college going girls. 9. Bob This hairstyle is for those women who cannot manage long hair. It is a small hair cut and is easy to manage. Women with this haircut should carry it plain and simple straight. Another kind of a bob is a messy bob which looks exceptionally hot. Previously, it was often regarded as a symbol for tomboy girls, but these days it is in trend. 8. Messy Buns Another hairstyle in trend is the easy-to-do messy bun. The most rewarding thing about this hairstyle is that is suits both blondes and brunettes. With messy buns, it does not matter whether you have long or short hair. This hairstyle looks good especially in summer. Another plus point is that it looks good on all age groups. It takes little time and the result is a really cool and casual look. 7. Curls and Waves If you have curly hair, trust me it’s a blessing! Curls and waves remain in style throughout the fashion world. They are evergreen. Also, artificial curls and waves are an easy hairstyle to do. A diffuser and a good quality curl enhancer can help you create waves that you will love. This hairstyle works for all lengths; short, medium and long. It looks good both on day and night events. 6. High Buns A high bun is the hairstyle that best suits brides to set their Veils . It was famous in the 1960’s but has now been seen to be in trend again. It is the bun located at the very top of the head. It looks best on women with long curly hair. It is a hairstyle usually done on long hair and is perfect for summer. It gives a really trendy look. 5. Twisted Hair To create this hairstyle you have to use around 5 to 8 twists between your hair. This hairstyle is often familiarized with hippies. It is suitable for all occasions and works best at all times of the day. Twists created on top of the head look exceptionally awesome. 4. Loops The number four hairstyle is to make loops. This is done by making two sections of the hair by parting it down the middle. The next step is combing the hair against the head and collecting it to make a pony tail. The pony tail is then rolled under itself to create a loop. The ends which are loose are then wound around the base and pinned using U-shaped pins. Fairly technical, this hairstyle is in trend these days. 3. Low pony tails Extra low pony tails rank number three on the hairstyle list. They look attractive especially on blow dried hair. Fashion hair bands, beads and clips are used to magnify the look of the pony tail. It is a simple and easy hairstyle, especially fit to working women and college girls to avoid managing messy hair throughout the day. 2. Twisted Sister It is a very elegant hairstyle, plus it is also easy to make. The first step is to clip front and top up. Next, gather your hair in a messy bun at the nape of your neck. Third step is to take an individual strand of hair from the top and front sections and loosely twisting them. This strand is pinned up into the messy bun. Several strands of hair are loosely wound and pinned until the top of the head is reached. For volume, the crown is back-combed and pinned into the bun. 1. Layers The number one hairstyle for 2013 is without a doubt, the layered haircut. If you have that kind of a haircut then there is little to worry about. Layered hair looks good on all hair lengths, on all occasions and on all age groups. Definitely then, it deserves the number one spot on the rankings. It has remained in season since the beginning of the 21stcentury. Layered hair pointing inwards magnifies the look on the face cut and makes you look extremely classy. If you’re looking for a cut that’s going to save you the hassle of hair styling, you know what you’ve got to opt for.

Top 10 Sporting Shoe Brands of 2013: If you are sporty and fitness is your passion then you unquestionably need a great pair of shoe as your fitness companion. Don’t let a cheaply made shoes make a fuss over your fitness passion. Here are world’s top sport shoes trademarks which will help you to get a perfect couple of sporty shoes. Tie up one of the following and get a nerved to work out. 10-ASICS ASICS is a Japanese brand which deals in athletic tackle. The company deals in professional sport shoes, sportswear and almost every sport equipment. ASICS was also ranked in the list of top performance footwear. The company became the official tackle manufacturer of Australian cricket team. It is a faultless working out partner which has securer foam which averts feet from rolling in too much, super light and stretchy. It is perfect for extensive distance. 9-Under Armour It is an American company which produces sport accessories, sportswear for professional athletics, known as best and within your means as compare to other brands like NIKE, ADDIDAS and etc.Under Armour brought several new apparel lines which are ColdGear,TurfGear ,allseasonGear and StreetGear.The company got enormous benefit when it worked with Warner Brothers for there up coming projects. 8-Woodland A renowned name in the open-air sport market since early 50s .Costly but durable and ultimate shoes are especially made for outdoor sports like mountain climbing, mountain cycling and tracking. It initially only manufactured winter Boots. The Company believe to manufacture products without using harmful material and by using raw rubber, vegetable leather and cellulose. And the final manufactured goods are usually biodegradable. 7-New Balance Another American shoe manufacturer company NBAS well known as New Balance produces simply comfortable shoes which are best for running and gym. They are lasting and can be replacement of reebok shoes. The company sponsored football leagues, tennis players etc. 6-FILA An Italian footwear brand known as the largest manufacturer of sports shoe is FILA. The company primarily started as cloth making for Italian Alps and now manufactures sportswear for Athletics, woman, man and children. Fila clothing is also well-known for sports like tennis, basketball, running etc. Fila are one of the global leading brands of golf. 5-Converse Converse an American trademark known for manufacturing shoes, lifestyle fashion and athletic apparel. The company used to manufacture shoes in black and white contrast but later on being force by basketball teams the company started to produce in more colours, it has been designed in high-top and low –cut styles. The company initially manufactured rubber soled shoes for men, women and children, later on it started manufacturing athletic footwear. 4-PUMA PUMA is well known for basketball shoes and the corporation sponsored many famous football players. The German multinational company produces athletic shoes, footwear and other shoes. PUMA is known as the main maker of racing outfits and driving shoes. PUMA sponsored many sporting events on international level and especially in Germany.it also sponsored few teams in Indian Premier League. 3-REEBOK The brand reebok international limited is subordinate of Adidas. The company produces athletic shoes, accessories and sportswear. Many famous personalities are attached with reebok in endorsements. The company manufactures its products for professional athletics, runners and kids. The brand has different ranges of footwear to full fill the requirements of its customers. 2-ADIDAS Adidas is a well-known sports shoe brand worldwide. The company mainly emphases on football kits and supplementary tackles. The mark of adidas is called the three lines of triumph. The company is at present manufacturing more than a few shoe varieties. Adidas also use kangaroo leather to make more comfy and exclusive shoes. 1-NIKE An American multinational establishment which involved in patterns, increase and all-inclusive marketing and selling of footwear and many added products, comes at the top position. The first product which Nike manufactured was track running shoes. Nike has a wide range of foot wears, jerseys, and etc. Nike work for Indian cricket team for five years as official kit manufacturer and manufactures wide range of its different products for all teams around the world.

Top 10 Cricket Players Of 2012: To smash that ball and budge that bat is not as uncomplicated as it seems on your televisions. Last year too had been high on cricket and millions of cricket fans out there who support their own cricket team have been jumping or shouting for their favorite players. Just to know who proved to be the finest in the year 2012 and actually thrash it against all the other cricket players? I choose ten best cricket players to let all those cricket fans out there know who is ranking accordingly. The followings are the top ten cricket players of the year 2012. 10.Jacques Kallis Jacques Kallis is a South African player; the player was born on the 16thof October 1975. He made his debut in 1993 as a teenager. Kallis is one of the favorites of millions of fans who cheer up when he makes an entrance in the ground. He is a right handed batsman and right arm fast and swing bowler who carries with both the things quite amazingly. During the Adelaide test the South African player damaged his hamstring and frightened his team and fans of probably not coming back but fortunately he did and now stands as the 10thbest Cricket player on the list. 9. Chris Gayle The Jamaican cricket player who plays cricket internationally representing the West Indies team. Born on 29thSeptember 1979 the player is a big hitter and is counted in the only four cricketers who have scored two triple centuries in the Test Cricket level. Gayle is also a part of the Indian Premiere league and is a part of the Royal Challengers Bangalore. Despite of playing only four test matches in this year Chris Gayle was able to maintain his average of 53.00 and on the list takes the 9thposition. 8.AB de Villiers Abraham Benjamin de Villiers, a South African Cricket player is born on the 17thof February 1984. Although being a young team member he’s able to lead his team in the One Day International. Villiers is a fit player who’s ranked as third in the best batting rankings and first in the One Day Internationals. Abraham is an intelligent team player and a flawless batsman which makes him take the 8thposition on the list. 7. Matt Prior England team player Mathew James Prior was born on the 26 February 1982. Mathew plays as a wicket keeper and as a right hand batsman; his amazing batting line took him to Test cricket and domestic too. Although the player was dropped out in the year 2008 but he made his comeback a promising one, after a year in 2009 and proved himself as an incredible batsman. In the year 2012 he reaches the 7thposition in theTop ten Cricket players of 2012. 6. Cheteshwar Pujara An Indian Player from Gujrat, Cheteshwar Arvind Pujara is a right handed batsman born on the 25thJanuary 1988. He’s a part of the Royal Challengers Bangalore in the Indian Premiere league and plays for the domestic cricket. Despite of his short journey in cricket till now which he started from 2005, Cheteshwar made his name after making three triple centuries in a single month. A player yet to be in the internationals soon already stands at the 6thposition on the list. 5. Dale Steyn Dale Willem Steyn is a South African player born on the 27thof June 1983. He plays with the One Day International and Test Cricket with the South African team. The right arm fast bowler is ranked to be number one test bowler for about four years. The spin smasher of the ball is extraordinary with his skills and makes it difficult for the batsman in front of him to score. With that quality he takes the 5thposition. 4. Alastair Cook A young English player born on the 25thDecember 1984 Alastair Cook does not let anyone move when he has the bat. At the tender age of 21 when he debuted, he scored 1000 runs in his first year by hitting centuries to Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and West Indies. His far-fetched talent of batting takes him to the 4thposition in our list. 3. Rangana Herath The Sirilankan player Rangana also well known by ‘Jack’ was born on the 19thof Marck 1978. Slow left arm orthodox bowling style of Rangana hits the wickets like a thrust. Taking 55 wickets in barely eight test matches is a work of none other than the Jack! 3rdon the list is Rangana Herath. 2. Michael Clarke Born on 2ndApril 1981, Michael is a professional Cricket player of Australia. Being the captain of the Australian cricket team in the One day international and Test, the player himself is a right handed batsman and left arm orthodox spin bowler. The spectacular batsman have made four double centuries in a year. Taking 2ndposition in the list. 1. Hashim Amla The South African player Hashim Amla was born on the 31stof March 1983. Hashim is a right handed batsman and occasionally bowls as a medium pace bowler. Despite of the fact that he made 1064 runs in the year 2012 test matches but also the way he did not let the pressure get to his nerves. A very intelligent and magnificent cricket player Hashim Amla takes the 1stposition in our Top Ten Cricket players of 2012.

Top 10 Best Female Singers of 2013: We cannot count women any less than men in such a time of compatibility and competition! Women showed up in the music industry years ago and today rule the charts and the hearts of many people. The year 2012 has been quite remarkable for all the female singers out there who gave their blasting singles to the industry and it was no different in the following year where again the female celebs just broke the records. We were able to list up all the top ten female singers of the year 2013 for you guys, so that you can check in to see where your favorite singer stands on the list. 10. Kesha The popular singer from United States is 26 years old. Her songs “Blow”, “We are who we are” and “Till the world end” are her award winning numbers in the BMI Pop Awards. Her hit songs made her popular among her fans. Her Album ‘Warrior’ released in 2012 was a big victory. Still winning hearts of many, Kesha makes herself adjustable in the top ten best female Singers of 2013 at number 10. 9. Beyonce 31 years old American singer Beyonce Knowles is not only a singer but a songwriter, actor and dancer. Her blasting performances at the concerts are what make her fans crazy about her. Starting her career at her tender age Beyonce has an experience well defined and apart from her other qualities, singing is to be the most powerful. Her album ‘Loved Songs’ was released at the start of the year, which compiled all her previous love songs. Mother of one and a happy wife takes number 9 on the list. 8. Britney Spears 31 years old multi talented American, singer cum dancer cum actress cum author Britney Spears is on the number 8. Her miraculous voice has been ruling the music industry for about decades and she withholds millions of fans! The beautiful Britney has been ranked 11th on the Video Hits1 and still goes on and on. 7. Jennifer Lopez American business woman and entertainer Jennifer Lopez is 44 years old and is still hitting the floor. Starting her career with a small role in a movie in 1986 she has not stopped till now. She also took her singing skills to the Obama’s election campaign last year and with her ravishing 26 years in music she is on number 7 on the top ten lists. 6. Adele A 25 years old extravagant English singer and songwriter Adele also knows to play many instruments. Her number ‘Rolling in the deep’ gave her much popularity apart from that the young singer is nominated for 184 awards from which she was able to win 98 which makes her extraordinary and her fans to keep expecting much more. She is on the number 6 for her talent of music. 5. Rihanna West Indies brings upon a great artist Rihanna Fenty who is not only a singer but a fashion designer too. Starting from the year 2003 Rihanna hit the charts with her early albums and became the heartthrob of many people. Her latest album ‘Diamonds World Tour’ was launched at the start of the year. Her amazing talent takes her to number 5 on the list. 4. Shakira 35 years old ‘Waka Waka’ singer Shakira is the top 4thon the list. She is a Colombian singer, dancer, choreographer and producer. Having a fail at the start of the career did not stop Shakira from struggling and she made her way through with her own production and today she is well known for her singing abilities and knows different languages which makes her more popular among many fans out there from different areas. 3. Taylor Swift : At the age of only 23 the American singer Taylor Swift was able to make her way through two million albums and is still on a go. Her simple and heart touching songs are loved by the fans where as her album ‘Speak Now’ was also added to the Guinness World Record. With her upcoming Album Red Tour she is still to leave marks this year and is on number 3 on our list. 2. Katy Perry Just a little far from number one is Katy Perry a Beautiful eyed American singer. The 28 year old was interested in music since childhood and gave her first hit album ‘One of the boys’ in 2008 which followed one to one hit singles like ‘Thinking of you’, ‘I kissed a girl’ and ‘Waking up in Vegas’. The magical singer stands at number 2. 1. Lady Gaga Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta is the genuine name of the 27 years old American Singer, who is not only a singer but a business woman, activist, producer, songwriter and fashion designer. Lady Gaga surprises her fans with not only her amazing songs but her diverse looks too which makes her popular among her fans. Her hit numbers and fans take her up to the top of the list and stands out at number 1.

Top 10 Best Female Singers of 2013: We cannot count women any less than men in such a time of compatibility and competition! Women showed up in the music industry years ago and today rule the charts and the hearts of many people. The year 2012 has been quite remarkable for all the female singers out there who gave their blasting singles to the industry and it was no different in the following year where again the female celebs just broke the records. We were able to list up all the top ten female singers of the year 2013 for you guys, so that you can check in to see where your favorite singer stands on the list. 10. Kesha The popular singer from United States is 26 years old. Her songs “Blow”, “We are who we are” and “Till the world end” are her award winning numbers in the BMI Pop Awards. Her hit songs made her popular among her fans. Her Album ‘Warrior’ released in 2012 was a big victory. Still winning hearts of many, Kesha makes herself adjustable in the top ten best female Singers of 2013 at number 10. 9. Beyonce 31 years old American singer Beyonce Knowles is not only a singer but a songwriter, actor and dancer. Her blasting performances at the concerts are what make her fans crazy about her. Starting her career at her tender age Beyonce has an experience well defined and apart from her other qualities, singing is to be the most powerful. Her album ‘Loved Songs’ was released at the start of the year, which compiled all her previous love songs. Mother of one and a happy wife takes number 9 on the list. 8. Britney Spears 31 years old multi talented American, singer cum dancer cum actress cum author Britney Spears is on the number 8. Her miraculous voice has been ruling the music industry for about decades and she withholds millions of fans! The beautiful Britney has been ranked 11th on the Video Hits1 and still goes on and on. 7. Jennifer Lopez American business woman and entertainer Jennifer Lopez is 44 years old and is still hitting the floor. Starting her career with a small role in a movie in 1986 she has not stopped till now. She also took her singing skills to the Obama’s election campaign last year and with her ravishing 26 years in music she is on number 7 on the top ten lists. 6. Adele A 25 years old extravagant English singer and songwriter Adele also knows to play many instruments. Her number ‘Rolling in the deep’ gave her much popularity apart from that the young singer is nominated for 184 awards from which she was able to win 98 which makes her extraordinary and her fans to keep expecting much more. She is on the number 6 for her talent of music. 5. Rihanna West Indies brings upon a great artist Rihanna Fenty who is not only a singer but a fashion designer too. Starting from the year 2003 Rihanna hit the charts with her early albums and became the heartthrob of many people. Her latest album ‘Diamonds World Tour’ was launched at the start of the year. Her amazing talent takes her to number 5 on the list. 4. Shakira 35 years old ‘Waka Waka’ singer Shakira is the top 4thon the list. She is a Colombian singer, dancer, choreographer and producer. Having a fail at the start of the career did not stop Shakira from struggling and she made her way through with her own production and today she is well known for her singing abilities and knows different languages which makes her more popular among many fans out there from different areas. 3. Taylor Swift : At the age of only 23 the American singer Taylor Swift was able to make her way through two million albums and is still on a go. Her simple and heart touching songs are loved by the fans where as her album ‘Speak Now’ was also added to the Guinness World Record. With her upcoming Album Red Tour she is still to leave marks this year and is on number 3 on our list. 2. Katy Perry Just a little far from number one is Katy Perry a Beautiful eyed American singer. The 28 year old was interested in music since childhood and gave her first hit album ‘One of the boys’ in 2008 which followed one to one hit singles like ‘Thinking of you’, ‘I kissed a girl’ and ‘Waking up in Vegas’. The magical singer stands at number 2. 1. Lady Gaga Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta is the genuine name of the 27 years old American Singer, who is not only a singer but a business woman, activist, producer, songwriter and fashion designer. Lady Gaga surprises her fans with not only her amazing songs but her diverse looks too which makes her popular among her fans. Her hit numbers and fans take her up to the top of the list and stands out at number 1.

Top 10 Most Famous News Channels: What is in, in Politics and what is out? Who is what? And what is going on? Switching those news channels for the most authentic one? News Channels are the most important part of not only our televisions but also of our lives now. The world is full with news channels as it is filled with news itself. So we came up with a list of Top 10 most famous News Channels that are seen worldwide. Here it goes. 10. Al-Arabia Launched on the 3rdof March 2003, the Arabic channel Al-Arabia is a Saudi owned pan Arab television news channel which is broadcasted in normal Arabic. The name of the channel means ‘The Arabic one’ as the name implies too. It is a Dubai based News Channel showed in Dubai, United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia. The channel transfers business and financial markets, talk shows, sports, documentaries and current affairs. 9. NDTV India A channel possessed by New Delhi Television Limited stands as the ninth on the list. NDTV India is a Hindi News channel that actually started off in 1988 and with immense hard work and popularity with their show ‘The World This Week’ on Doordarshan they were able to make their own 24-hour channel in 2003. The Chairman Prannoy Roy and his wife also being the managing director of the channel, Radhika Roy are the main heads of the Channel. 8. Geo News Pakistani News Channel ‘Geo News’ makes itself on the eighth number. It is a Karachi based channel that is a part of the Jung Group. Despite of starting just in 2005 the channel has millions of Urdu speaking fans in and outside of the country where it is based. Some very known programs/talk shows that it broadcasts are; ‘Aaj Kamran Ke Saath’ with Kamran Khan, ‘Capital Talk’ with Hamid Mir and a comedy program ‘Hum sub Umeed sey hain’. 7. Al-Jazeera On number seventh is the Channel secretly owned by Al Jazeera Media Network. Al Jazeera literally means ‘The Island’ and is also known by its second name that is JSC (Jazeera Satellite Channel). The channel is basically headquartered in Qatar and has expanded its forum by internet and different channels in different languages. It officially started in 1996 and is still providing amazing information with un-biasness. The coverage of the Channel for the Egyptian protest in 2011 was appreciated by Hillary Clinton, when she said that it was more informative than American Journalism. 6. Euro News Euro news channel is a European based News Channel that is headquartered in France and is broadcasted in a multilingual way. It was created back in 1993 since then it has been providing European news as well as World news in a European perspective. It has the sixth position in the most famous news channel list. 5. MSNBC On number five is the American based cable and satellite news Channel MSNBC. The Channel is retained by NBCU Universal News Group and the channel shows, news, information, political programming and other news related segments. The Channel was launched in the year 1996 and showed its first show with Jodi Applegate who took various interviews and informed about the news and opinions. 4. Sky News A British and International News Channel, Sky News puts its emphasis on UK and international news. It is a 24-hour news channel that have subdivided into segments and localized itself by making versions of the channel, Sky News Australia, Sky News New Zealand and Sky News Arabia. It was started in 1989 and a year before its launch, Rupert Murdoch announced that he would come up with an international news channel soon. 3. Fox News Fox News is on number three. Owned by Fox Entertainment Group the channel is an American based cable and satellite news channel that airs news, information, talk shows and various other informative programs. The channel was launched in 1987 but it was not until the 1900’s or 2000 that it started flourishing. All the viewers in and outside of the country had the facility to watch the channel through cable. And now it stands as the third most famous news channel in the world. 2. CNN American basic cable, the Cable News Network (CNN) is a cable and satellite news channel that is conserved by Turner Broadcasting System. The channel that was found in 1980 by an American Ted Turner is now a 24-hour news channel. Being the second most famous it is available in almost 100 million US households, 890,000 American hotel rooms, also carried to Canada, globally it is carried as CNN international and it can be seen in almost 212 countries and areas. 1. BBC World News The first and the most famous News channel is the International News Channel, BBC World News. The channel was launched in 1991; the 24-hour news channel broadcasts News bulletins, documentaries, lifestyle programs and interviews. It is owned and run by BBC Global News Ltd. It changed name over time, provided services, information and kept spreading it throughout the world and now is known as the most famous news channels of all.

Top 7 Money Winning Male Tennis players: Money has become enduring part of every game. It may be footballers who are superlative famous for their astral salaries but tennis has a good portion of having super well-off players too. Tennis players earn cash through prize money and endorsements, Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) lists prize money frontrunners of different countries each year, who earn prize money of million dollars on the basis of their performances on tennis fields. Novak Djokovic led the competition on the ATP tour in 2011. 7-Tomas Berdych Winnings: $2,576,813 Age: 27 Country: Czech Czech professional tennis player Tomas Berdych is famous for cleanest and hardest-hitting at ATP games and most powerful forehands, being to generate speed of 150km/h from the baseline. This merged with his accuracy made him the one of the best forehands in the ATP tour. He is right handed (two-handed) player. He is hazardous on any surface, particularly on grass. He won Davis Cup Final 2012 against Spain. 6-David Feffer Winnings: $3,113,904 Age: 31 Country: Spain David Feffer is a Spanish tennis right-handed (two handed) player. He is graded at world number 3 by ATP 2013.Ferrer started his profession in 2000 and is a clay-court specialist however he has noteworthy success on all surfaces. David was one of more strong-minded, agile and fit player at the tour. He considered as the best return specialist in men’s game by Darren Cahill and Roger Federer. He has won David Cup in 2008, 2009 and 2011. 5-Jo-Wiffried Tsonga Winnings: $3,173,969 Age: 28 Country: France Jo-wiffried is a right handed (two handed) player, well-known for his efficiently potent serves, forceful and heavy forehands and having brilliant touch at the net. He attained his best results on solid surface. He is net play expert and he can play both two handed and one-handed backhand He is silver medallist at Olympics Games 2012.Tsonga’s most famed competitiveness is against Novak Djokovic. 4- Andy Murray Winnings: $5,180,091 Age: 26 Country: Great Britain Andy is a Scottish, graded world no.2 and British no.1 tennis player in April 2013.He is the Olympic tennis men’s single 2012 champion. Murray is recognized for one of the brainiest strategists on the court and most talented on courts like hard courts. His strong point includes ground strokes with low inaccuracy rate, to guard with speed and with quick-tempered and dynamic strokes. He has earned silver medal in Olympic Games 2012 in mixed double and gold medal for Olympic Games 2012 for men’s single. 3-Roger Federer Winnings: $6,369,596 Age: 31 Country: Switzerland Roger is a Swiss professional player and was ordered at world no.5 by ATP 2013.He is well-known as the greatest player of all time on account of holding a number of men’s world records of Open Era. His ATP records consist of winning six ATP World Tour Finals and having won the maximum prize money in the history. He is the single man who has reached semi-finals of 23 uninterrupted Grand Slam Tournaments. He is a versatile player, Jimmy Connors said “In an era of specialist, you’re either clay court specialist or grass specialist or a hard court specialist or you’re Roger Federer”. He is right handed (one-handed backhand).He has won gold medal at Olympic Games 2008 and silver medal in 2012. 2-Rafael Nadal Winnings: $7,668,214 Age: 27 Country: Spain Rafael Nadal is a Spanish professional tennis player and former world No.1.He is ranked by ATP a no.4 in 2013.Rafael has great achievement on clay and that is why he is known as the “King of Clay”.Nadal is left handed (two-handed backhand).He is the 2ndplayer who has finished Career Golden Slam. Nadal clutches the record of “most consecutive titles at a particular tournament”. Rafael is a clay court specialist however he won his Olympic Games gold metal on hard-court and has won 12 Grand Slam Singles titles. 1-Novak Djokovic Winnings: $12,619,803 Age: 26 Country: Serbia A Serbian tennis sensation Novak is ranked as world no.1 by Association of Tennis Professionals. He is considered as one of the greatest tennis players of all time. He grips many histories such as the youngest player in the Open Era reaching the semi-finals of all Grand Slam events. He has also earned numerous awards counting Laureus World Sports Award For the Sportsman of the Year 2011 and Best Male Tennis Player ESPY Award 2012.Novak is all court player and right handed (two-handed backhand).He was also entitled as ITF World Champion 2011.

Top 10 Famous Jailed Celebrities: ‘All that glitters is not gold’ we can definitely not deny this statement at any point , and it sits the best to our topic . It is interesting enough to know about the new movies, new songs, new games of our favorite celebrities but it is more interesting to know that they have been sent to jail for some accusations. Either a rape, robbery or a drug case, there are many celebrities that have seen prison walls due to different accusations. We have come up with the Top ten famous Jailed Celebrities list; let’s see which of your favorite celebrities are in this list . 10. Mike Tyson American professional Boxer and acknowledged heavyweight champion of the world, Mike Tyson has been known for his skills since he was only 19-20 years old. He won the titles of WBC, IBF and WBA at a very young age. Despite of his fame and admiration among the people Mike had to suffer for what he had done wrong. Mike raped an 18 year old Desiree Washington in an Indianapolis hotel room which ended him to spend six years in prison after a year of courthouse case. He was arrested in 1991 and during his imprisonment Mike converted to Islam. 9. Lil Wayne On number nine is Dwayne Michael Carter Jr. also known as Lil Wayne. The American rapper joined this field from the age of nine in 1991 and since then he is making his marks in music. The rapper had been arrested by the police department more than one time in the case of carrying Marijuana, whereas the first time he was caught in 2007 when he was actually smoking it with one of his pals and was carrying a weapon that was registered to his manager. He was sentenced to a year of imprisonment and three years of tryout. 8. Snoop Dogg Snoop Dogg is a well-known American singer, rapper, songwriter and actor. The artist was involved in crimes even before introduced in the field, in 1990 right after he graduated from his high school he was arrested by the police for having kept illegal drugs and in the case of selling it too. Later in 1993 Snoop had been arrested again for the murder of a rival gang person, Philip Woldermarian who was shot dead by Snoop’s bodyguard. Snoop got arrested for drug possession and weapon holdings twice after this too. He spent years of imprisonment and probation. 7. Keanu Reeves The very well-known actor Keanu Reeves is on the number seven. The movies Matrix and Speed could have never been the way they are without Keanu. The famous face got arrested in the year 1993 when he was driving frantically, when stopped and tested the actor was found in a great influence of Alcohol. 6. Chris Brown The sixth famous celebrity that was sent to jail is Chris Brown. One of the most talented and incredible rapper and Singer Chris belongs to United States. The singer was arrested in a case of domestic ferocity, for which he was sentenced to Jail. Although he was later freed but the stamp of the ‘jail’ will not leave him any time soon. 5. Halle Berry Maria Halle Barry from the United States is a known actress who has worked in many excellent Hollywood movies. The thing that puts her as number five on the list is, that she had been arrested as she was over speeding while drunk. Not only had this but she tried to cover the scene that she has also hit a person ended her in three years of imprisonment. 4. Paris Hillton Born in Unites States, the beautiful and attractive Paris Hilton who is a socialite stands as fourth on the list. She had been arrested various times, for driving while drunk and smoking marijuana. When she was put for a testifying time she again did not follow the rules and terms of the police for which she had to go to jail again. 3. Robert Downey Jr. The crime of the known actor Robert Downey Jr. was not any different than many others, he too used banned drugs and objects in the country for which he had to face imprisonment. The known Iron man to the people around the world spent a little time in jail recently. 2. Lindsay Lohan The actress from the ‘Mean Girls’, Lindsay Lohan is normally visiting jail for one case or another. The actress was arrested by the police for using proscribed substances to DUI and not following the terms put on her while in probation which led her to go to jail yet again. Lately the actress was found slapping a fellow person in a club for which she had to go to jail again. 1. O.J. Simpson The known American footballer, O.J. Simpson is the first on our list. He had been accused for murdering his wife, Nicole Brown and a family member, Ron Goldman. Though it was never claimed that he did the murder but still after year of court case he had to spend some time in jail.

Top 7 Worst Politicians in the World – 2013: 7. John Boehner John Andrew Boehner, a member of Republican Party, is the current Speaker of the United States House of Representatives. A poll was recently released that showed just 6% of Americans think Congress is doing an “excellent” or “good” job; at the forefront of this embarrassment is Speaker of the House John Boehner. He has failed to even control the members of his party in the House of Representatives, letting the clowns run the circus. Boehner has been one of the most vocal Republicans in trying to create fake conspiracy to either bring down President Obama, or set up an attack plan against Hillary Clinton. 6. C C Patil C C Patil is an Indian politician; he is a member of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly, and had served as Minister for Women and Child Development in the D. V. Sadananda Gowda Government. In 2012, News television cameramen covering the legislative assembly of the south Indian state of Karnataka caught and filmed him watching pornography on a mobile phone while the House was in session! The public was totally outraged at this lack of judgment and the violation of the sanctity of the House. He was forced by his party immediately to resign. 5. Julia Gillard Julia Eileen Gillard is the former Prime Minister of Australia and Leader of the Labor Party from 2010 to 2013. The failure of political leadership, the sense of national drift, financial pressure, and deepening community suspicion were some reasons for regarding her a bad politician. She had been accused of promoting racism; she ignored gender issues, going so far as to “forget” to allocate a status of women portfolio. The effect of growing mistrust in the country over a number setbacks and policy disasters, coupled with pathetically low opinion polls, had finally destabilized Australia’s first female prime minister. 4. Lisa Hanna One of the youngest women to be elected to the Jamaican Parliament, Lisa Hanna who emerged as winner of Miss World 1993 has now emerged as Jamaica’s worst performing cabinet minister. The Minister of Youth has not fulfilled her directive of protecting the youth of the nation and after one year in government has lost the confidence of not only a majority of the youth-supporting groups but also civil society. Ryan Small, who works directly in the Office of the Minister, announced that the Minister failed to outline a clear vision for youths; Children in Jamaica’s state care are committing suicide; moreover, she remained absolute silent on the issue of children in adult lock-ups and the treatment of children in state care. 3. Altaf Hussain Altaf Hussain is a British Pakistani politician who founded and leads a political party known as Muttahida Quami Movement (MQM). Altaf Hussain and his party have set up a record of using violence to gain power. He has long been accused of having an illegal armed wing involved in Karachi’s criminal activities of drugs, extortion, and land theft. Hussain currently faces allegations of murder of his party leader Dr Imran Farooq, money laundering and hate speech; the case is under investigation by the Scotland Yard. BBC News has called Hussain ‘Pakistans most divisive politician’. 2. Silvio Berlusconi Silvio Berlusconi is the Italian politician who served three times as Prime Minister of Italy, from 1994 to 1995, 2001 to 2006 and 2008 to 2011. Berlusconi is also the owner of the Italian football club A.C. Milan. He had been convicted to a year in prison for tax fraud while still on trial for paying an underage prostitute for sex. Indeed, Silvio has been found guilty of tax avoidance of three previous occasions. He will have a chance to appeal the current conviction twice, which means it will be a long time before he sees the inside of a jail cell. He has pushed Italy, which was once a G8 powerhouse, into nearly €2-trillion debt. 1. Francois Hollande Francois Gerard Georges Nicolas Hollande is the current president of France and co-prince of Andorra. He was previously the first secretary of the French Socialist Party from 1997 to 2008. According to the latest opinion polls, only 15 per cent of French people have a positive view about Francois Hollander as French president; Unemployment has highly increased under Francois Hollande and is now at record level. He implemented changes in the tax code that have prompted many rich Frenchmen to leave the country. He is one of the most powerful proponents of socialism in Europe at a time when what Europe needs is innovation, less government spending, entrepreneurship, and growth.

Top richest athletes: Rener Gracie Net Worth 12 Oct 2013 @ 6AM PDT Rener Gracie Net Worth: Rener Gracie, 3rd degree black belt in Gracie Jiu-Jitsu, is an American head instructor at the Gracie Jiu-Jitsu Rex Grossman Net Worth 12 Oct 2013 @ 6AM PDT Rex Grossman Net Worth: Rex Grossman is an American football player who has a net worth of $8 million. Born Rex Daniel Grossman III on August Ryan Braun Net Worth 12 Oct 2013 @ 6AM PDT Ryan Braun Net Worth: Ryan Braun is an American baseball player who has a net worth of $8 million. Born Ryan Joseph Braun on November 17 Dusty Baker Net Worth 09 Oct 2013 @ 11PM PDT Dusty Baker net worth: Dusty Baker is an American former baseball player and manager who has a net worth of $20 million dollars. Dusty Baker Patrick Surtain Net Worth 08 Oct 2013 @ 11AM PDT Patrick Surtain is a former American football player who spent eleven seasons in the NFL playing as a cornerback Laveranues Coles Net Worth 08 Oct 2013 @ 11AM PDT Laveranues Coles aka "Trouble" is a former American football player who served as wide receiver for 11 seasons in the NFL Chris Spielman Net Worth 07 Oct 2013 @ 8PM PDT Chris Spielman Net Worth: Chris Spielman is a former American football player who has a net worth of $4 million. Born Charles Christopher Spielman Flozell Adams Net Worth 07 Oct 2013 @ 4PM PDT Flozell Adams is a former American football player who played as an offensive tackle for the NFL for 12 years. His last team was Dallas. Niki Lauda Net Worth 02 Oct 2013 @ 9PM PDT Niki Lauda net worth: Niki Lauda is an Austrian former racing Formula One champion who has a net worth of $100 million dollars. Niki Lauda Phil Heath Net Worth 02 Oct 2013 @ 9PM PDT Phil Heath net worth: Phil Heath is an American bodybuilder who has a net worth of $2.5 million dollars. Phil Heath was born in Seattle Marc Bulger Net Worth 02 Oct 2013 @ 4PM PDT Marc Bulger is a former football player who played as quarterback in the NFL where he holds 20 passing records including 8153 passing yards Steve McNair Net Worth 01 Oct 2013 @ 4PM PDT Steve McNair was an football player who played as quarterback during his NFL career. Unfortunately, McNair lost his life on July 4, 2009. Andre Johnson Net Worth 01 Oct 2013 @ 3PM PDT Andre Johnson aka Optimus Prime is a professional American football player who played as wide receiver for the Houston Texans in the NFL Chris McAlister Net Worth 30 Sep 2013 @ 5PM PDT Chris McAlister is a former American college and professional football player who played as cornerback in the NFL for 11 seasons Julian Peterson Net Worth 30 Sep 2013 @ 9AM PDT Julian Peterson is a retired American football player who served as linebacker in the NFL for eleven seasons

Top richest celebraties: Mel Blanc Net Worth 13 Oct 2013 @ 6PM PDT Mel Blanc Net Worth: Mel Blanc was an American voice actor and comedian who had a net worth of $25 million. Born Melvin Jerome Blank Lee Thompson Young Net Worth 13 Oct 2013 @ 6PM PDT Lee Thompson Young Net Worth: Lee Thomson Young was an American actor who had a net worth of $250 thousand. Lee Thompson Young Anne Mccaffrey Net Worth 13 Oct 2013 @ 6PM PDT Anne Mccaffrey Net Worth: Anne Mccaffrey was an American writer who had a net worth of $20 million. Born Anne Inez McCaffrey Richard Crenna Net Worth 13 Oct 2013 @ 6PM PDT Richard Crenna Net Worth: Richard Crenna was an American motion picture, television and radio actor who had a net worth of $10 million. Bobby Vee net Worth 13 Oct 2013 @ 6PM PDT Bobby Vee Net Worth: Bobby Vee is an American pop music singer who has a net worth of $10 million. Born Robert Thomas Velline on April 30 BJ Thomas Net Worth 13 Oct 2013 @ 6PM PDT B.J. Thomas Net Worth: B.J. Thomas is an American popular singer who has a net worth of $5 million. Born Billy Joe Thomas on August 7 Hilary Rhoda Net Worth 12 Oct 2013 @ 6AM PDT Hilary Rhoda Net Worth: Hilary Rhoda is an American model who has a net worth of $6 million. Born on April 6, 1987, in Chevy Chase, Maryland Ken Hom Net Worth 12 Oct 2013 @ 6AM PDT Ken Hom net worth: Ken Hom is a Chinese-American chef who has a net worth of $3 million dollars. Ken Hom was born in Tucson, Arizona Shelley Malil Net Worth 12 Oct 2013 @ 6AM PDT Shelley Malil net worth: Shelley Malil is an Indian-American actor who has a net worth of $10 thousand. Shelley Malil was born in Kerala Shirley Murdock Net Worth 12 Oct 2013 @ 6AM PDT Shirley Murdock net worth: Shirley Murdock is an American R&B singer who has a net worth of $2 million dollars. Shirley Murdock was born Cherie Johnson Net Worth 12 Oct 2013 @ 6AM PDT Cherie Johnson net worth: Cherie Johnson is an American actor, producer and writer who has a net worth of $1 million dollars. Cherie Johnson Marc Blucas Net Worth 10 Oct 2013 @ 12AM PDT Marc Blucas net worth: Marc Blucas is an American actor who has a net worth of $1.5 million dollars. Marc Blucas was born in Butler Tom Oar Net Worth 10 Oct 2013 @ 12AM PDT Tom Oar net worth: Tom Oar is an American tanner, former rodeo star, and reality television personality who has a net worth of $200 thousand. Tom Oar Monty Hall Net Worth 09 Oct 2013 @ 11PM PDT Monty Hall net worth: Monty Hall is a Canadian producer, actor, singer, game show host, and sportscaster who has a net worth of $10 million Jonathan Banks Net Worth 09 Oct 2013 @ 11PM PDT Jonathan Banks net worth: Jonathan Banks is an American actor who has a net worth of $2.5 million dollars. Jonathan Banks was born in

Top richest businessmen: Oscar de la Renta Net Worth 13 Oct 2013 @ 6PM PDT Oscar de la Renta Net Worth: Oscar de la Renta is one of the world's leading fashion designers who has a net worth of $100 million. Álvaro Noboa Net Worth 13 Oct 2013 @ 6PM PDT Álvaro Noboa Net Worth: Álvaro Noboa is an Ecuadorian businessman and politician who has a net worth of $1 billion. Suzanne De Passe Net Worth 12 Oct 2013 @ 6AM PDT Suzanne De Passe Net Worth: Suzanne De Passe is an American television, music and film producer as well as the co-chairman of de Passe Jones Mike Sexton Net Worth 12 Oct 2013 @ 6AM PDT Mike Sexton net worth: Mike Sexton is an American professional poker player who has a net worth of $10 million dollars. Mike Sexton was born Dan Bilzerian Net Worth 12 Oct 2013 @ 6AM PDT Dan Bilzerian net worth: Dan Bilzerian is an American venture capitalist, actor, and gambler who has a net worth of $100 million. Dan Bilzerian Boyce Muse Net Worth 09 Oct 2013 @ 11PM PDT Boyce Muse net worth: Boyce Muse is an American businessman who has a net worth of $10 million dollars. Boyce Muse is the owner of Muse Lynn Tilton Net Worth 07 Oct 2013 @ 8PM PDT Lynn Tilton Net Worth: Lynn Tilton is an American trader, investor and industrialist who has a net worth of $1 billion. Lynn Tilton was born in John Rosatti Net Worth 07 Oct 2013 @ 8PM PDT John Rosatti Net Worth: John Rosatti is an American entrepreneur who has a net worth of $75 million. Born in 1947 in Brooklyn, New York, John Rosatti Dagen Mcdowell Net Worth 05 Oct 2013 @ 10PM PDT Dagen Mcdowell Net Worth: Dagen Mcdowell is a FOX Business Network anchor who has a net worth of $5 million. Born Mary Dagen McDowell on January Pax Prentiss Net Worth 02 Oct 2013 @ 9PM PDT Pax Prentiss net worth: Pax Prentiss is an American businessman who has a net worth of $15 million dollars. Pax Prentiss is based in Port Shannon Bream Net Worth 22 Sep 2013 @ 8PM PDT Shannon Bream Net Worth and salary: Shannon Bream is an American journalist who has a net worth of $4 million. Born Shannon Noelle DePuy on Johnny Wright Net Worth 22 Sep 2013 @ 2AM PDT Johnny Wright net worth: Johnny Wright is an American music manager who has a net worth of $15 million dollars. Johnny Wright was born Allan Zeman Net Worth 20 Sep 2013 @ 9PM PDT Allan Zeman net worth: Allan Zeman is a German-born Canadian businessman who has a net worth of $1 billion. Allan Zeman was born in Regensburg Cisco Rosado Jr Net Worth 20 Sep 2013 @ 9PM PDT Cisco Rosado, Jr. net worth: Cisco Rosado, Jr., is an American executive who has a net worth of $1 million dollars. Cisco Rosado, Jr. Jonas Max Ferris Net Worth 20 Sep 2013 @ 9PM PDT Jonas Max Ferris net worth: Jonas Max Ferris is an economist, investor advisor, and economic analyst who has a net worth of $5 million dollars. Jonas Max Ferris

Top 50 Richest Politicians: Yes these are the guys who promises tax cuts during the electron campaigns. Once they’re in power, the taxes just keep on rising. BOOO! Besides the taxes, there’s one other thing that’s always on the rise - the salary. Find out in thisTop 50 Richest Politicianslist exactly how much each politician is worth. They may disagree on most policies, but there’s one thing they do agree on - the green paper! #1$70 Billion Vladimir Putin Vladimir Putin net worth: Vladimir Putin is a Russian politician who was born in the Soviet Union and has a net worth of $70 billion dollars. #2$30 Billion King of Thailand The King of Thailand (Bhumibol Adulyadej) has reigned for 64 years and has an estimated net worth of $30 billion dollars. The King #3$29 Billion Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Alsaud Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Alsaud is a stock and real estate investor from Saudi Arabia with an estimated net worth of $29 billion dollars. #4$27 Billion Michael Bloomberg Michael Bloomberg net worth: Michael Bloomberg is an American politician and entrepreneur who has a net worth of $27 billion. Michael Bloomberg #5$20 Billion Sultan of Brunei The Sultan of Brunei, (also known as Hassanai Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah) has an estimated net worth of $20 billion, and rightly so. Born on #6$18 Billion Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahayan Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahayan (known also as Sheikh Khalifa) was born in Abu Dhabi and has an estimated net worth of $23 #7$17 Billion King Abdullah bin Abul Aziz King Abdullah bin Abul Aziz Net Worth: King Abdullah bin Abul Aziz is the King of Saudi Arabia who has a net worth of $17 billion dollars. King Abdullah bin Abul-Aziz #8$14 Billion Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid al Maktoum As most of us enjoy the beginning of football season, complete with grande nacho platters and buckets of ice cold beer, the truly rich #9$13.5 Billion Mohammed Al Amoudi Mohammed Al-Amoudi net worth: Mohammed Al Amoudi is an Ethiopian born businessman who is the richest black person in the world with a net worth of $13.5 billion. #10 $5.9 Billion Silvio Berlusconi Silvio Berlusconi Net Worth: Silvio Berlusconi is a former Prime Minister of Italy, entrepreneur and media tycoon who has a net worth of #11 $5 Billion Imelda Marcos Imelda Marcos is a Fillipino politician whose net worth is $ 5 Billion. Imelda Marcos achieved her net worth from her years in politics #12 $5 Billion Kim Jong-un Kim Jong-un net worth: Kim Jong-un is the supreme leader of North Korea who has a net worth of $5 billion. Kim Jong-un became Supreme Leader after the death #13 $5 Billion Prince Azim Prince Azim net worth: Prince Azim is the third in line to succeed the throne of Brunei who has a net worth of $5 billion. His Royal Highness Prince Haji Abdul Azim #14 $4 Billion Kim Jong-il Kim Jong-il is a Korean politician with a net worth of $4 billion. Kim Jong-il gained his net worth by being the leader #15 $3.5 Billion Prince of Liechtenstein The Prince of Liechtenstein (Johannes Adam Ferdinand Alois Josef Maria Marko d'Aviano Pius von und zu Liechtenstein) has reigned for 21 years and has #16 $3.5 Billion Ross Perot Ross Perot Net Worth: Ross Perot is an American businessman who has a net worth of $3.5 billion. Born Henry Ross Perot on June 27, 1930 #17 $3.1 Billion Abdul Aziz Al Ghurair Abdul Aziz Al Ghurair net worth: Abdul Aziz Al Ghurair is a businessman who has a net worth of $3.1 billion which makes him one of the richest #18 $3 Billion Meles Zenawi Meles Zenawi was Ethiopia’s former Prime Minister with a net worth of $3 billion. Before becoming a prime minister of his native country, Zenawi was the president Ethiopia #19 $2.6 Billion Sultan bin Mohammed bin Saud Al Kabeer Prince Sultan bin Mohammed bin Saud Al Kabeer net worth: Prince Sultan bin Mohammed bin Saud Al Kabeer is the member of the Saudi Royal family who has a net worth #20 $2.5 Billion King of Morocco The King of Morocco (Mohammed VI of Morocco) has reigned for 11 years and has an estimated net worth of $2.5 billion dollars. #21 $2 Billion Sheikh of Qatar The Sheikh of Qatar (Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani) has been Emir in Qatar for almost 16 years and has an estimated net #22 $2 Billion Saddam Hussein Saddam Hussein was born in Iraq and has an estimated net worth of $2 billion dollars. The 5th President of Iraq, Saddam Hussein #23 $2 Billion Sonia Gandhi Sonia Gandhi is the President of the Indian National Congress and has a net worth of $2 billion. Sonia Gandhi has made her net #24 $1.4 Billion Saad Hariri Saad Hariri Net Worth: Saad Hariri is a Saudi-Lebanese billionaire who has a net worth of $1.4 billion dollars. The former Prime Minister of Lebanon, Saad Hariri #25 $1 Billion Sebastian Pinera Sebastian Pinera (Miguel Juan Sebastián Piñera Echenique) was born in Chile and has an estimated net worth of $1 billion dollars. The 35th

A Breakthrough Year for Same-Sex Marriage: In 2013, the Supreme Court and several states weigh in on same-sex marriage. With more states legalizing same-sex marriage and two key Supreme Court rulings, 2013 was a breakthrough year for gay marriage in the United States. While other countries like Franceand Russiafaced fierce protests over gay marriage laws in 2013, a shift in public opinion happened in the United States. According to a July 2013 Gallup Poll, 52% of Americans would support a law that would legalize same-sex marriage in all 50 states. ABC News had similar results with their poll when 55% of Americans said they support same-sex couples' right to tie the knot. A 2013 Quinnipiac University poll found that 54% of American Catholics supported same-sex marriage. Even the newly crowned Pope Francisspoke up for the LGBT community in 2013. In a September interview published in international Jesuit journals, he said, "A person once asked me, in a provocative manner, if I approved of homosexuality. I replied with another question: 'Tell me: When God looks at a gay person, does he endorse the existence of this person with love, or reject and condemn this person?' We must always consider the person." Policy Shift for Republicans On February 27, 2013, several Republicans backed a legal brief asking the Supreme Court to rule that same-sex marriage was a constitutional right. It was a policy shift for many party members. More than 100 Republicans were listed on the brief, including former New HampshireCongressman Charles Bass and Beth Myers, a key adviser to Mitt Romneyduring his 2012 presidential campaign. The brief was filed as the U.S. Supreme Court prepared to consider overturning Proposition 8, the Californiainitiative banning same-sex marriage, as well as overturning the Defense of Marriage Act, a federal law passed during Bill Clinton's presidency, which defined marriage as between a man and a woman. On March 26, 2013, the Supreme Court began two days of historical debate over gay marriage. Their decision would be announced in June 2013. The Supreme Court Weighs In On June 26, 2013, the Supreme Court ruled that the 1996 Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) was unconstitutional. In a 5 to 4 vote, the court ruled that DOMA violated the rights of gays and lesbians. The court also ruled that the law interfered with the states' rights to define marriage. It was the first case ever on the issue of gay marriage for the Supreme Court. Chief Justice John G. Roberts, Jr. voted against striking it down as did Antonin Scalia, Samuel Alito and Clarence Thomas. However, conservative-leaning Justice Anthony M. Kennedy voted with his liberal colleagues to overturn DOMA. On the same day, the Supreme Court ruled that same-sex marriage opponents in California did not have standing to appeal the lower court ruling that overturned the state's ban, known as Proposition 8. This ruling would most likely remove legal battles for same-sex couples wishing to marry in California. However, the ruling did not directly affect other states. More States Begin Issuing Same-Sex Marriage Licenses During May 2013, Rhode Island, Delawareand Minnesotalegalized Same-Sex Marriage. On May 2, after same-sex marriage legislation passed in both houses of Rhode Island's legislature, Governor Lincoln Chafee signed the new law. Less than a week later, Governor Jack Markell signed the Civil Marriage Equality and Religious Freedom act, legalizing same-sex marriage for the state of Delaware. On May 13, 2013, in Minnesota, the State Senate voted 37 to 30 in favor of legalizing same-sex marriage, a week after the House voted in favor of the new law. Governor Mark Dayton, a supporter of same-sex marriage, signed the bill the following afternoon. In August 2013, Minnesota and Rhode Island began issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples. To see a list of all the states that have legalized same-sex marriage, go here. With public opinion shifting and so many breakthroughs in 2013, other states seemed poised to join that list. For example, as the summer of 2013 ended, several counties in New Mexicobegan issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples.

The 2013 Boston Marathon Tragedy: Three people were killed and hundreds injured after multiple bombs exploded during the Boston Marathon. On Monday, April 15, 2013, multiple bombs exploded during the Boston Marathon. The bombs went off at 2:50 in the afternoon as runners finished the race. At least three people were killed. One was an eight year old boy. More than 170 people were injured. The first explosion happened on Boylston Street close to the finish line. The second blast came about ten seconds later, 50 to 100 yards away. Another explosion happened during the afternoon at the JFK Library, but officials soon confirmed that incident was not connected. A U.S. government official said that neither the Boston police nor the FBI received any threats of an attack leading up to the marathon. Parents of the 2012 Newtown, Conn., shooting victims were in attendance near the finish line, sitting in the VIP section of the bleachers, but none of them were injured. President Obamasaid from the White House briefing room, "We still do not know who did this or why, and people shouldn't jump to conclusions before we have all the facts, but make no mistake: We will get to the bottom of this. Any responsible individuals, any responsible groups will feel the full weight of justice." The Search for Suspects On April 18, 2013, three days after the marathon bombing, the FBI released photos and video of two suspects in the hope that the public could help identify them. "Somebody out there knows these individuals as friends, neighbors, co-workers, or family members. Though it may be difficult, the nation is counting on those with information to come forward and provide it to us," said FBI special agent Richard DesLauriers upon the release of the photos and video. On the same day the images were released, President Obama spoke at the Cathedral of the Holy Cross in Boston's South End. After the service, both the president and First lady Michelle Obamavisited those injured in the explosions who were still recovering in the various hospitals throughout Boston. Boston Lockdown Just hours after the FBI released the images, the two suspects robbed a gas station in Central Square then shot and killed a MIT police officer in his car. Afterwards, the two men carjacked a SUV and told the driver that they had set off the explosions at the marathon. Police pursued the vehicle into Watertown. During the shootout, a MBTA officer was shot and one of the suspects, identified as Tamerlan Tsarnaev, was killed. A suicide vest was found on his body. The other suspect, Dzhokhar A. Tsarnaev, age 19, remained at large for several hours, causing a massive manhunt and lockdown for all of Boston, Cambridge, and many other surrounding communities. The manhunt continued throughout Friday, April 19, 2013, until he was found alive, but seriously injured, hiding in a boat behind a house in Watertown. The two suspects were brothers and had been living together on Norfolk Street in Cambridge. They had lived in the U.S. for about a decade, but were from an area near Chechnya, a region in Russia. More Arrests Made On May 1, 2013, three additional arrests were made in connection to the Boston Marathon bombing. Dias Kadyrbayev and Azamat Tazhayakov were arrested and charged with concealing evidence during a federal investigation. Robel K. Phillipos was charged with lying to impede the federal investigation. All three were close friends with Dzhokhar Tsarnaev. If found guilty, Kadyrbayev and Tazhayakov could receive five years in prison. Phillipos could receive eight years. On July 10, 2013, Dzhokhar Tsarnaev made his first public court appearance in Boston. His arraignment was for 30 charges, including four murder charges as well as using and conspiring to use a weapon of mass destruction. He pled not guilty to all charges. Tsarnaev could face the death penalty if convicted. In August 2013,Rolling Stonemagazine put Dzhokhar Tsarnaev on its cover with the headline, "The Bomber: How a Popular, Promising Student was Failed by His Family, Fell Into Radical Islam and Became a Monster." The cover story was controversial. Retailers, such as CVS Pharmacy, refused to sell the issue. BJ's Wholesale Club went one step further and announced that it would not sell any future issues of the magazine as well.

The Trials of Bradley Manning: After being sentenced to 35 years in prison, Manning makes a statement. On August 21, 2013, Private First Class Bradley Manningwas sentenced to 35 years in prison for leaking over 700,000 U.S. government files to WikiLeaks, files containing classified U.S. military activities in Iraqand Afghanistan. It was the longest sentence ever given in the U.S. involving leaked government data to the public. He also received a reduction in rank, a dishonorable discharge and would no longer receive any pay or allowances from the U.S. military. The charges against him included stealing government property, multiple counts of disobeying orders, violating the Espionage Act as well as the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. Manning, age 25, could be up for parole in seven years. Manning would serve his sentence in the U.S. Disciplinary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth. Immediately after the verdict, Reporters Without Borders, a non-profit organization based inFrance , condemned ...administration has been waging an unprecedented offensive that has ignored the public interest in their revelations. It also threatens the future of investigative journalism, which risks finding its sources drying up," Reporters Without Borders said. The day after the sentencing, Manning announced that he was female and wanted to be referred to from now on as Chelsea. The announcement was made during an appearance on the Today show by David E. Coombs, Manning's defense lawyer. Coombs made the announcement by reading Manning's written statement. In the statement, Manning wrote: "As I transition into this next phase of my life, I want everyone to know the real me. I am Chelsea Manning. I am a female. Given the way that I feel, and have felt since childhood, I want to begin hormone therapy as soon as possible. I hope that you will support me in this transition. I also request that, starting today, you refer to me by my new name and use the feminine pronoun." In the days following, Coombs remained optimistic and told theNew York Timesthat he hoped the military prison officials would voluntarily provide hormone treatment without a court order. However, under U.S. military policy, it may be impossible for Manning to begin transitioning while in military prison. In response to Manning's statement, Kimberly Lewis, a spokesperson for the Fort Leavenworth all-male military prison, said, "The Army does not provide hormone therapy or sex-reassignment surgery for gender identity disorder."

Vacated Michigan Central Station, 2009 Photo Credit: Albert Duce Detroit Hustles Harder sticker Detroit Down, but Not Out In 2013, Detroit files for bankruptcy and fires up its residents. On July 18, 2013, Detroitbecame the nation's largest public sector bankruptcy. Before the motor city filed, just over 60 cities, counties, towns and villages had filed for bankruptcy under Chapter 9, the procedure used by municipalities in courts since the mid-1950s. Detroit's bankruptcy filing came with the approval of MichiganGovernor Rick Snyder. In a press conference the following day, Snyder said, "Now's our opportunity to stop 60 years of decline. How long had this been going on and people were kicking the can down the road and not doing something? We're doing something." The bankruptcy was filed by Emergency Manager Kevyn Orr whose job it is to find a way to resolve Detroit's financial situation, which includes an estimated $18 million in total outstanding liabilities. Orr was appointed emergency financial manager by Gov. Snyder, an appointment opposed by Detroit residents in a November 2012 referendum. In the press conference with Snyder, Orr said that Detroit needs to cut its debt to restore services. "Does anybody think it's OK to have 40-year-old trees growing through the roofs of dilapidated houses," he said. Part of Orr's plan, to reorganize the city and cut the debt down to $2 billion, would mean that retirees, bond holders and investors would receive only 17% of what they are owed. Lights Out in Motor City Once the country's fourth-largest city and the world's automobile capital, Detroit has gone from a city of 1.8 million in 1950 to 700,000 people in 2013. Tens of thousands of buildings, including the historic Michigan Central Station, have been abandoned and lots vacated. Streets have gone unlit. Detroit residents got fired up about the bankruptcy filing, which meant pension cuts for city workers and bonds worth only pennies on the dollar. A bankruptcy filing also put the city's assets at risk, including the hockey arena and city zoo, which could be sold off. Detroiters Get Fired Up The Detroit Fire Fighters Association released a group statement that said it was "very disappointed" over the city's bankruptcy filing. The group added, "We are working with other Detroit employees to form a unified coalition to address the financial concerns of Detroit. Fire Fighters will continue to protect and serve during this difficult time, regardless of the economic challenges." Detroit resident Katherine Mingle wasn't surprised when the city filed for bankruptcy. "Since Rick Snyder was elected, he has implemented a number of policies that seem to center on the financial solvency of Michigan. Passing laws like the Right to Work legislation are particularly offensive to me as someone who takes pride in the accomplishments of the labor movement. As an educator, I have taught social studies to kids with an earnest love for the American ideals of democracy and civic involvement. It becomes really hard to instill those values when our elected officials in city government are being usurped by emergency managers." Mingle added that the media's handling of the bankruptcy filing didn't help. "Worst of all, it is another story for the national media to exploit what is seen as the decay of this great city. It's rare these days to find the media reporting on the positive things going on here," she said. Detroit Hustles Harder In fact, the bankruptcy and situation in Detroit presents a unique opportunity for the city to reinvent itself. As Mingle explains, "There is a lot going on here in terms of community organization, development, arts and culture. And it is fueled by the masses of young people moving to the city for cheap rent and the opportunity to build things. The residents I know are motivated, collaborative and proud. I don't know that people would be so fiercely determined to make positive changes if things weren't as bad as they are now." In January 2013, city leaders presented a 347-page plan called "Detroit Future City." The plan included turning vacated lands into parks, landscapes and commercial sections. Many point to the downtown area along Woodward Avenue as a guide. Thousands of people, a lot of them young, have moved into that area, which includes a new gourmet coffee shop, a faux beach, bushes landscaped in the shape of dogs, and music playing along the street. Other U.S. cities such as Pittsburghand Bostonredeveloped after a period of depopulation, although neither one of those cities faced the extreme financial situation that Detroit is in now. However, Mingle says Detroit is up for the challenge, "There's a slogan you see around town a lot. 'Detroit Hustles Harder.' I like it because it's true. We work hard and we work together. Maybe it's only because one person can't do it alone here. But the point is, Detroiters are not giving up. Bankruptcy is just another hurdle. And we are climbing it."

The NSA, Edward Snowden, and Surveillance (part 2 of 2): On July 3, the plane carrying Bolivian president Evo Morales from Russia back to Bolivia was diverted because several European nations, believing that Snowden was on board the plane, refused Morales access to their airspace. The move created a diplomatic furor, and Morales called the incident an "affront to all [Latin] America," and the vice president, Alvaro Garcia, said Morales was "being kidnapped by imperialism." On July 17, Snowden filed a temporary asylum request in Russia after being holed up in the transit area of Moscow's Sheremetyevo airport for more than three weeks. Putin reiterated that Snowden must do no further harm to the United States, telling reporters, "We warned Mr. Snowden that any action by him that could cause damage to Russian-American relations is unacceptable to us. Bilateral relations, in my opinion, are far more important than squabbles about the activities of the secret services." On August 1, Russia granted Snowden asylum for one year, despite strong urging from the U.S. not to do so. Snowden's asylum further eroded the relationship between Washington and Moscow and ratcheted up tension between Obama and Putin. President Obama canceled a September summit meeting with Putin. Here are the major revelations about the NSA's surveillance program made public by Snowden. The NSA monitors the credit card transactions and customer records of three major phone service providers: Verizon, AT&T, and Sprint Nextel. Since 2010, the NSA has been analyzing meta data from phone and email logs and supplementing that information with data from other sources, such as GPS locators, bank codes, passenger manifests from airlines and other transportation databases, Facebook, and voter registration logs, to create graphs of the social connections of individuals. The graphs can show who people communicate and travel with, their location, and other information. Through a program called PRISM, companies, such as Facebook and Google, have cooperated with the U.S. government in surveillance operations. Britain's Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) had access to data gleaned through PRISM. Snowden told theSouth China Morning Postthat the NSA has been collecting information about individuals and institutions in Hong Kong and China since 2009 using PRISM. The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court ruled that correspondence involving a U.S. citizen gleaned when the NSA was targeting non-U.S. citizens can be analyzed and kept if it was "inadvertently" acquired without a warrant. Through a program called Bullrun, the NSA has cracked internet encryption programs used by many companies to protect customers' privacy. Microsoft cooperated with the NSA, helping the agency to override the company's encryption mechanisms that protect the privacy of customers. The collaboration gave the government access to correspondence sent via Outlook.com, Hotmail, and Skype. Britain's GCHQ created the Tempora program in which the government monitored internet, email, IM, and phone activity using probes that were placed on fiber-optic cables. Internet content collected via the probes could be stored for three days and meta data for up to 30 days. Analysts at the NSA had access to this information. The Boundless Informant program enabled the NSA to analyze the metadata it collected. The tool has a mapping feature that allows data to be analyzed by country. The program seemingly contradicts claims by NSA officials that it does not have the ability to track the information it collects. The NSA shares raw intelligence data with Israel, passing it on before determining if it contained information about U.S. citizens. The NSA spied on Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff as well as Petrobras, Brazil's national oil company. The NSA conducted surveillance on the European Union embassy in Washington, D.C., France’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the European Council headquarters in Brussels.

The NSA, Edward Snowden, and Surveillance (part 1 of 2): An overview of the NSA surveillance program leaked to the media by Edward Snowden by Beth Rowen Edward Snowden Related Links U.S. Spying and Surveillance Timeline National Security Agency Biography of Edward Snowden One of the biggest and most far-reaching stories of 2013 broke in early June and continued to make headlines—and raise eyebrows—for the remainder of the year. On June 6, the British newspaper theGuardianpublished the first of many stories by Glenn Greenwald about the top-secret surveillance activities of the National Security Agency. Reports of the leaks, many of which were published simultaneously by theWashington Post, revealed that the NSA has secretly collected information from U.S. citizens without their consent, gathering data about their phone calls, internet use, instant messaging, and email activity. On June 9, Edward Snowden, a former CIA employee, admitted that he was the source of the NSA leaks. The Snowden leaks divulged that the NSA collects meta data about virtually every phone call made in the U.S., amounting to billions of calls. Meta data includes the phone numbers of the caller and recipient and the duration of the call; it does not include recordings of the actual conversations. Major phone companies, including Verizon, AT&T, and Sprint Nextel, have complied with court orders to turn over these records to the NSA. The leaks also uncovered details about PRISM, a secret program that gave NSA direct access to the servers of Facebook, YouTube, Skype, Google, Apple, Yahoo and other companies. Such access allowed the government to retrieve emails, photographs, and documents of millions of users. These companies denied that they offered the government "back door" access to their networks. Britain's Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ)—an agency similar to the NSA—had access to data gleaned through PRISM. Snowden: A Hero or a Traitor? Public reaction to the leaks was mixed; some people considered Snowden a whistle-blower and a champion of government transparency, while others called him a traitor. President Barack Obamaissued a carefully worded statement about the leaks, saying that there must be a balance between protecting national security and the privacy of citizens. "You can't have 100 percent security and also then have 100 percent privacy and zero inconvenience," Obama said. He also said the NSA programs "do not involve listening to people's phone calls, do not involve reading the emails of U.S. citizens or U.S. residents, absent further action by a federal court that is entirely consistent with what we would do, for example, in a criminal investigation." He was referring to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, the secret court, known as the FISA court, established in 1978 to hear requests for warrants for "electronic surveillance to obtain foreign intelligence information." U.S. intelligence officials defended the NSA programs. In mid-June, NSA Director Keith Alexander told the House intelligence committee that the surveillance programs have prevented more than 50 "potential terrorist events" since 2001. Fighting Extradition and Looking for a Place to Call Home Snowden, fearing prosecution, fled to Hong Kong before the Guardian ran its first story. He arrived in Hong Kong with four laptop computers from which he could access some of the U.S. government's most closely held secrets. He remained in Hong Kong while he sought asylum in a number of countries. The U.S. government filed espionage and theft charges against Snowden on June 21 and also requested that Hong Kong extradite Snowden. Fighting extradition, Snowden traveled from Hong Kong to Moscow on June 23. When Snowden first arrived at the Russian airport, he sought asylum in Russia. Russian president Vladimir Putin responded by saying that Snowden could stay in Russia only if he ceased "his work aimed at inflicting damage on our American partners." Meanwhile, the United States made diplomatic moves to prevent Snowden from receiving permanent asylum in Ecuador, Bolivia, Nicaragua, or Venezuela, the Latin American governments that stated they would take him.

The U.S. Government Is Closed for Business: Standoff over Obamacare results in government shutdown. U.S. Capital Photo Credit: Carol Highsmith On September 30, 2013, after several attempts by the House, Senate, and President Barack Obama to reach a deal on the federal budget ceiling and the funding of the Affordable Care Act, also known as Obamacare, the Senate rejected a Republican bill, forcing a partial shutdown of the government beginning on Oct. 1. The bill, approved earlier by the House, would have funded the government but delayed full implementation of Obamacare and eliminated a tax on medical devices that would cover some costs of the new health care program. As the Oct. 1 deadline approached, Republicans in the House showed no signs of backing down on the bill, despite little public support for the shutdown. In a New York Times/CBS News poll, 87% of respondents said they were frustrated about the potential shutdown and 69% said they would prefer an agreement over the budget and Obamacare over a U.S. default on its debt. On the morning of September 30, Speaker John Boehnersaid on the House floor, "The House has done its work. We passed a bill on Saturday night — sent it to the United States Senate — that would delay Obamacare for one year, and would eliminate permanently the medical device tax that is costing us tens of thousands of jobs that are being shipped overseas." Boehner also said that the health care law "is not ready for prime time." Boehner's intransigence may be a response to pressure from the Tea Party and other conservative groups, which have been lobbying members of Congress and staging "Defund Obamacare" protests for months. That same day, President Obamaurged Congress to agree on a bill. “We are the foundation of the world economy and the world financial system. And our currency is the reserve currency of the world. We don’t mess with that. And we certainly don’t allow domestic policy differences on issues that are unrelated to the budget to endanger not only our economy but the world economy," he said during a public appearance. As the government shut down on October 1, some Americans felt the impact more than others. A partial shutdown meant that unemployment, social security and Medicare benefits would not be interrupted. The mail service would continue. Federal air traffic controllers and airport security screeners would still report to work. However, all national parks and Smithsonian museums would close. People seeking government backed mortgages and loans could see delays. Active military personnel, about 1.4 million people, would stay on duty, but their paychecks would be delayed. Health and safety inspectors would stop workplace inspections except in emergency situations. The impact of the U.S. government shutdown was already being felt by the world's financial markets as stocks fell around the globe on September 30, 2013.

October 2013 Current Events: U.S. News. Here are the key events in United States news for the month of October 2013. *. Standoff over Obamacare Results in Government Shutdown (Oct. 1):Congress fails to agree on a budget and pass a spending bill, causing the government to shut down. The failure to pass a bill is largely due to a standoff over the Affordable Care Act, also known as Obamacare. Republicans show no signs of backing down on the bill, which passed in the House the weekend. The bill will fund the government but delay the Affordable Care Act and eliminate a tax on medical devices that would cover some costs of the new health care program. Some Americans feel the impact of the shutdown more than others. The partial shutdown means that unemployment, social security and Medicare benefits will not be interrupted. The mail service will continue. Federal air traffic controllers and airport security screeners will still report to work. However, all national parks and Smithsonian museums close. People seeking government backed mortgages and loans might see delays. Active military personnel, about 1.4 million people, will stay on duty, but their paychecks will be delayed. Health and safety inspectors will stop workplace inspections except in emergency situations. Overall, the government shutdown forces about 800,000 federal workers off the job.(Oct. 10):In an effort to end the shutdown they began, Republicans in the House offer President Obamaa plan to increase the debt limit through Nov. 22 if he promises to negotiate with them on a tax overhaul and long-term deficit reduction deal. If Obama agrees, the debt ceiling increase proposal may come to a vote in the House within twenty-four hours. Currently, the government is scheduled to hit its debt ceiling on October 17.

October 2013 Current Events: World News. Here are the key events in world news for the month of October 2013. *. Netanyahu Maintains Tough Stance against Iran (Oct. 1):Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahutravels to Washington D.C. to meet with President Obamato discuss the situation with Iran, including Iranian President Hassan Rowhani's recent overtures toward thawing relations with the west. The meeting between Netanyahu and Obama comes less than a week after Obama had spoken with Rowhani on the phone, the first time the leaders of the United States and Iran have talked in 34 years. During their meeting, Netanyahu and Obama present a united front when it comes to Iran having nuclear weapons. Obama assures Netanyahu that the U.S. will still turn to military action to prevent Iran from getting nuclear weapons.(Oct 2):Netanyahu gives his annual speech at the United Nations. During the speech, he refers to Iranian President Rowhani as a "wolf in sheep's clothing" and warns the international community not to be fooled by Rowhani's recent overtures. "I want there to be no confusion on this point. Israel will not allow Iran to get nuclear weapons. If Israelis forced to stand alone, Israel will stand alone," Netanyahu says. *. Top al-Qaeda Operative Captured in Tripoli (Oct. 5):U.S. commandoes capture Nazih Abdul-Hamed al-Ruqai, a high-ranking al-Qaeda operative who is known as Abu Anas al-Libi, in Tripoli. U.S. authorities have been pursuing Abu Anas, who was indicted for helping plan the 1998 bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, for about 15 years. While commandoes capture Abu Anas, U.S. Navy SEALs storm a villa in Somalia in pursuit of an Al Shabab leader who goes by the name Ikrimah. The commandos are met with strong resistance and engage in a gun battle with militants before retreating without capturing or killing Ikrimah. U.S. officials do not link Ikrimah to the mall attack in Nairobi last month, but do say he is one of the militants in charge of planning attacks outside Somaliaand that he is connected to members of Al Qaeda who masterminded the 1998 attack on the American Embassy in Nairobi, Kenya.

October 2013 Current Events: Disasters & Science News. Here are the key events in Science and Disasters news for the month of October 2013. *. Boat Sinks in the Mediterranean, Killing Dozens (Oct. 3):At least 94 people are dead and another 250 are missing after a boat capsizes in the Mediterraneannear the Sicilian island of Lampedusa. The boat, carrying African migrants to Europe, sinks after passengers light a blanket on fire to signal their position. The fire spreads from the blanket to gasoline, creating a panic that sinks the boat. It is the worst boating accident of its kind in the region.

September 2013 Current Events: Business News. Here are the key events in business and science news for the month of September 2013. *. Weak Job Report Raises Doubts (Sept. 6):According to the Labor Department, 169,000 jobs are added in August, slightly less than the monthly average over the last year. Meanwhile, unemployment decreases from 7.4 percent in July to 7.3 percent in August. However, unemployment continues to decrease for the wrong reason, because more people have dropped out of the labor force, and not because they have found jobs. Adding to the uncertainty, job growth estimates for July and June are revised to be less than what they were originally reported.

September 2013 Current Events: Disasters & Science News. Here are the key events in Science and Disasters news for the month of September 2013. *. Colorado Floods Leave Thousands Stranded (Sept. 12):Flash floods around Boulder, Coloradocause massive damage, cutting off highways, destroying at least 19,000 homes and killing at least eight people. University of Colorado's main campus is closed and five hundred students and staff members are ordered to evacuate. The flooding is due to heavy rains producing record levels of rainfall. Officials expect the death toll to rise.(Sept. 15):More rain in the area complicates the rescue effort. The death toll rises to six people. More than 800 people are unaccounted for in Boulder and Larimer Counties. During a CNN Television interview, Colorado Governor John W. Hickenlooper says, "There are many, many homes that have been destroyed. A number have been collapsed, and we haven't been in them yet. So we're still dealing with that. How do we save lives first?" *. Massive Fire Destroys Jersey Shore Boardwalk (Sept. 12):A fire destroys the Jersey Shore boardwalk nearly a year after Hurricane Sandycaused massive damage to the same area. The fire begins at an ice cream shop before spreading over six-blocks, taking out at least 20 businesses. The Funtown Pier, the same pier that was damaged by Hurricane Sandy, is immersed in flames. The fire wipes out months of rebuilding and recovery from the hurricane. At a news conference, New JerseyGovernor Chris Christie calls the blaze "unthinkable" and admits that when he heard the news, "I said to my staff, 'I feel like I want to throw up.'"(Sept. 17):Officials declare the fire an accident. The investigation determines that the fire was caused by faulty electrical wiring, which may have been damaged by water and sand during Hurricane Sandy last fall. *. Massive Storms Hit Both Coasts in Mexico (Sept. 12):Hurricane Ingrid, coming from the Pacific, and Tropical Storm Manuel, coming from the Gulf of Mexico, hit Mexicoat the same time. The two storms cause flooding in several towns and cities. Major highways are cut off. Heavy rains cause deadly landslides. More than 120 people are killed. Thousands are left homeless. The government declares the storms, which are some of the most damaging in decades, a national emergency. As the storms continue, stranded tourists have to be airlifted from Acapulco to Mexico City. Although several hotels in Acapulco are not damaged from flooding and mudslides, power failures and destroyed highways make getting food and other provisions to tourists impossible. At least 40,000 tourists are stranded in Acapulco. *. Magnitude 7.7 Earthquake Kills at least 327 (Sept. 23):A 7.7 magnitude earthquake hits Baluchistan, an area of deserts and mountains in Pakistan. The earthquake causes hundreds of mud houses to collapse on residents. At least 327 people are killed. The earthquake is the worst in the country since 2005 and is felt throughout South Asia. Hundreds of soldiers from Pakistan's army are airlifted to help in the rescue effort. The earthquake hits Pakistan while the country is still in mourning over the deaths of more than 80 Christians in the suicide bombing of the All Saints Church in Peshawar.

September 2013 Current Events: U.S. News. Here are the key events in United States news for the month of September 2013. *. Rafael Nadal and Serena Williams Win the U.S. Open (Sept. 8-9): Rafael Nadalbeats Novak Djokovicin four sets (6–2, 3–6, 6–4, 6–1) to win his second U.S. Open Men's Singles Championship. Serena Williamsis tested in a tough three set match (7–5, 6–7, 6–1) against Victoria Azarenka for the U.S. Open Women's Championship. It is Serena's fifth U.S. open win and her seventeenth major singles title. *. Colorado Recalls Pro-Gun Control State Senators (Sept. 10):Voters in Coloradothrow out of office Democrats John Morse and Angela Giron for their support of recently enacted gun-control laws that mandate background checks on private gun sales and limit magazine clips to 15 rounds. The election draws national attention not only for the ouster of the officials but also for the influx of money on both sides, from the National Rifle Association and New York mayor Michael Bloomberg, a gun-control advocate. *. Gunman and 12 Victims Killed in D.C. Navy Yard Shooting (Sept. 16):Former Navy reservist Aaron Alexis, 34, kills 12 people at the Washington Navy Yard, near the U.S. Capitol. Alexis, who had been employed at the base by a military subcontractor, is killed in a shootout with police. *. Government Heads Toward a Shutdown (Sept. 30):The Senate rejects a Republican bill that will fund the government but delay the Affordable Care Act, also known as Obamacare. The rejection increases the chance of a government shutdown at midnight because the spending bill must pass to fund the government. With just hours left before the deadline, the Senate votes against the spending bill, which the House approved over the weekend. The bill will delay the Affordable Care Act for a year and eliminate a tax on medical devices that would cover some costs of the new health care program. The Senate's rejection sends the bill back to the House. However, Republicans in the House show no signs of backing down on the bill. Speaker John Boehnersays on the House floor, "The House has done its work. We passed a bill on Saturday night — sent it to the United States Senate — that would delay Obamacare for one year, and would eliminate permanently the medical device tax that is costing us tens of thousands of jobs that are being shipped overseas." Boehner also says that the health care law "is not ready for prime time." The impact of a possible U.S. government shutdown is already being felt by the world's financial markets as stocks fall around the globe.

September 2013 Current Events: World News (part 2 of 2): *.Somalian Militants Terrorize Luxury Mall (Sept. 21):Shabab militants attack an upscale mall in Nairobi, killing nearly 70 people and wounding about 175. The siege continues with persistent fighting between government troops and militants. The attack is meticulously planned, and the militants prove to be challenging for the government to dislodge from the Westgate mall. Shabab, based in Somalia, says the attack is in retaliation for the Kenyan military's role in helping Somalia battle the militant group. In the wake of the violence, the ICC suspends the trial of Deputy President William Ruto so he can return to Kenyaand assist in managing the crisis. *. Bo Xilai Is Sentenced to Life in Prison (Sept. 22):Chinese politician Bo Xilai is sentenced to life in prison. Eastern China's Jinan Intermediate People's Court finds him guilty of embezzlement, accepting bribes, and abuses of power, including a failed attempt to stifle the murder allegations against his wife. During the trial, Bo pleads not guilty, contesting every allegation. After the verdict, Bo's associates say that he will likely appeal his sentence. Bo's wife, Gu Kailai, is currently serving a suspended death sentence, the equivalent of life in prison, for the murder of British businessman Neil Heywood. *. Historic Christian Church Destroyed by Taliban (Sept. 23):Two suicide bombers linked to the Taliban attack the All Saints Church in Peshawar, killing more than 80 people and destroying the historic church. It is the deadliest attack against Christians in Pakistan's history. Shiites, also a religious minority in Pakistan, have also been targeted by the Taliban in the past year. The attack prompts many to question if the government should move ahead with plans to begin negotiations with the Taliban. *. Iranian President Takes Steps to Thaw Relations with the West (Sept. 20):In an opinion article in theWashington Post, Iranian President Hassan Rowhanisignals his willingness to engage the international community to forge mutually beneficial relationships. Such diplomacy, he says, means "engaging with one's counterparts, on the basis of equal footing and mutual respect, to address shared concerns and achieve shared objectives." He offers to mediate between the Syrian government and the opposition and reiterates that the country intends to pursue nuclear power for peaceful purposes. "Mastering the atomic fuel cycle and generating nuclear power is as much about diversifying our energy resources as it is about who Iranians are as a nation, our demand for dignity and respect and our consequent place in the world."(Sept. 26):Rowhani's charm offensive continues on his trip to the U.S., where he addresses the UN General Assembly. His speech notably lacks the anti-Israel bluster of his predecessor, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, and he is careful to refrain from making statements that will raise eyebrows at home or expectations by the West. He repeats his earlier claim that Iran will never seek nuclear weapons but will continue to pursue uranium enrichment for peaceful purposes. He also suggests that the U.S. and Irancan come to agreement on Iran's nuclear program within six months. In another remarkable turn, Rowhani calls the Holocaust "reprehensible." The statement further illustrates how Rowhani is steering a markedly different course from Ahmadinejad, who denied the Holocaust on several occasions. Many observers are disappointed that President Obama and Rowhani didn't shake hands at the UN. Still, expectations for future talks and progress on the intractable nuclear issue remain high.(Sept. 27):Obama speaks with Rowhani in a historic phone call. It is the first time the leaders of the United States and Iran have talked in 34 years. The phone call lasts 15 minutes. During the call, the two discuss an ongoing effort to reach an agreement over Iran's nuclear program.

September 2013 Current Events: World News (part 1 of 2): Here are the key events in world news for the month of September 2013. *. President Obama Seeks Approval for Military Action Against Syria (Sept. 1): President Obamasurprises many when he announces that he will seek Congressional approval for military action against Syria. The military action will be in response to the chemical attack that killed 1,429 people last month. In a televised address, Obama calls Syria's alleged use of chemical weapons "an assault on human dignity." He also says, in the address, that a failure to respond "could lead to escalating use of chemical weapons or their proliferation to terrorist groups who would do our people harm. In a world with many dangers, this menace must be confronted."(Sept. 4):The U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee votes, 10 to 7, to authorize military action in Syria. In the following days, Obama attempts to rally support for the strike, but both the public and Congress expresses increases reluctance for military action.(Sept. 9):A diplomatic solution is back on the table after U.S. secretary of state John Kerrysuggests half-heartedly that a strike can be averted if Assad agrees to hand over all chemical weapons. Russiatakes the proposal seriously. Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov says, "If the establishment of international control over chemical weapons in the country will prevent attacks, then we will immediately begin work with Damascus. And we call on the Syrian leadership to not only agree to setting the chemical weapons storage sites under international control, but also to their subsequent destruction."(Sept. 12):Syrian foreign minister Walid al-Moallem also embraces the option. "We are ready to reveal the locations of the chemical weapon sites and to stop producing chemical weapons and make these sites available for inspection by representatives of Russia, other countries and the United Nations," he says in a statement on Sept. 12. It is the first time the Syrian government acknowledges it has chemical weapons. Given the uncertainty of Congressional authorization, diplomacy will spare Obama a potential rebuke that can undercut his authority for the remainder of his presidency.(Sept. 15):Russia and the U.S. reach an agreement that Syria must provide an inventory of its chemicals weapons and production facilities within a week and either turn over or destroy all of its chemical weapons by mid-2014. If the government fails to comply, then the UN Security Council will take up the issue. The timetable is extremely aggressive; such disarmament typically takes years, not months. While the agreement delays a Congressional vote on a military strike, the U.S. keeps that possibility on the table. "If diplomacy fails, the United States remains prepared to act," Obama says. *. Kenya's Deputy President Denies Charges of Crimes Against Humanity (Sept. 11):Kenya's Deputy President William Ruto pleads not guilty to charges of crimes against humanity at the International Criminal Court in early September 2013. The charges stem from the violence that followed the 2007 election. President Kenyatta is scheduled to appear before the court in November. Days before Ruto appears at the ICC, parliament votes to withdraw from the court. *. United Nations Confirms Use of Chemical Weapons in Syria (Sept. 16):The UN confirms in a report that the chemical agent sarin was used near Damascus on Aug. 21. "Chemical weapons have been used in the ongoing conflict between the parties in the Syrian Arab Republic, also against civilians, including children, on a relatively large scale," the report says. "The environmental, chemical and medical samples we have collected provide clear and convincing evidence that surface-to-surface rockets containing the nerve agent sarin were used." The report does not indicate who was responsible for launching the attack.(Sept. 18):Russia denounces the UN's report, calling it incomplete. In a statement broadcast on Russian television, Deputy Foreign Minister Sergei A. Ryabkov says, "We think that the report was distorted. It was one-sided. The basis of information upon which it is built is insufficient."(Sept. 26):The five permanent members of the Security Council agree on a resolution that requires Syria to hand over its stockpile of chemical weapons. If Syria fails to comply, then the Security Council will reconvene to determine repercussions, which could include military action or sanctions. Meanwhile, the fragile coalition of opposition groups further splinter, when 11 rebel groups announce that they will no longer recognize the Syrian National Coalition, the dissident leadership that is based in Turkey. Instead, the groups say they will work together to establish sharia, or Islamic law, in Syria. The move signals the rising power of groups affiliated with al-Qaeda.

August 2013 Current Events: U.S. News. Here are the key events in United States news for the month of August 2013. *. Minnesota and Rhode Island Begin Issuing Same-Sex Marriage Licenses (Aug. 1):Two more states, Minnesotaand Rhode Island, begin issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples this month. To see all the states that have legalized same-sex marriage, go here. *. Bulger Found Guilty of Racketeering, Extortion, Conspiracy and Murder (Aug. 12):Notorious Boston gangster James (Whitey) Bulgeris found guilty of 31 of the 32 charges he faced, including murder, extortion, money laundering, drug dealing and possession of weapons. Bulger, at age 83, faces a sentence of life in prison, plus thirty years. His sentencing is scheduled for November 13. *. Manning Sentenced to 35 Years for Leaking U.S. Files (Aug. 21):Private Bradley Manning, age 25, is sentenced to 35 years in prison for leaking over 700,000 U.S. government files to WikiLeaks, files that contained classified U.S. military activities. It is the longest sentence ever given in the U.S. involving leaked government data to the public. Private Manning can be up for parole in seven years, according to his attorney.(Aug. 22):The day after his sentencing, Manning announces that he is female and wants to be referred to from now on as Chelsea. The announcement is made during an appearance on theTodayshow by David E. Coombs, Manning's defense lawyer. Coombs makes the announcement by reading Manning's written statement. In the statement, Manning writes: "As I transition into this next phase of my life, I want everyone to know the real me. I am Chelsea Manning. I am a female. Given the way that I feel, and have felt since childhood, I want to begin hormone therapy as soon as possible. I hope that you will support me in this transition. I also request that, starting today, you refer to me by my new name and use the feminine pronoun."

August 2013 Current Events: Business News. Here are the key events in business and science news for the month of August 2013. *. More Jobs Are Added in July, But Growth Remains Slow (Aug. 2):According to the Labor Department, 162,000 jobs are added in July, thirty thousand less than what was added in June. Meanwhile, unemployment decreases from 7.6 percent in June to 7.4 percent in July, partly because more people stopped looking for work. The unemployment rate represents only those who are only actively seeking a job. *. Amazon Founder BuysThe Washington Post(Aug. 5): Jeff Bezos, founder and CEO of Amazon.com, buysThe Washington Postfor $250 million. Bezos is currently ranked 19th onForbes' billionaire list. He has an estimated fortune of more than $25 billion. Despite his extensive wealth and success, Bezos' purchase comes as a surprise because he has not previously mentioned an interest in the newspaper business.

August 2013 Current Events: Disasters & Science news. Here are the key events in Science and Disasters news for the month of August 2013. *. Several Wildfires Burn in Several States (Aug. 17):As of mid-August, 34 wildfires are burning in eleven states. There are ten wildfires in Idahoalone. Idaho residents near the town of Ketchum are forced from their homes as 1,200 firefighters battle the state's biggest wildfire, which currently burns across 1,000 acres. More than 2,300 homes have been evacuated so far in central Idaho. The fire is six percent contained.(Aug. 26):One of the biggest fires in California's history continues to spread near Yosemite National Park. The fire, which is being referred to as the Rim Fire, is seven percent contained and has burned through 144,000 acres, making it the 14th largest fire in Californiasince 1932, the year the state started keeping wildfire records. The size of the fire is roughly the size of Chicago. The fire's location makes it a threat to San Francisco's electrical and water supply. Nearly 3,000 firefighters are battling the blaze. *. Train Hits Crowd in India, Killing Dozens (Aug. 19):Dozens of Hindu pilgrims are killed while crossing the tracks near a remote station in eastern Indiawhen an express train crashes into them. After the crash, the crowd drags out the train's driver and beats him. The crowd also sets the train on fire. The Bihar train station is not accessible by road and express trains usually come through without stopping at a speed of 50 miles per hour. Officials say the driver of the train had clearance to pass through the station. Thirty-seven people are confirmed dead, including several children.

August 2013 Current Events: World News. Here are the key events in world news for the month of August 2013. *. Russia Grants Asylum to Fugitive, Angers U.S. (Aug. 1): Russiagrants Edward Snowden, the American who leaked info about U.S. surveillance, asylum for one year. The temporary asylum allows him to leave the Moscow airport where he has been since June. Russia grants Snowden asylum despite strong urging from the U.S. not to do so. In response, President Obamacancels a planned summit meeting with Russian President Vladimir Putinwhich was to be held in Moscow in September. *. Egypt Declares State of Emergency (Aug. 14):In Cairo, riot police raid protest camps. They open fire and use armored bulldozers, tear gas, snipers, and helicopters to clear the camps. Protesters throw rocks and burn tires in response. More than 500 people are killed, and the government declares a state of emergency. Mohamed ElBaradei resigns as vice president in protest of the military's action. President Barack Obama cancels joint military exercises between Egyptand the U.S. that are scheduled for September in response to the military's repressive and heavy-handed tactics. "While we want to sustain our relationship with Egypt, our traditional cooperation cannot continue as usual while civilians are being killed in the streets," Obama says.(Aug. 18):The crackdown and protests continues, as both the military and Mohammed Morsi's supporters vow to continue their fight. Casualties mount with more than 1,000 fatalities, most of whom are Morsi supporters. Thirty-six Islamic militants in police custody are killed while being transported to prison on the outskirts of Cairo.(Aug. 19):Militants kill 24 police officers in the northern Sinai region. Foreign governments urge the military to use restraint, a plea largely ignored. While foreign officials deplore the heavy-handed tactics of the military, they are careful not to imply support for the protesters, recognizing that the interim government is the only hope for stability. Police arrest Mohamed Badie, the Muslim Brotherhood's spiritual leader, and charge him with incitement to murder. Meanwhile, a court orders that former president Hosni Mubarak be released from prison, calling into question whether the 2011 revolution would be in vain. Given the turn of events, all signs indicate that Egypt is headed back to becoming an authoritarian regime. *. Israel and Palestine Begin Talks on Their Own Turf (Aug. 14):Israelis and Palestinians officially begin peace talks in Jerusalem. Expectations are low going into the talks, the third attempt to negotiate since 2000, and nearly five years since the last attempt. The talks begin just hours after Israelreleases 26 Palestinian prisoners. The prisoner release is a step on Israel's part to bring Palestineback to the negotiating table. Israel says the prisoner release will be the first of four. However, Palestinian officials are concerned over Israel's ongoing settlement building in the West Bank and east Jerusalem, land that will be part of an official Palestinian state. "The talks might collapse any time because of the Israeli practices," says Yasser Abed Rabbo, adviser to Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas, speaking on Voice of Palestine radio about the settlements. Israelis are also aware of the challenges ahead. In a TV interview just before the talks began, Israel's chief negotiator Tzipi Livnisays, "It will be complicated and complex, but I am not giving up." *. Opposition Accuses Government of Chemical Weapon Attack in Syria (Aug. 21):Opposition groups accuse the Syrian government of attacking rebel areas in Zamalka, Ein Terma, and Erbeen, suburbs east of Damascus, with chemical weapons. Gruesome, graphic images in the media show victims foaming at the mouth and twitching and lines of covered corpses. The opposition say as many as 1,000 people died in the attack. The government denies it launched a chemical attack. The alleged attack coincides with the arrival of UN inspectors to Syriato investigate earlier allegations of government use of chemical weapons. Inspectors are cleared to investigate the site, and their convoy is fired on by snipers en route. They do gain access to the affected areas and took samples for testing. The Syrian government denies it launched a chemical attack. U.S. Secretary of State John Kerrycalls the attack a "moral obscenity" and an "indiscriminate slaughter of civilians."(Aug. 27):Because Russia and China vow to veto any UN Security Council resolution authorizing retaliation on Assad, the U.S. and allies hope to form a coalition to support an attack. President Obama says that he is considering a limited strike on the military bases

July 2013 Current Events: U.S. News. Here are the key events in United States news for the month of July 2013. *. Key Witness Testifies at Bulger Trial (July 9):Kevin Weeks, a key government witness, testifies against his former mentor James (Whitey) Bulger. In his testimony, Weeks recounts how Bulger killed two men in 1982 in South Boston. Weeks gets a reduced sentence for testifying. His testimony is the most damaging yet because it ties Bulger to at least two of the 19 murders he's been accused of playing a part in.(July 10):As Weeks testimony continues, he and Bulger trade expletives in the courtroom. It is the first words the two have spoken to each other in over 16 years. The trial, which began on June 12, 2013, is expected to continue through September. *. George Zimmerman Found Not Guilty of Trayvon Martin's Murder (July 13):A jury in Floridafinds George Zimmermannot guilty of murdering Trayvon Martin. The six jurors, all of which are women, deliberate for 16.5 hours before the verdict. Of the jurors, five women are white and one is a minority. After the verdict, Tracy Martin, Trayvon's father, tweets: "Even though I am broken hearted my faith is unshattered I WILL ALWAYS LOVE MY BABY TRAY." Both sides ask for peace after the verdict. The verdict does spark outrage on the internet and protests in cities throughout the U.S., but no riots or extreme violence are reported.

July 2013 Current Events: Business News Here are the key events in business and science news for the month of July 2013. *. Job Growth Continues in June (July 5):According to the Labor Department, 195,000 jobs are added in June, twenty thousand more jobs than were added in May. Meanwhile, unemployment held at 7.6 percent, the exact same percent as in May. See also: Current Events: U.S. News, July 2013 Current Events: World News, July 2013 Current Events: Disasters & Science News, July 2013 Recent Deaths People in the News

July 2013 Current Events: Disasters & Science. Here are the key events in Science and Disasters news for the month of July 2013. *. Plane Crashes in San Francisco Killing Three and Injuring Dozens (July 6):A passenger jet of Asiana Airlines crashes at the San Franciscointernational Airport while attempting to land. The plane, traveling from Seoul, South Korea, catches fire. Three people are killed. More than 180 others are injured and taken to various San Francisco hospitals. The cause of the plane crash is not clear. The National Transportation Safety Board begins an investigation immediately. *. A Train in Quebec Derails and Explodes (July 6):In Lac-Megantic, Quebec, an unattended runaway train carrying crude oil derails and explodes. Fifty people are missing and presumed dead. Thirty buildings are destroyed. The engineer left the train to take a break, engaging the breaks before he left. *. Paris Train Derails, Killing at Least Six (July 12):A passenger train from Paris travels south and slams into a station platform. At least six people are killed and a dozen more are seriously injured. The train provides regional service. The accident happens at the Bretigny-sur-Orge station, 16 miles south of Paris, France. *. Spain Has Worst Train Crash in Decades (July 24):A passenger train derails and crashes in northwest Spain, just outside of Santiago de Compostela. At least 78 people are killed and dozens more are injured. Investigators are looking into the reason for the incident, although early reports have said that the train was traveling at an excessive speed, taking a curve at more than twice the speed limit just before it derailed.

July 2013 Current Events: World News. Here are the key events in world news for the month of July 2013. *. Morsi Deposed by Military After One Year in Office (July 1):The protests in Egyptcontinue and the military issue a statement saying they will step in if Mohammed Morsidoes not respond to the protesters in 48 hours.(July 4):The military deposes Morsi and suspends the constitution, saying the move is an attempt at "national reconciliation" rather than a coup. Morsi, however, calls it a "complete military coup." He is taken into custody and several members of his inner circle are placed under house arrest. Adli Mansour, the chief justice of the Supreme Constitutional Court, is sworn in as interim president. He dismantles the Shura Council, the only functioning body of parliament.(July 5):Thousands of Morsi supporters take to the streets of Cairo in protests organized by the Muslim Brotherhood.(July 8):Troops and police fire on protesters during morning prayers, killing more than 50 Morsi supporters and wounding more than 300. Reports in the news media say the attack was unprovoked. However, the military say soldiers were fired at first. About 650 members of the Muslim Brotherhood are arrested. The violence escalates the political crisis.(July 6):The day after the violence-the worst since the revolution began in 2011-the interim military government names Hazem el-Beblawy, a respected economist who supported the ouster of Mubarak, as prime minister and says a new constitution will be drafted and elections will be held within six months. The Muslim Brotherhood, however, rejects both the appointment of Beblawy and the timeframe for a return to a civilian government. Most members of the opposition, ranging from liberals to conservative Islamists, call the timeframe unrealistic and poorly planned. In another development, Saudi Arabiaand the United Arab Emiratessay they will loan Egypt $8 billion, giving the country a much-needed infusion of cash to shore up the crippled economy.(July 26):At the urging of Gen. Sisi, hundreds of thousands of protesters take to the streets to back the military and to "confront terrorism." The next day, members of the Muslim Brotherhood stage their own demonstration in Cairo in support of Morsi, and police open fire, killing more than 80 people and wounding several hundred. Despite the escalating violence, the Islamists vow to continue their protests. *. Morales Embroiled in Controversy Involving NSA Leaker Snowden (July 3):Bolivia finds itself involved in the international controversy surrounding the future of Edward Snowden, the former CIA employee who leaked top-secret information about U.S. domestic surveillance to several news organizations in June 2013. A plane carrying Morales from Russia back to Bolivia is diverted because several European nations, believing that Snowden is on board the plane, refuse Morales access to their airspace. The move creates a diplomatic furor, and Morales calls the incident an "affront to all [Latin] America," and the vice president, Alvaro Garcia, says Morales is "being kidnapped by imperialism."(July 4):France apologizes the day after the incident. Morales's regional allies, including presidents from Argentina, Ecuador, Uruguay and Venezuela, meet in a show of solidarity and demand an explanation about the incident. *. Historic Wimbledon Crowns Andy Murray and Marion Bartoli (July 6-7):In the Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship, Marion Bartoli of Francedefeats Germany's Sabine Lisicki in straight sets, 6-1, 6-4. It is the first Grand Slam title for Bartoli. It is only the second Wimbledon Championship match in the Open era played by two women who have never won a Grand Slam. Andy Murraybecomes the first Brit in 77 years to take the Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship. He beat number one seed Novak Djokovicin straight sets, 6-4, 7-5, 6-4. Of the historic match, Murray says, "That last game will be the toughest game I'll play in my career, ever." *. Hitto Steps Down as Prime Minister of Syrian National Coalition (July 8):Ghassan Hitto steps down as the prime minister of the opposition Syrian National Coalition after holding the post for less than four months and making little progress in organizing the rebels and their strongholds. Hitto's efforts to garner aid from the West also fell short of expectations. His resignation comes just days after Amad Jarba, a tribal leader from the northeastern part of the country, is elected president of the coalition. As the opposition shows signs of fracturing; Sunni v. Shiite violence intensifies; and Assad's forces hold on to Damascus, most of central Syria, and cities in the north with the help of Iran, Russia, and Hezbollah, the U.S. acknowledges that Bashar al-Assadwould likely remain in power and control parts of Syriaindefinitely. Meanwhile, the UN reports that the death toll in Syria's civil war had surpassed 100,000.

June 2013 Current Events: World News. Here are the key events in world news for the month of June 2013. *. Taliban Opens Office in Qatar (June):The Talibanopens an office in Doha, Qatar, and its representatives hold a press conference with an international media contingent. The U.S. says it will begin long-delayed peace talks with the group. Afghanistanwas expected to do the same, but instead says it will not engage in any dialogue with the Taliban, saying such discussions lent the militants credibility. Karzai also seems to want to control the terms of the talks, saying they must be "Afghan-owned and Afghan-led," implying they cannot be held in Qatar. In addition, Karzai pulls out of talks with the U.S. on the important status-of-forces agreement (SOFA), which will govern the status of remaining U.S. troops in Afghanistan after the U.S. withdraws in 2014.(June 18):The Afghan National Security Force assumes complete responsibility for the security of the country, taking over the last areas under NATO control. The 352,000-troop force has shown steady improvement over the past few years and has assumed control over most urban areas. The transition is an important milestone in the country's fight against the Taliban and its move away from dependence on outside forces for stability. *. Anti-Government Protests in Turkey Call for Erdogan's Resignation (June 1):Police withdraw from Istanbul's Gezi Park in Taksim Square and let the occupation continue. Protesters criticize Turkey's Prime Minister Erdogan for being authoritarian and call for his resignation. Erdogan initially dismisses the protesters as "thugs," but agrees to meet with representatives of the many groups of demonstrators.(June 11):Police storm the park, again spraying protesters with tear gas and water, and force protesters out of the area. The protests are compared to the Occupy movementthat took hold in the U.S. in September 2011. Erdogan has been popular since taking office in 2003, leading an economic recovery, expanding the middle class, and weakening the influence of the military. At the same time, his critics accuse him of being heavy-handed and allowing his religious views to influence his leadership. *. Reports of Chemical Weapon Use in Syria Continues (June 4):A human rights team working for the United Nations reports that there are "reasonable grounds" to believe that government forces in Syriahave used chemical weapons. French foreign minister Laurent Fabius reports that sarin, a nerve gas, has been used on multiple occasions.(June 5):Syrian rebels pull out of the town of Al-Qusayr, a former strategic stronghold for them. The Syrian Army regains control of the town. Iran's government, in an official statement, congratulates the Syrian army for recapturing Al-Qusayr. *. Serena Williams and Rafael Nadal Win French Open (June 8): Serena Williamsbeats last year's champion, Maria Sharapova, 6-4, 6-4, to win her second French Open women's championship. It is exactly eleven years to the day that Serena beat her older sister Venusto win her first French Open in 2002.(June 9): Rafael Nadalbeat fellow Spaniard David Ferrer, 6-3, 6-2, 6-3, to take the men's crown for a record eighth time. The men's championship is interrupted by two anti-gay marriage protesters. One of them runs on the court with a flare. The incident is reminiscent of the 1993 on court stabbing of Monica Selesin Germany. *. Centrist Wins Presidential Election in Iran (June 15):Hassan Rowhani, a moderate cleric and Iran's former negotiator on nuclear issues, wins June 2013's presidential election, taking just under 51% of the vote. Reformists throw their support behind Rowhani after their preferred candidate, Mohammad Reza Aref, drops out of the race. Thousands of Iranians take to the streets to celebrate Rowhani's victory. While he has the backing of reformists, Rowhani has long been a member of the country's conservative establishment, having served in parliament for more than 20 years and playing a strategic role in the execution of the Iran-Iraq war. He has campaigned on a promise to reach out to the west and improve relations with the United States. After his victory is announced, Rowhani promises to "follow the path of moderation and justice, not extremism."

June 2013 Current Events: U.S. News. Here are the key events in United States news for the month of June 2013. *. U.S. Government under Heavy Scrutiny after NSA leaks (June 6):The Guardianreceives information that reveals that the National Security Agency (NSA) is using PRISM to spy on the web activities, including email, of U.S. citizens. Through PRISM, a clandestine national security surveillance program, the NSA has direct access to Facebook, YouTube, Skype, Google, Apple, Yahoo and other websites. In its report,The Guardiandoes not state who they received the information from.(June 7):The Wall Street Journalreports that the NSA also monitors the credit card transactions and customer records of three major phone service providers. U.S. Director of National Intelligence James Clapper calls the recent newspaper reports on government surveillance "reprehensible."(June 8):The Guardianpublishes a report on another NSA tool called Boundless Informant, used by the U.S. government to watch activity in every country in the world. Facebook's Mark Zuckerbergand Google's Larry Pageboth deny any knowledge of PRISM. President Obamaconfirms PRISM's existence and its use to spy on the online activity of U.S. citizens.The New York Timesreports that some companies, such as Facebook and Google, negotiated with the U.S. government over spying on customers. The report contradicts previous denials by those companies.(June 9):Edward Snowden, a former CIA employee, comes forward and admits that he is the source of the recent NSA leaks. Snowden, fearing prosecution, defects to Hong Kongand is currently on the run, wanted for questioning. *. Supreme Court Orders University to Re-examine Affirmative Action Policy (June 24):InFisherv.University of Texas, the Supreme Court allows universities to continue considering race as a factor in admissions to achieve diversity, but it does tell them that they must prove that "available, workable race-neutral alternatives do not suffice" before considering race. The court rules 7–1 to send the case back to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit for further review to determine if the school passes the test of "strict scrutiny," the highest level of judicial review. The ruling is considered a compromise between the court's conservative and liberal factions. *. Supreme Court Rules on Voting Rights Act (June 25):In Shelby County v. Holder, the Supreme Court strikes down Section 4 of the Voting Rights Act, which established a formula for Congress to use when determining if a state or voting jurisdiction requires prior approval before changing its voting laws. Currently under Section 5 of the act nine-mostly Southern-states with a history of discrimination must get clearance from Congress before changing voting rules to make sure racial minorities are not negatively affected. While the 5-4 decision does not invalidate Section 5, it makes it toothless. Chief Justice John Roberts says the formula Congress now uses, which was written in 1965, has become outdated. "While any racial discrimination in voting is too much, Congress must ensure that the legislation it passes to remedy that problem speaks to current conditions," he says in the majority opinion. In a strongly worded dissent, Judge Ruth Bader Ginsburg says, "Hubris is a fit word for today's demolition of the V.R.A." (Voting Rights Act). *. Supreme Court Strikes Down DOMA (June 26):The Supreme Court rules that the 1996 Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) is unconstitutional. In a 5 to 4 vote, the court rules that DOMA violates the rights of gays and lesbians. The court also rules that the law interferes with the states' rights to define marriage. It is the first case ever on the issue of gay marriage for the Supreme Court. Chief Justice John G. Roberts, Jr.votes against striking it down as does Antonin Scalia, Samuel Alitoand Clarence Thomas. However, conservative-leaning Justice Anthony M. Kennedyvotes with his liberal colleagues to overturn DOMA. *. Supreme Court Rules on California Same-Sex Marriage Case (June 26):The Supreme Court rules that same-sex marriage opponents in Californiadid not have standing to appeal the lower court ruling that overturned the state's ban, known as Proposition 8. This ruling will most likely remove legal battles for same-sex couples wishing to marry in California. However, the ruling does not directly affect other states.

May 2013 Current Events: Business News. Here are the key events in business and science news for the month of May 2013. *. Spring Economic Slowdown Is Avoided (May 3):According to the Labor Department, 165,000 jobs are added in April, exceeding the 140,000 jobs predicted by economists. It is also a big improvement over March's numbers. The Labor Department also provides more good news, revising the number of jobs added in February and March. Their latest data adds 114,000 jobs to totals from February and March. However, unemployment drops only slightly from 7.6 percent in March to 7.5 percent in April.

May 2013 Current Events: Disasters & Science News. Here are the key events in Science and Disasters news for the month of May 2013. *. Death Toll Increases in Bangladesh Factory Building Disaster (May 9):The number of casualties in the Bangladeshfactory building collapse rises to at least 900 workers. The building, Rana Plaza, had more than 3,000 employees. The building's collapse is considered the deadliest accident in the garment industry's history. More than 2,500 people have been rescued from the building.(May 14):With rescue operations at Rana Plaza ending, the death toll rises to 1,127 people. *. Mile-Wide Category 4 Tornado Hits Oklahoma (May 20):An enormous category 4 tornado hits Oklahoma City, Moore, and Newcastle. Moore is hardest hit. The city's Plaza Towers Elementary School is flattened. At least 24 people are killed in the storm. The tornado, stretching about a mile wide, is on the ground for 40 minutes.

June 2013 Current Events: Disasters & Science News. Here are the key events in Science and Disasters news for the month of June 2013. *. Several Wildfires Burn through Colorado (June):Several wildfires erupt in Coloradodue to dry and dead evergreen trees. The trees are particularly vulnerable this year from drought and a spruce beetle outbreak. The fire causing the most damage is in a suburb near Colorado Springs. That fire destroys more than 500 homes and kills two people. The largest fire, about 70,000 acres in size, burns through southern Colorado. Even though it forces the evacuation of at least 1,000 people, it causes less damage than the suburban Colorado Springs fire due to its location. *. Elite Firefighters Killed in Arizona (June 30):Members of the Granite Mountain Hotshots are killed fighting the Yarnell Hill Fire. The wind suddenly changed direction, giving the firefighters little time to escape its path. The fire consumed 8,000 acres. It was the worst single loss of firefighters since the 2001 terrorist attacks.

June 2013 Current Events: Business News. Here are the key events in business and science news for the month of June 2013. *. Job Growth Increases in May (June 7):According to the Labor Department, 175,000 jobs are added in May, ten thousand more jobs than were added in April. However, unemployment increases slightly as well, from 7.5 percent in April to 7.6 in May.

May 2013 Current Events: World News. Here are the key events in world news for the month of May 2013. *. Israel Takes Responsibility for Airstrikes in Syria (May 5): Israelmakes two airstrikes on Damascus. The first happens on Friday, May 3, and the second two days later. Israeli officials maintain that the airstrikes are not meant as a way for Israel to become involved in Syria's ongoing civil war. Instead, the strikes focus on military warehouses in an effort to prevent Hezbollahfrom getting more weapons. Hezbollah is a Lebanese Shiite militia group with strong ties to Iran. *. Soldier Killed on London Street (May 22):Two men approach and murder a uniformed soldier on the street in London. The men are armed with knives and a meat cleaver. After they kill the soldier, police shoot and arrest them. The United Kingdomtreats the incident as an act of terror. *. Civil War in Syria Spills over into Lebanon (May 25):Hezbollah and Syrian forces bomb the rebel-controlled town of Al-Qusayr, Homs. Dozens are killed.(May 26):Multiple rockets strike Beirut, mainly hitting Shiite suburbs, which are also strongholds of Hezbollah.(May 27):The ban against arming the Syrian rebels is lifted by the European Union.(May 28):U.S. Senator John McCaintravels to Syria and meets with rebels in a show of support. With them, he discusses the possible future involvement of the U.S. in Syria's civil war. *. Huge Turnout for Anti-Gay Marriage Rally in France (May 26):An estimated 150,000 people protest gay marriage during a rally in Paris, France. At least 100 people are arrested. An additional 50 people are arrested before the rally begins. *. Anti-Government Protests Spread Throughout Turkey (May 31):A sit-in protesting government plans to raze Istanbul's Gezi Park in Taksim Square to build a shopping mall grow into enormous anti-government demonstrations after police begin spraying protesters with tear gas and water cannons. The demonstrations spread to dozens of cities throughout Turkey.

May 2013 Current Events: U.S. News. Here are the key events in United States news for the month of May 2013. *. Three Additional Arrests Made in Boston Marathon Bombing (May 1):Three arrests are made in connection to the Boston Marathonbombing. Dias Kadyrbayev and Azamat Tazhayakov are arrested and charged with concealing evidence during a federal investigation. Robel K. Phillipos is charged with lying to impede the federal investigation. All three are close friends with Dzhokhar Tsarnaev. If Kadyrbayev and Tazhayakov are found guilty they face up to five years in prison. Phillipos faces eight years. *. Rhode Island, Delaware and Minnesota Legalize Same-Sex Marriage (May 2):After same-sex marriage legislation passes in both houses of Rhode Island's legislature, Governor Lincoln Chafee signs it into law. The new law, legalizing same-sex marriage, goes into effect on August 1, 2013.(May 7):Governor Jack Markell signs the Civil Marriage Equality and Religious Freedom act, legalizing same-sex marriage for the state of Delaware. The new law goes into effect on July 1, 2013.(May 13):In Minnesota, the State Senate votes 37 to 30 in favor of legalizing same-sex marriage. The vote comes a week after it passes in the House. Governor Mark Dayton, a supporter of same-sex marriage, says he will sign the bill the following afternoon. Gay couples will be able to marry in Minnesota in August 2013. *. Orb Wins 139th Kentucky Derby (May 4):Orb, the favorite, wins the Kentucky Derby with a time of 2:02.89. Golden Soul finishes second. Revolutionary comes in third. For winning the race, Orb takes home 1.4 million. Coolers and large purses are banned from the event due to the recent Boston Marathon bombing.

April 2013 Current Events: Business News. Here are the key events in business and science news for the month of April 2013. *. Economy Stalls as Hiring Slows Down in March (April 5):Only 88,000 jobs are added in March, less than half the amount economists had predicted. The amount is also significantly less than the 268,000 jobs that were added in February. Unemployment decreases from 7.7 percent in February to 7.6 percent in March. However, the decrease comes from more people leaving the labor force, not from new hires.

April 2013 Current Events: Disasters & Science News. Here are the key events in Science and Disasters news for the month of April 2013. *. Lesser-Known Bird Flu Kills Two in China (Apr. 1):Two men in Chinadie after contracting a type of lesser-known H7N9 strain of avian flu, also known as bird flu. The strain is Xinhua and has not previously been found in humans. A third person also has the strain and remains in critical condition.(Apr. 9):China officially confirms that the number of deaths from this strain of Bird Flu has climbed to nine. Officials also confirm that there are now 28 cases of this H7N9 virus. Despite the increase of cases, health officials urge people to remain calm because there is no evidence that the virus can be transmitted between humans. Officials do advise that people stay away from live poultry. As a precaution, thousands of birds are slaughtered at Shanghai wholesale markets after the H7N9 strain is found in a pigeon. *. Powerful Earthquake Kills 186 in China (Apr. 20):A strong earthquake strikes southwestern China. At least 186 people are killed and around 8,200 people are injured. The earthquake causes mountainsides to collapse. Available drinking water becomes a problem following the earthquake. Reports conflict on the magnitude of the earthquake. China's Earthquake Networks Center reports that the earthquake was a 7.0 magnitude, while the U.S. Geological Survey puts it at 6.6. *. Bangladesh Factory Building Collapses, Killing Hundreds (Apr. 24):A large building containing several factories collapses, killing at least 377 people. Hundreds more are missing in the building's rubble. Known as Rana Plaza, the factories within the building make clothing for European and American retailers such as JC Penny, Cato Fashions, Benetton and others. Bangladeshis second only to China as the world's leading garment exporter.(Apr. 29):For five days, rescue teams work to find survivors in the debris. A fire breaks out within the rubble making rescue efforts even more difficult. National outrage spreads due to reports of Rana Plaza's poor condition prior to its collapse. Officers arrest the building's owner, Sohel Rana, who is found hiding near the border of India. When his capture is announced at the site of the collapsed building, the crowd gathered there cheers. Rana Plaza employed more than 3,000 people and the building's collapse is considered the deadliest accident in the garment industry's history.

April 2013 Current Events: U.S. News. Here are the key events in United States news for the month of April 2013. *. Louisville Beats Michigan in Men's N.C.A.A. Title Game (Apr. 8):Louisville wins their first national title since 1986 and their third overall by beating Michigan 82-76. Louisville Cardinal Luke Hancock is named the Final Four's outstanding player. Louisville's win makes it the fifth time in N.C.A.A. history that schools from the same state have won titles back-to-back. Louisville follows rival school Kentucky's win last season. *. UConn Beats Louisville in Women's N.C.A.A. Title Game (Apr. 9):The University of Connecticut wins the N.C.A.A. women's championship game with a 93-60 rout over Louisville. With the win, Connecticut claims its eighth national title. Coach Geno Auriemma now has the same number of championships as Pat Summitt, his past rival. After the victory, Auriemma calls Summitt "the greatest women's basketball coach who ever lived." *. Multiple Bombs Explode during the Boston Marathon (Apr. 15):Multiple bombs explode near the finish line of the Boston Marathon. Two bombs go off around 2:50 in the afternoon as runners finish the race. At least three people are killed. One is an eight year old boy. More than 170 people are injured. Another explosion happens during the afternoon at the JFK Library, but officials confirm that the incident is not connected. Later in the day, President Obamasays from the White House briefing room, "We still do not know who did this or why, and people shouldn't jump to conclusions before we have all the facts, but make no mistake: We will get to the bottom of this. Any responsible individuals, any responsible groups will feel the full weight of justice."(Apr. 18):President Obama speaks at the Cathedral of the Holy Cross in Boston's South End. After the service, both the president and First lady Michelle Obamavisit those injured in the explosions who are still recovering in the various hospitals throughout Boston. Later in the day, the FBI releases photos and video of two suspects in the hope that the public can help identify them. "Somebody out there knows these individuals as friends, neighbors, co-workers, or family members. Though it may be difficult, the nation is counting on those with information to come forward and provide it to us," says FBI special agent Richard DesLauriers upon the release of the photos and video. Just hours after the FBI releases the images, the two suspects rob a gas station in Central Square then shoot and kill a MIT police officer in his car. Afterwards, the two men carjack a SUV and tell the driver that they had set off the explosions at the marathon. Police pursue the vehicle into Watertown. During the shootout, a MBTA officer is shot and one of the suspects, identified as Tamerlan Tsarnaev, age 26, is killed. A suicide vest is found on his body.(Apr. 19):The other suspect, Dzhokhar A. Tsarnaev, age 19, remains at large for several hours, causing a massive manhunt and lockdown for all of Boston, Cambridge, and many other surrounding communities. The manhunt ends that evening when he is found alive, but seriously injured, hiding in a boat behind a house in Watertown. The two suspects are brothers and had been living together on Norfolk Street in Cambridge. They have lived in the U.S. for about a decade, but are from an area near Chechnya, a region in Russia. *. Letters Containing Ricin Sent to Congress, President Obama (Apr. 15):Paul Kevin Curtis of Tupelo, Miss., is arrested for sending letters contaminated with poison ricin to President Obama, a MississippiSenator Roger Wicker, an a local judge. The letters are intercepted by mail-sorting facilities.(Apr. 23):Charges against Paul Kevin Curtis are dismissed. Curtis is released as the investigation turns toward a new suspect.(Apr. 27):A new suspect, J. Everett Dutschke, is arrested in the ricin case. Dutschke has been charged with developing, producing, stockpiling, transferring, acquiring, retaining and possessing a biological agent to use as a weapon. *. Texas Plant Explodes, Killing a Dozen, Injuring Hundreds (Apr. 17):An explosion at a fertilizer plant in the town of West, Texas, kills 12 people and injures around 200 others. A section of the town is destroyed, including 50 homes. West, Texas is 80 miles south of Dallas. The explosion happens twenty minutes after a fire breaks out at the plant.

April 2013 Current Events: World News. Here are the key events in world news for the month of April 2013. *. North Korea's Kim Jong-un Defies Warnings (Apr. 1):Despite stiffer sanctions from the UN, Kim Jong-unannounces plans to expand North Korea's nuclear weapons and strengthen the country's economy. His plans defy warnings from the United States that North Koreaneeds to abandon its nuclear weapons arsenal. Kim prohibits South Korean workers from entering the Kaesong industrial park, which is run jointly by the two countries and is located in North Korea.(Apr. 3):At a rare plenary meeting of the Central Committee, Kim says North Korea will continue to develop its nuclear weapons program despite sanctions and restart the mothballed nuclear facility in Yongbyon.(Apr. 4):The U.S. announces it is deploying a missile defense system to Guam as a precautionary move. The deployment is two years ahead of schedule.(Apr. 5): South Koreareports that North Korea now has a missile within range of its coast, but the missile cannot reach the United States. *. Palestinian Prime Minister Salam Fayyad Resigns (Apr. 13):Prime Minister Salam Fayyadresigns in Palestineamid infighting among the top echelon of the Palestinian Authority and popular discontent. Fayyad is credited with cracking down on corruption in the West Bank, improving infrastructure, and boosting the economy, which resulted in an increase in international aid. It is unclear how Fayyad's resignation would affect the reconciliation of Fatah and Hamas. *. Special Election Held to Replace Chavez (Apr. 14):A special presidential election is held to pick Hugo Chavez's successor in Venezuela. Nicolás Maduro wins by a slim margin. Maduro receives 50.8 percent of the vote. Henrique Capriles Radonski, who recently lost to Chavez in the October 2012 election, is close behind with 49 percent.(Apr. 19):Maduro assumes office. Meanwhile, the opposition questions the constitutionality of his election. In naming his cabinet, Maduro keeps Elias Jaua on as foreign minister and Diego Molero as defense minister. Jaua and Molero served in the same roles under Chavez. *. Syria Faces Chemical Weapon Allegations (Apr. 18):Diplomats from both Britain and Francereport to the United Nations that there is credible information that the government in Syriahas used chemical weapons recently in its civil war. According to both diplomats, the Syrian government has used chemical weapons multiple times since December 2012. Officials from Israelalso say they have evidence that the Syrian government has used chemical weapons. President Obamahas said that the use of chemical weapons by Syria's government could lead to a military response by the United States. The U.S. is currently looking into the various claims. *. France Becomes 14th Nation to Approve Same-Sex Marriage (Apr. 23):The lower house in France's National Assembly votes 331 to 225 in favor of same-sex marriage. The legislation is expected to be approved by the Constitutional Council and signed into law by President François Hollande. The vote makes Francethe 14th nation in the world to pass legislation for same-sex marriage. Uruguayand New Zealandhave also both recently passed same-sex marriage legislation.

March 2013 Current Events: U.S. News. Here are the key events in United States news for the month of March 2013. *. Congress Fails to Stop Budget Cuts (Mar. 1):Congress and President Obamado not reach an agreement in time to stop the large budget cuts to federal spending. As the cuts go into effect, Congressional leaders pledge to end the disagreements over the federal budget that have threatened to shut down the government for the last two years. President Obama responds to the budget cuts in a news conference where he says, "I don't anticipate a huge financial crisis, but people are going to be hurt." *. The Supreme Court Debates Same-Sex Marriage (Mar. 26):The Supreme Court begins two days of historical debate over gay marriage. During the debate, the Supreme Court will consider overturning Proposition 8, the Californiainitiative banning same-sex marriage, and the Defense of Marriage Act, a federal law passed during Bill Clinton's presidency, which defines marriage as between a man and a woman. The Supreme Court's decision will be announced in June 2013.

March 2013 Current Events: Business News. Here are the key events in business and science news for the month of March 2013. *. Economy Adds 236,000 Jobs in February and Unemployment Falls (Mar. 8):The jobs report is released for February 2013. U.S. employers add 236,000 new jobs in February, while unemployment falls to 7.7% from 7.9% in January. The solid report has a positive effect on stocks. The Dow Jones industrial average gains 67.58 points or 0.5% on the day the report is released.

March 2013 Current Events: Disasters & Science News. Here are the key events in Science and Disasters news for the month of March 2013. *. Scientists Confirm Higgs Boson (Mar. 14):Scientists confirm that the new particle discovered last year is the Higgs boson, the missing piece of physics' Standard Model that was first hypothesized in the 1960s. The announcement is made during the Rencontres de Moriond, a yearly conference, in Italy. In order to make the confirmation, physicists have collected tons of data and studied how the Higgs boson interacted with the other particles.

March 2013 Current Events: World News. Here are the key events in world news for the month of March 2013. *. Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez Dies (Mar. 5):After 14 years at the helm of Venezuela, Hugo Chavezsuccumbs to cancer. Elections must be held within 30 days. Maduro will serve as interim president and will run in the election, likely against Henrique Capriles Radonski, who lost to Chavez in October's election. *. UN Passes More Sanctions Against North Korea (Mar. 8):In response to the North Korea's nuclear test last month, the UN Security Council unanimously passes another round of strict sanctions against North Korea. In a first, Chinais involved in drafting the sanctions. The sanctions come shortly after the U.S.and South Korea begin annual military drills near the north-south border. Reacting to the sanctions and the exercises, President Kim Jong-unpromises to launch "a pre-emptive nuclear strike" against the U.S. and South Koreaand says he has voided the 1953 armistice that ended the war between North and South Korea. Kim's threats are mostly dismissed as bluster, but are nevertheless the most menacing in years by any leader. He continues his bellicose tone throughout March and shuts down not only Red Cross hotlines between North and South Korea, but also military hotlines. At a rare plenary meeting of the Central Committee, Kim says North Korea will continue to develop its nuclear weapons program despite sanctions, saying the weapons ""are neither a political bargaining chip nor a thing for economic dealings."(Mar. 29):The U.S. responds to the growing threat from North Korea by continuing the military drills with South Korea, deploying F-22 stealth fighter jets and B-2 and B-52 bombers to the region in a show of its military strength. The U.S. also increases the number of ground-based ballistic missile interceptors in California and Alaska. *. Cardinals Choose Argentina's Jorge Mario Bergoglio to succeed Benedict as Pope (Mar. 13):Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglioof Argentinais elected as the new pope, succeeding Benedict XVI. Bergoglio, 76, becomes the Catholic Church's 266th pontiff. He is the first pope from Latin America, where 480 million Catholics live. Bergoglio receives the required two-thirds of the vote after just two days of the conclave. Accepting his election, Bergoglio chooses the name Francis. *. Xi Jingping Becomes President of China (Mar. 14):Xi Jingping assumes the presidency of China. Of the 2,956 delegates, only one votes against Xi. Three delegates abstain. Li Yuanchao is named vice president. Assuming the presidency completes the transition of power to Xi. This final step puts him in charge of all three centers of power in China. *. Obama Negotiates Reconciliation between Israel and Turkey (Mar. 22):President Obama visits Israeland helps negotiate a reconciliation with Turkey. During Obama's visit, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahuexpresses sincere regret to Recep Tayyip Erdogan, Turkey's prime minister, for the commando raid in 2010 on a Turkish ship that killed nine people. Israel also offers compensation for the incident. Erdogan accepts Israel's apology. After the apology, both countries announce that they will reinstate ambassadors and completely restore diplomatic relations. President Obama supports the apology in this statement, "the United States deeply values our relationships with both Turkey and Israel, and we attach great importance to the restoration of positive relations between them, in order to advance regional peace and security." The press in Israel greets Obama's visit with enthusiasm. Multiple newspapers use the phrase he said in Hebrew during his visit, "You are not alone," as a headline. *. Cyprus Bailout Sparks Outrage and Protests (Mar. 24):The European Union(EU) and International Monetary Fund(IMF) offer a $13 billion bailout to Cyprus. The EU and IMF also requests that Cyprusraise $7.5 billion by taxing all bank deposits. Deposits over 100,000 euros will face a rate of 9.9%, while deposits less than that will be taxed 6.75%. The proposal sparks protests in Cyprus and outrage in Russia-many wealthy Russians put their money in Cyprus banks, which are not heavily regulated. Parliament rejects the bail-out, and the threat of Cyprus being ousted from the euro zone looms large. *. Italy Overturns Amanda Knox Acquittal (Mar. 26):A new trial is ordered by the Court of Cassation, Italy's highest court, for Amanda Knox, the exchange student from the U.S. who was accused of murdering Meredith Kercher, her 21-year-old roommate in 2007. The ruling means the case will be reheard, this time by a new appeals court in Florence. The new trial will be later this year or in 2014. Currently attending the University of Washington in Seattle, Knox releases a statement through a spokesman and calls the ruling "painful."

February 2013 Current Events: U.S. News. Here are the key events in United States news for the month of February 2013. *. Ravens Beat 49ers in Super Bowl XLVII (Feb. 3):In a wild game, which includes a 34 minute stadium blackout, the BaltimoreRavens beat the San Francisco49ers, 34-31. Ravens quarterback Joe Flacco is named MVP. The game, held in New Orleans, draws 108.4 million viewers, making it the third highest rated television program ever. *. Obama Addresses the Role of Government During State of the Union (Feb. 12):In the first State of the Union Address of his second term, President Obamafocuses on the role government should play in growing the economy and stabilizing the middle class. He veers away from any ambitious proposals such as a new stimulus plan in the speech. "Let me repeat: Nothing I'm proposing tonight should increase our deficit by a single dime. It's not a bigger government we need, but a smarter government that sets priorities and invests in broad-based growth," he says during the address. *. Republicans Back a Legal Brief Supporting Same-Sex Marriage (Feb. 27):In a policy shift for party members, several Republicans back a legal brief asking the Supreme Court to rule that same-sex marriage is a constitutional right. More than 100 Republicans are listed on the brief, including former New Hampshire Congressman Charles Bassand Beth Myers, a key adviser to Mitt Romney during his 2012 presidential campaign. The brief is filed as the U.S. Supreme Court prepares to consider overturning Proposition 8, the California initiative banning same-sex marriage, as well as overturning the Defense of Marriage Act, a federal law passed during Bill Clinton's presidency, which defines marriage as between a man and a woman.

February 2013 Current Events: Business News. Here are the key events in business and science news for the month of February 2013. *. Economy Adds 157,000 Jobs in January, but Unemployment Rises (Feb. 1):The jobs report is released for January 2013. U.S. employers add 157,000 new jobs in January, while unemployment rises to 7.9%, slightly higher than the 7.8% it was in December. Construction, retailing, health care, and wholesale trade all add significantly to the new job numbers in January.

February 2013 Current Events: Disasters & Science News. Here are the key events in Science and Disasters news for the month of February 2013. *. Winter Storm Nemo Hits the Northeast United States and Canada (Feb. 8):Two areas of low pressure collide to create Winter Storm Nemo, also referred to as the Blizzard of 2013. Boston, Massachusettsreceives 24.9 inches of snow, the fifth-highest snowfall in the city's recorded history. Portland, Mainegets 31.9 inches of snow, a record for the city. However, the highest snowfalls are in Connecticut. For example, Hamden, Connecticut, receives 40 inches. The storm also brings hurricane-like winds and flooding. At least 18 people are killed in the storm. *. Meteorite Fragments Injure Hundreds in Russia (Feb. 15):Debris from a meteor hit Siberia and more than 1,000 people are hurt, including 200 children. The injuries are mostly from shattered glass, which occurred when the meteor entered the atmosphere and exploded over Russia. Russian scientists believe that the 10-ton meteor exploded and created a shock wave when it hit the Earth's atmosphere. They believe the meteor exploded and evaporated about 30 miles above the Earth, but small fragments fell to the Earth's surface. Most of the people injured are residents of Chelyabinsk, a city about 950 miles east of Moscow. Chelyabinsk has many factories that build nuclear weapons, but the damage caused no radiation leaks, according to Russian officials.

February 2013 Current Events: World News. Here are the key events in world news for the month of February 2013. *. Suicide Bomber Hits U.S. Embassy in Turkey (Feb. 1):Ecevit Sanli detonates a bomb near a gate at the U.S. Embassy in Ankara, Turkey. Sanli dies after detonating the bomb. One Turkish guard is also killed. Didem Tuncay, a respected television journalist, is injured in the blast. Unlike the bombing at the embassy in Benghazi last September, the U.S. government immediately calls the bombing a terrorist attack. According to Turkish officials, the attack is from the Revolutionary People's Liberation Party, which has been labeled a terrorist organization by the U.S. and other nations. *. French President Makes Triumphant Visit to Mali (Feb. 2):French President Francois Hollandereceives a huge welcome when he arrives in Mali. Thousands of people come out to greet him with music and dance, chanting, "Vive la France!" During his visit, Hollande congratulates French and Malian troops on "an exceptional mission," after the troops chased Islamic extremists out of Mali's cities last month. While speaking to the troops, Hollande also admits that "the fight is not over." *. Pope Benedict XVI Announces He Will Resign (Feb. 11):The former Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, Pope Benedict XVIannounces his retirement, becoming the first pope to do so since 1415. He will retire on February 28. He cites advancing age and a growing physical weakness as his reasons for retirement. Speaking to a small group of cardinals at the Vatican, Pope Benedict XVI says, "Before God, I have come to the certainty that my strengths, due to an advanced age, are no longer suited" for leading the Catholic Church. *. North Korea Appears to Detonate Third Nuclear Bomb (Feb. 12):North Korea says it has detonated a third nuclear bomb. World leaders, scientists, and intelligence officials rush to determine if the bomb is fueled by uranium or plutonium. Plutonium is used in earlier tests in 2006 and 2009, and officials say if uranium powered the bomb then it is a signal that North Koreais on its way to developing a larger and more powerful arsenal. The explosion is small compared to those detonated by China in the 1960s and the U.S. in 1945, but larger than North Korea's previous tests. *. Pistorius Arrested for Killing Girlfriend (Feb. 14):South African runner Oscar Pistoriusis arrested on Valentine's Day after police find his girlfriend, Reeva Steenkamp, dead from multiple gunshot wounds in his apartment. Early news reports that Pistorius had mistaken his girlfriend for an intruder and accidently shot her, but by the end of the day he is charged with murder.(Feb. 19):On the same day as Steenkamp's funeral, Pistorius faces charges of premeditated murder in the Magistrate Court in Pretoria, South Africa. Pistorius denies murdering his girlfriend in an affidavit read by Barry Roux, his lawyer, "I fail to understand how I could be charged with murder, let alone premeditated. I had no intention to kill my girlfriend." *. Syrian Opposition Open to Talks, Excluding al-Assad (Feb. 15):The National Coalition of Syrian Revolution and Opposition Forces announce that they are open to talks with members of the Syrian government in the hope of finding a political solution. However, the offer comes with conditions, mainly that Syria's president, Bashar al-Assadbe excluded. The opposition also wants military leaders to be excluded from the talks. Meanwhile, heavy fighting continues in Aleppo, a city in northern Syria where rebel fighters take control of a military base. *. Livni Joins Netanyahu's Coalition to Head Talks with Palestine (Feb. 19):Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahuinvites former foreign minister Tzipi Livnito join his coalition and head Israel's peace talks with Palestine. Livni, who formed the Hatenuah party to run against Netanyahu in last month's election, will also serve as Justice Minister. Netanyahu and Livni make the announcement at a press conference, both saying they have set aside past disagreements and rivalries to work together. "I criticized the government's management over the past four years, but since the election, we've come to understandings to put all that aside," says Livni.

January 2013 Current Events: Business News. Here are the key events in business and science news for the month of January 2013. *. Economy Adds 155,000 Jobs in December; Unemployment holds steady (Jan. 4):U.S. employers added 155,000 new jobs in the month of December 2012, while unemployment stayed at 7.8%, the same as it was in November. The biggest job gains came in manufacturing, construction, food services and health care.

January 2013 Current Events: Disasters & Science News. Here are the key events in Science and Disasters news for the month of January 2013. *. Flu, Whooping Cough Hits U.S. Hard (Jan. 1):Three epidemics spread through the United States at the beginning of 2013. First there is the fluvirus, more aggressive than in recent years. There is also the worst whooping coughoutbreak in decades and a new type of norovirus.(Jan. 9):The flu outbreak in Boston, Mass., becomes so bad that Mayor Thomas M. Menino declares a public health emergency for the city. So far this year, Bostonhas had four flu-related deaths and 700 confirmed cases of the flu compared to 70 cases the city had at this time last year. The state of Massachusettshas had 18 flu-related deaths so far this winter. *. Wildfires and Record High Temperatures Strike Australia (Jan. 1):In January 2013, summer for Australia, wildfires spread throughout the southeastern part of the country. National parks are evacuated as temperatures reach 113 degrees Fahrenheit. The extremely high temperatures mix with dry and windy conditions combine to raise the threat level to catastrophic, the most severe rating. The country is having its hottest summer on record. So far there are no confirmed deaths due to the wildfires, but 100 people are missing after a fire rages through Dunalley, Tasmania, and destroys approximately 90 homes. Thousands of sheep and cattle are killed after the fires race through some of the country's biggest farming regions. *. Club Fire Kills 233 People in Brazil (Jan. 27):In the early morning hours, a fire breaks out in a nightclub in Santa Maria, a southern city in Brazil. The cause of the fire is a flare from pyrotechnics used by a band performing on stage at the club. At the time of the fire, the club is packed with hundreds of students from nearby universities. According to officials, at least 233 people are killed. The fire stuns the nation. President Dilma Rousseff immediately leaves a summit meeting in Chileand travels to Santa Maria to console the victim's families. As she leaves Chile, in tears, she says to reporters, "This is a tragedy for all of us."

January 2013 Current Events: U.S. News. Here are the key events in United States news for the month of January 2013. *. The Senate and House Approve Last Minute Budget Deal to Avoid Fiscal Cliff (Jan. 1):In the early hours of January 1, 2013, the Senate approve a deal to raise tax rates from 35 to 39.6 percent for those earning more than $400,000. The deal also temporarily suspends across-the-board spending cuts. Later that night, the House also passes the legislation. The House's vote ends the long dramatic showdown over the fiscal cliff with only a few hours left of the 112th Congress. *. Alabama Beats Notre Dame in BCS Championship Game (Jan. 7):Number two ranked Alabama rolls over top-ranked Notre Dame and wins its second straight national title. The 42-14 routing is also the Crimson Tide's third title in four years. *. President Obama Selects Nominees for Defense Secretary and CIA Director (Jan. 7):For CIA director, President Obamanominates John Brennan, the top counterterrorism adviser during the president's first term. Chuck Hagelreceives the nomination for defense secretary. Elected to the Senate in 1996 and retiring in 2008, Hagel is a Republican, a Vietnam veteran, and a longtime outspoken critic of President Bush's policies in Iraq. Hagel's nomination is met with opposition. Critics dislike how he once referred to pro-Israel lobbying groups as the "Jewish lobby" and how he referred to ambassador to Luxembourg nominee James C. Hormel as "openly, aggressively gay", a comment he made 14 years ago and apologized later for it. *. President Obama Proposes Sweeping Changes to Gun Control (Jan. 16):In response to recent massacres, including the killing of 20 first graders in Newtown, Conn., and 12 moviegoers in Aurora, Colo., President Barack Obama introduces proposals to tighten gun-control laws. His plan includes universal background checks for gun sales, the reinstatement and strengthening of the assault weapons ban, limiting ammunition magazines to a 10-round capacity, and other measures. Some of the measures outlined in his speech the president intends to achieve through 23 executive actions, while he called on Congress to do its part to enact stricter gun control legislation. *. President Obama Is Inaugurated for a Second Term (Jan. 21):On Martin Luther King Jr. Day, President Obama is sworn in for a second term. Obama uses Dr. King's Bible as well as Abraham Lincoln's Bible to take the oath of office. He also becomes the first president to say the word gay in an Inaugural Address when he compares the battle for same-sex marriage to past battles over gender and racial equality. "Our journey is not complete until our gay brothers and sisters are treated like anyone else under the law — for if we are truly created equal, then surely the love we commit to one another must be equal as well," Obama says in his address.

January 2013 Current Events: World News. Here are the key events in world news for the month of January 2013. *. French Troops Head to Mali (Jan. 1):In response to a plea from the Maligovernment, Francesends its military forces to the country to fight against extreme Islamist militants. French forces, including paratroopers, engage in combat in Mali with the Islamists militants. The exact number of French troops in Mali is unknown, but it is estimated to be between 800 and 900. French President Francois Hollandesays in a statement, "French forces brought their support to Malian army units to fight against terrorist elements. This operation will last as long as is necessary."(Jan. 17):France sends reinforcements, bringing the number of French troops in Mali to 1,400. Reinforcements are needed because the militants have seized much of the country and the battleground has expanded. *. More Than 60,000 Have Died in Syria's Civil War (Jan. 2):The United Nations releases information that more than 60,000 people have been killed during Syria's civil war, which has been going on now for 22 months. The report exceeds previous estimates of casualties. *. At Least 41 Engineers Are Held Hostage in Algeria (Jan. 16):Islamist militants take about 40 foreign hostages at a remote BP site in Algeria. At least sixty armed militants attack the BP gas field. Among the engineers who are taken hostage are several British and U.S. citizens. Many fear that the hostage situation is a result of the conflict in Mali.(Jan. 17):Algerian forces raid the site where the hostages are held. According to officials in Algeria, 37 hostages are killed in the raid, including three Americans. Also in the raid, 29 kidnappers are killed and three are captured. *. Election Shows a Slight Move Toward the Center for Israel (Jan. 22):As polls close in Israel, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahuclaims victory for what will be his third term, but the election is not the expected landslide. The overwhelming favorite, Netanyahu is followed closely by Yair Lapid, who founded Yesh Atid, a new centrist party. With 99 percent of the vote in, Likud-Beiteinu, Netanyahu's party has 31 seats, followed by 19 seats for Lapid's party. Lapid, the host of a popular Israeli television show, says in a speech after the election, "The citizens of Israel today said no to politics of fear and hatred. They said no to the possibility that we might splinter off into sectors, and groups and tribes and narrow interest groups. They said no to extremists, and they said no to antidemocratic behavior." *. Protests Threaten Morsi Government (Jan. 25):Violent protests erupted throughout Egypton the second anniversary of the revolution. Demonstrators focus their ire on the Muslim Brotherhood and President Mohammed Morsi's government, frustrated that the country is on an ideologically conservative path under the Islamists and that Morsi has failed to bolster the economy or fulfill promises to introduce broader civil liberties and social justice. Dozens of people are killed in the violence at the protests. Morsi declares a state of emergency in three large cities: Suez, Ismailia, and Port Said.(Jan. 26):The violence is particularly gruesome in Port Said after 21 people are sentenced to death for their role in the deadly brawl at a Feb. 2012 soccer match that resulted in the death of about 75 people. Defying the state of emergency and attendant curfew, rioters, who are upset with the verdict, wreak havoc throughout the city, attacking police stations, a power plant and a jail. At least 45 people die in Port Said alone. News reports indicate the victims are shot by police. Police also reportedly shoot live ammunition and tear gas at protesters in other cities, including Cairo. *. Azarenka, Djokovic Repeat as Australian Open Champions (Jan. 26–27):Victoria Azarenka from Belarusdefeats Li Na of China, 4–6, 6–4,6–3 to win her second straight Australian Open Women's Singles Championship. Serbia's Novak Djokovicbeats Andy Murray of Scotland, 6-7, 7-6, 6-3, 6-2 to take the Men's Singles Championship. With the win, Djokovic becomes the first man in the 45-year-old Open era to win three consecutive singles titles at Australian Open. See also: Current Events: Business News, January 2013 Current Events: U.S. News, January 2013 Current Events: Disasters & Science News, January 2013 Recent Deaths People in the News

Highest Mountain Peaks of the World: The following table lists the highest mountain peaks of the world including mountain name, mountain range, vertical height, and location, according to the National Geographic Society. See Named Summits in the U.S. Over 14,000 Feet Above Sea Levelfor U.S. Peaks. See also Climbing the World's 14 8,000- meter Peaks, The Seven Summits, Mortals on Mount Olympus: A History of Climbing Everest, and the Everest Almanac. Mountain peakRangeLocationHeight ft.m Everest1 HimalayasNepal/Tibet29,0358,850 K2 (Godwin Austen) KarakoramPakistan/China28,2508,611 KanchenjungaHimalayasIndia/Nepal28,1698,586 Lhotse IHimalayasNepal/Tibet27,9408,516 Makalu IHimalayasNepal/Tibet27,7668,463 Cho OyuHimalayasNepal/Tibet26,9068,201 DhaulagiriHimalayasNepal26,7958,167 Manaslu IHimalayasNepal26,7818,163 Nanga ParbatHimalayasPakistan26,6608,125 AnnapurnaHimalayasNepal26,5458,091 Gasherbrum IKarakoramPakistan/China26,4708,068 Broad PeakKarakoramPakistan/China26,4008,047 Gasherbrum IIKarakoramPakistan/China26,3608,035 Shishma Pangma (Gosainthan)HimalayasTibet26,2898,013 Annapurna IIHimalayasNepal26,0417,937 Gyachung KangHimalayasNepal25,9107,897 Disteghil SarKarakoramPakistan25,8587,882 HimalchuliHimalayasNepal25,8017,864 NuptseHimalayasNepal25,7267,841 Nanda DeviHimalayasIndia25,6637,824 MasherbrumKarakoramKashmir225,6607,821 RakaposhiKarakoramPakistan25,5517,788 Kanjut SarKarakoramPakistan25,4617,761 KametHimalayasIndia/Tibet25,4467,756 Namcha BarwaHimalayasTibet25,4457,756 Gurla MandhataHimalayasTibet25,3557,728 Ulugh Muztagh KunlunTibet25,3407,723 KungurMuztagh AtaChina25,3257,719 Tirich Mir Hindu KushPakistan25,2307,690 Saser KangriKarakoramIndia25,1727,672 Makalu IIHimalayasNepal25,1207,657 Minya Konka (Gongga Shan)Daxue ShanChina24,9007,590 Kula KangriHimalayasBhutan24,7837,554 Chang-tzuHimalayasTibet24,7807,553 Muztagh AtaMuztagh AtaChina24,7577,546 Skyang KangriHimalayasKashmir24,7507,544 Ismail Samani Peak(formerly Communism Peak) PamirsTajikistan24,5907,495 Jongsong PeakHimalayasNepal24,4727,459 Pobeda Peak Tien ShanKyrgyzstan24,4067,439 Sia KangriHimalayasKashmir24,3507,422 Haramosh PeakKarakoramPakistan24,2707,397 Istoro NalHindu KushPakistan24,2407,388 Tent PeakHimalayasNepal24,1657,365 Chomo LhariHimalayasTibet/Bhutan24,0407,327 ChamlangHimalayasNepal24,0127,319 KabruHimalayasNepal24,0027,316 Alung GangriHimalayasTibet24,0007,315 Baltoro KangriHimalayasKashmir23,9907,312 Muztagh Ata (K-5)KunlunChina23,8907,282 ManaHimalayasIndia23,8607,273 BaruntseHimalayasNepal23,6887,220 Nepal PeakHimalayasNepal23,5007,163 Amne MachinKunlunChina23,4907,160 Gauri SankarHimalayasNepal/Tibet23,4407,145 BadrinathHimalayasIndia23,4207,138 NunkunHimalayasKashmir23,4107,135 Lenin PeakPamirsTajikistan/Kyrgyzstan23,4057,134 PyramidHimalayasNepal23,4007,132 ApiHimalayasNepal23,3997,132 PauhunriHimalayasIndia/China23,3857,128 TrisulHimalayasIndia23,3607,120 Korzhenevski PeakPamirsTajikistan23,3107,105 KangtoHimalayasTibet23,2607,090 NyainqentanglhaNyainqentanglha ShanChina23,2557,088 TrisuliHimalayasIndia23,2107,074 DunagiriHimalayasIndia23,1847,066 Revolution PeakPamirsTajikistan22,8806,974 Aconcagua AndesArgentina22,8346,960 Ojos del SaladoAndesArgentina/Chile22,6646,908 BoneteAndesArgentina/Chile22,5466,872 Ama DablamHimalayasNepal22,4946,856 TupungatoAndesArgentina/Chile22,3106,800 Moscow PeakPamirsTajikistan22,2606,785 PissisAndesArgentina22,2416,779 MercedarioAndesArgentina/Chile22,2116,770 HuascaránAndesPeru22,2056,768 LlullaillacoAndesArgentina/Chile22,0576,723 El LibertadorAndesArgentina22,0476,720 CachiAndesArgentina22,0476,720 KailasHimalayasTibet22,0276,714 IncahuasiAndesArgentina/Chile21,7206,620 YerupajaAndesPeru21,7096,617 KurumdaPamirsTajikistan21,6866,610 GalanAndesArgentina21,6546,600 El MuertoAndesArgentina/Chile21,4636,542 SajamaAndesBolivia21,3916,520 NacimientoAndesArgentina21,3026,493 IllampuAndesBolivia21,2766,485 IllimaniAndesBolivia21,2016,462 CoropunaAndesPeru21,0836,426 LaudoAndesArgentina20,9976,400 AncohumaAndesBolivia20,9586,388 CuzcoAndesPeru20,9456,384 (Ausangate) Toro AndesArgentina/Chile20,9326,380 Tres CrucesAndesArgentina/Chile20,8536,356 HuandoyAndesPeru20,8526,356 ParinacotaAndesBolivia/Chile20,7686,330 TortolasAndesArgentina/Chile20,7456,323 ChimborazoAndesEcuador20,7026,310 AmpatoAndesPeru20,7026,310 El CondorAndesArgentina20,6696,300 SalcantayAndesPeru20,5746,271 HuancarhuasAndesPeru20,5316,258 FamatinaAndesArgentina20,5056,250 PumasilloAndesPeru20,4926,246 SoloAndesArgentina20,4926,246 PollerasAndesArgentina20,4566,235 PularAndesChile20,4236,225 ChañiAndesArgentina20,3416,200 McKinley (Denali)AlaskaAlaska20,3206,194 AucanquilchaAndesChile20,2956,186 JuncalAndesArgentina/Chile20,2766,180 NegroAndesArgentina20,1846,152 QuelaAndesArgentina20,1286,135 CondoririAndesBolivia20,0956,125 PalermoAndesArgentina20,0796,120 SolimanaAndesPeru20,0686,117 San JuanAndesArgentina/Chile20,0496,111 Sierra NevadaAndesArgentina20,0236,103

Notable Explorers: Christopher Columbus Abruzzi, Luigi Amedeo, duca degli, Italian explorer and mountain climber Acuña, Cristóbal de, Spanish Jesuit missionary and explorer in South America Alarcón, Hernando de, Spanish explorer in the Southwest Amundsen, Roald, Norwegian polar explorer Andersson, Karl Johan, Swedish explorer in Africa Anza, Juan Bautista de, Spanish explorer and official in the Southwest and the far West Baffin, William, British arctic explorer Baker, Sir Samuel White, English explorer in Africa Balboa, Vasco Núñez de, Spanish conquistador, discoverer of the Pacific Ocean Barentz, Willem, Dutch navigator Barrow, Sir John, British geographer, promoter of arctic exploration Barth, Heinrich, German explorer in British service Bartlett, Robert Abram, American arctic explorer Beechey, Frederick William, British admiral and Arctic explorer Beke, Charles Tilstone, English explorer and author/dd> Bent, Charles, American frontiersman Bering, Vitus Jonassen, Danish explorer in Russian employ Block, Adriaen, Dutch navigator Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, French navigator Boyd, Louise Arner, American arctic explorer Bruce, James, Scottish explorer in Africa Bruce, William Speirs, Scottish explorer and authority on the polar regions Brulé, Étienne, English sea captain and antarctic explorer Burckhardt, Johann Ludwig or John Lewis, European explorer Burton, Sir Richard Francis, English explorer Byrd, Richard Evelyn, American aviator and polar explorer Cárdenas, García López de, Spanish explorer in the Southwest. Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez, Spanish explorer Cabot, John, English explorer Cabot, Sebastian, explorer in English and Spanish service Cabrillo, Juan Rodríguez, Spanish conquistador and discoverer of California Caillié, René, French explorer in Africa Cameron, Verney Lovett, English traveler in Africa Cano, Juan Sebastián del, Spanish navigator Cartier, Jacques, French navigator Carver, Jonathan, American explorer Chaillé-Long, Charles, American soldier, African explorer, and writer Champlain, Samuel de, French explorer, the chief founder of New France Chesney, Francis Rawdon, British soldier and explorer in Asia Clapperton, Hugh, British explorer Clark, William, American explorer Columbus, Christopher, European explorer Cook, Frederick Albert, American explorer and physician Cook, James, English explorer and navigator Coronado, Francisco Vásquez de, Spanish explorer Cortés, Hernán, Spanish conquistador da Gama, Vasco, Portuguese navigator Dampier, William, English explorer David, T.W.E., English navigator De Long, George Washington, American arctic explorer De Soto, Hernando, Spanish explorer Dias, Bartolomeu, Portuguese navigator Drake, Sir Francis, English navigator and admiral Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni, French-American explorer in Africa Duluth, Daniel Greysolon, sieur, French explorer in Canada Dumont d'Urville, Jules Sébastien César, French navigator Ellsworth, Lincoln, American explorer Emin Pasha, German explorer Entrecasteaux, Joseph Antoine Bruni d', French navigator Eric the Red, Norse chieftain, discoverer and colonizer of Greenland Frémont, John Charles, American explorer, soldier, and political leader Franklin, Sir John, British explorer Garnier, Marie Joseph François, French explorer and naval officer Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, English soldier Gosnold, Bartholomew, English explorer and colonizer Gray, Robert, American sea captain, discoverer of the Columbia River Greely, Adolphus Washington, American army officer and arctic explorer Hall, Charles Francis, American arctic explorer He, Zheng, explorer Hedin, Sven Anders, Swedish explorer in central Asia Henry the Navigator, prince of Portugal, patron of exploration Henson, Matthew Alexander, African-American arctic explorer Heyerdahl, Thor, Norwegian explorer and anthropologist Hillary, Sir Edmund Percival, New Zealand mountain climber and explorer. Hudson, Henry, English navigator and explorer Humboldt, Alexander, Freiherr von, German naturalist and explorer Ibn Batuta, Muslim traveler Johnson, Martin Elmer, American explorer and author Johnston, Sir Harry Hamilton, British explorer and colonial official Jolliet, Louis, French explorer Kane, Elisha Kent, American physician and arctic explorer Kotzebue, Otto von, Russian naval officer and explorer; La Salle, Robert Cavelier, sieur de, French explorer in North America Leif Ericsson, Norse discoverer of America Leo Africanus, Moorish traveler in Africa and the Middle East. Lewis, Meriwether, American explorer Livingstone, David, Scottish missionary and explorer in Africa Long, Stephen Harriman, American explorer Mackenzie, Sir Alexander, Canadian fur trader and explorer

Highest, Lowest, and Mean Elevations in the United States: StateElevation (ft.)1Highest pointElevation (ft.)Lowest pointElevation (ft.) Alabama500Cheaha Mountain2,405Gulf of MexicoSea level Alaska1,900Mt. McKinley20,320Pacific OceanSea level Arizona4,100Humphreys Peak12,633Colorado River70 Arkansas650Magazine Mountain2,753Ouachita River55 California2,900Mt. Whitney14,494Death Valley–2822 Colorado6,800Mt. Elbert14,433Arkansas River3,350 Connecticut500Mt. Frissell, on south slope2,380Long Island SoundSea level Delaware60Ebright Road, Del.–Pa. state line448Atlantic OceanSea level D.C.150Tenleytown, at Reno Reservoir410Potomac River1 Florida100Sec. 30, T6N, R20W, Walton County345Atlantic OceanSea level Georgia600Brasstown Bald4,784Atlantic OceanSea level Hawaii3,030Puu Wekiu, Mauna Kea13,796Pacific OceanSea level Idaho5,000Borah Peak12,662Snake River710 Illinois600Charles Mound1,235Mississippi River279 Indiana700Franklin Township, Wayne County1,257Ohio River320 Iowa1,100Sec. 29, T100N, R41W, Osceola County1,670Mississippi River480 Kansas2,000Mt. Sunflower4,039Verdigris River679 Kentucky750Black Mountain4,139Mississippi River257 Louisiana100Driskill Mountain535New Orleans–82 Maine600Mt. Katahdin5,267Atlantic OceanSea level Maryland350Backbone Mountain3,360Atlantic OceanSea level Massachusetts500Mt. Greylock3,487Atlantic OceanSea level Michigan900Mt. Arvon1,979Lake Erie572 Minnesota1,200Eagle Mountain2,301Lake Superior600 Mississippi300Woodall Mountain806Gulf of MexicoSea level Missouri800Taum Sauk Mountain1,772St. Francis River230 Montana3,400Granite Peak12,799Kootenai River1,800 Nebraska2,600Johnson Township, Kimball County5,424Missouri River840 Nevada5,500Boundary Peak13,140Colorado River479 New Hampshire1,000Mt. Washington6,288Atlantic OceanSea level New Jersey250High Point1,803Atlantic OceanSea level New Mexico5,700Wheeler Peak13,161Red Bluff Reservoir2,842 New York1,000Mt. Marcy5,344Atlantic OceanSea level North Carolina700Mt. Mitchell6,684Atlantic OceanSea level North Dakota1,900White Butte3,506Red River750 Ohio850Campbell Hill1,549Ohio River455 Oklahoma1,300Black Mesa4,973Little River289 Oregon3,300Mt. Hood11,239Pacific OceanSea level Pennsylvania1,100Mt. Davis3,213Delaware RiverSea level Rhode Island200Jerimoth Hill812Atlantic OceanSea level South Carolina350Sassafras Mountain3,560Atlantic OceanSea level South Dakota2,200Harney Peak7,242Big Stone Lake966 Tennessee900Clingmans Dome6,643Mississippi River178 Texas1,700Guadalupe Peak8,749Gulf of MexicoSea level Utah6,100Kings Peak13,528Beaverdam Wash2,000 Vermont1,000Mt. Mansfield4,393Lake Champlain95 Virginia950Mt. Rogers5,729Atlantic OceanSea level Washington1,700Mt. Rainier14,410Pacific OceanSea level West Virginia1,500Spruce Knob4,861Potomac River240 Wisconsin1,050Timms Hill1,951Lake Michigan579 Wyoming6,700Gannett Peak13,804Belle Fourche River3,099 United States2,500Mt. McKinley (Alaska)20,320Death Valley (California)–2822 1. Approximate mean elevation. 2. Below sea level. Source:U.S. Geological Survey.

Miscellaneous Data for the United States: Highest point:Mount McKinley, Alaska20,320 ft. (6,198 m) Lowest point:Death Valley, Calif.282 ft. (86 m) below sea level Approximate mean elevation2,500 ft. (763 m) Points farthest apart(50 states): Log Point, Elliot Key, Fla., and Kure Island, Hawaii5,859 mi. (9,429 km) Geographic center(50 states): in Butte County, S.D. (west of Castle Rock)44°58'N lat.103°46'W long. Geographic center(48 conterminous states): in Smith County, Kan. (near Lebanon)39°50'N lat. 98°35'W long. Boundaries: Between Alaska and Canada1,538 mi. (2,475 km) Between the 48 conterminous states and Canada (incl. the Great Lakes)3,987 mi. (6,416 km) Between the United States and Mexico1,933 mi. (3,111 km) Source:U.S. Geological Survey.

Extreme Points of the United States (50 States): Distance1 Extreme pointLatitudeLongitudemi.km Northernmost point: Point Barrow, Alaska71°23' N156°29' W2,5074,034 Easternmost point: West Quoddy Head, Maine44°49' N66°57' W1,7882,997 Southernmost point: Ka Lae (South Cape), Hawaii18°55' N155°41' W3,4635,573 Westernmost point: Cape Wrangell, Alaska (Attu Island)52°55' N172°27' E3,6255,833 1. From geographic center of United States (incl. Alaska and Hawaii), west of Castle Rock, S.D., 44°58' lat., 103°46' W long. If measured from the prime meridian in Greenwich, England, Cape Wrangell, Attu Island, Alaska, would be the easternmost point.

How Old Is the Grand Canyon?: The Grand Canyon may be 10 million years older than we thought. National parks and monuments Until recently, the Grand Canyon, one of the most spectacular and mysterious natural wonders of the world, was thought to be about six million years old. With improved dating techniques, geologists now believe that it actually started to form some 17 million years ago. Geologists estimated the Grand Canyon's age at six million years by using a technique called uranium-lead dating. The Grand Canyon walls are lined with a sedimentary rockcalled Redwall Limestone. Redwall Limestone can be seen where water levels have dropped, leaving behind deposits of calcium carbonate. Their results showed that six million years ago, a river started from the west and another from the east, carving a mile-deep canyon until they met in the middle and formed what is now the Grand Canyon and the Colorado River. Dating the Grand Canyon Uranium-lead dating allows researchers to determine the age of mineraldeposits hundreds of millions of years old. Over time uranium, which can be found in many mineral deposits, decays into lead. Uranium has a half life of 4.5 million years, which means that only half the original amount of uranium in a rock is left after 4.5 million years. Geologists can collect mineral deposits and find their age by measuring the amount of lead found in the rocks. The amount of lead tells how long the uranium has been decaying. The mineral deposits collected from the Grand Canyon walls reveal when and how fast water levels dropped. New Research In 2008, Victor Polyak led a team of geologists from the University of Mexicoto conduct new research on the Grand Canyon. They also tested minerals that line the canyon walls at different heights in order to track water levels, which allowed them to find the rate at which the canyon deepened. Polyak and his team, however, rafted, hiked, and climbed to access caves that dot the canyon's walls. Many of the caves were difficult to reach—some were hundreds of feet high. In the caves they found mineral deposits that contain larger amounts of uranium. What are mammillaries? The uranium-rich mineral deposits are called mammillaries. Mammillaries are mineral deposits that form at the top of the water table and provide a timeline of the river and canyon’s history. Mammillaries, often called "cave clouds," form just under the surface of water that has a high calcium-carbonate concentration. They leave behind formations, often ring-shaped as seen in trees and stalagmite, on existing rocks. New birth date for the Grand Canyon Polyak and his team collected mammillaries from nine sites in the Grand Canyon that were at a much higher elevation than the current water level and then used uranium-lead dating to find the age of the Grand Canyon. They found that the Grand Canyon eroded much slower on the western end than was previously thought, suggesting it is much older than six million years. Findings also showed that instead of one large river, small streams caused the erosion and they joined to make one large river, the Colorado Riverwhich runs through the Grand Canyon today, stretching 277 river miles long, up to 18 miles wide, and a mile deep. Source: Journal Science 7 March 2008. Web: www.sciencemag.org

Santa Ana Winds: Mysterious autumn winds that warm southern California: In autumn, we often hear about Santa Anawinds exacerbating wild fires in the western states. The fires and their path of destruction are appropriately the focus of the news stories, leaving many to ask, "What are Santa Ana winds?" A meteorological and geographic phenomenon, the Santa Ana winds blow warm air from east to west across southern Californiaeach autumn. They are named after the Santa Ana Canyon in southern California, but are often referred to as "red winds" or "devil winds." Where do they come from? The Santa Ana Winds form in Utah, Nevada, and Arizonabetween the Sierra Nevadaand Rocky Mountains. During the fall, air pressure builds in cold temperatures at high altitudes in this region and forms a drainage wind, which eventually blows down the mountains and out the Great Basintoward the southern California coastline. The winds tend to blow at 35 to 45 mph, but can gust at hurricanespeeds. Why are the winds warm? Although the winds form in cold weather at high altitudes in the mountains, they blow warm, dry air across southern California. As the winds drain out of the mountains, they descend and heat up as the air is compressed in a process called adiabaticheating. The wind also dries on its descent, often leaving its humidity below 10% by the time it reaches the coastline. During the autumn when the Santa Ana winds blow, southern California is at its warmest, often hotter than the deserts. Wildfires When wildfires burn in southern California during the Santa Ana winds, the fires are fueled by the hot, dry winds, causing even greater destruction. In October 2003, 721,791 acres burned in two weeks of wildfires in southern California, fanned by the Santa Ana winds. During wildfires in October 2007, the Santa Ana winds also contributed to the burning of 426,000 acres. Some areas saw wind gusts of 40 to 60 mph, which is equivalent to tropical storm speeds. Other areas had winds traveling at category two hurricane speeds of over 100 mph. In October 2007, wind gusts were recorded at record speeds of 111 mph and temperatures reached 90 degrees with relative humidity below 10%, increasing the intensity of the fires. Although the Santa Ana winds can cause damage, they benefit the environment in other ways. The winds cause cold water to rise to the surface of the ocean, which brings nutrients to the surface. The Santa Anas also make the air in southern California more pleasant by blowing air pollution out to sea. Santa Ana Fog When the Santa Ana winds begin to recede, a fog settles over southern California in its wake. Where dry air prevailed in the lower atmosphere during the Santa Ana winds, a cool moist layer forms quickly after the winds stop, creating a dense fog.

The World's Top Tourism Destinations (international tourist arrivals): The following table shows the top ten tourism destinations according to the number and percent of tourist arrivals in each country during 2010. 2010 rankCountryArrivals (millions)Percent change 2009/2008Percent change 2010/2009 20092010 1.France76.876.8-3.0%0.0 2.United States55.059.7-5.18.7 3.China50.955.7-4.19.4 4.Spain52.252.7-8.81.0 5.Italy43.243.61.20.9 6.United Kingdom28.228.1-6.4-0.2 7.Turkey25.527.02.05.9 8.Germany24.226.9-2.710.9 9.Malaysia23.624.67.23.9 10.Mexico21.522.4-5.24.4 Source:World Tourism Organization (WTO). Web: www.world- tourism.org.

International Destinations of American Tourists, 2004: All U.S. travelersFor leisure and visiting friends/ relativesFor business and conventions Total number of travelers 27,351,00022,373,0007,713,000 International destinations visited Europe43%43%47% Western Europe404045 United Kingdom 141318 France 9109 Italy 785 Germany 669 Netherlands 335 Spain 342 Ireland 331 Switzerland 222 Austria 221 Eastern Europe444 Caribbean18209 Jamaica 552 Bahamas 443 Dominican Republic 431 Aruba 220 South America997 Brazil 223 Colombia 221 Peru 221 Central America773 Costa Rica231 Africa223 Middle East445 Asia191728 Japan 437 China 437 South Korea 224 Hong Kong 325 Taiwan 224 India 223 Philippines 222 Thailand 222 Oceania334 Australia 223 Leisure/recreational activities1 Dining in restaurants84%84%89% Shopping757867 Visit historical places515638 Visit small towns/villages434924 Sightseeing in cities434732 Touring the countryside354020 Cultural sites313520 Art gallery, museum283121 Water sports/sunbathing222612 Nightclub/dancing222516 Guided tours17208 Concert, play, musical141610 Ethnic heritage sites12138 Amusement/theme parks10125 Visit national parks10115 Casinos/gambling894 Golf/tennis666 Cruises672 Camping/hiking563 Environmental sites563 Sporting events443 Hunting/fishing332 Ranch vacations221 1. Multiple response. Source:U.S. Dept. of Commerce, ITA, Office of Travel & Tourism Industries, “In-Flight Survey,” May 2005.

Current Travel Warnings for U.S. Citizens: Travel warnings are issued when the State Department recommends that Americans avoid a certain country. The countries listed below are currently on that list. In addition to this list, the State Department issues Consular Information Sheets for every country of the world with information on such matters as the health conditions, crime, unusual currency or entry requirements, or any areas of instability. CountryMost recent warning issued Israel, the West Bank and Gaza 6/22/2011 Sudan 6/22/2011 Cote d'Ivoire 6/16/2011 Philippines 6/14/2011 Burundi 6/1/2011 Yemen 5/25/2011 Syria 4/25/2011 Uzbekistan 4/25/2011 Mexico 4/22/2011 Burkina Faso 4/19/2011 Nigeria 4/15/2011 Iraq 4/12/2011 Lebanon 4/4/2011 Algeria 3/16/2011 Mauritania 3/11/2011 Afghanistan 3/8/2011 Mali 3/2/2011 Eritrea 2/27/2011 Libya 2/25/2011 Pakistan 2/2/2011 Haiti 1/20/2011 Central African Republic 1/14/2011 Niger 1/12/2011 Nepal 1/12/2011 Kenya 12/28/2010 Somalia 12/27/2010 Saudi Arabia 12/23/2010 Colombia 12/8/2010 Guinea 12/3/2010 Congo, Democratic Republic of the 11/25/2010 Chad 11/10/2010 Iran 10/8/2010 Korea, Democratic People's Republic of 8/27/2010 NOTE: In the wake of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on Sept. 11, 2001, the State Department issued a worldwide caution for U.S. citizens traveling abroad. 1. As of July 2011. Source:U.S. Department of State. Web: http://travel.state.gov.

Recently Suspended Armed Conflicts: The following wars and armed conflicts have ended. Note that this list contains significant conflicts only. Information valid through 2010. Main warring partiesYears of conflict Indonesia vs. Papua (Irian Jaya) separatists1969–2005 Indonesia vs. East Timor1975–2000 Angola vs. UNITA1975–2002 Indonesia vs. Aceh separatists1976–2005 Indonesia vs. Christians and Muslims in Molucca Islands1977–2006 Sri Lanka vs. Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)1983–2010 Uganda vs. Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA)1987–2010 Burundi vs. Forces Nationales de Libération (FNL)1988–2010 Sierra Leone vs. RUF1991–2002 Tajikistan vs. United Tajik Opposition (UTO)1992–2000 Angola vs. Cabinda1994–2006 Taliban vs. Northern Alliance1995–2001 Nepal vs. Maoist rebels1995–2006 Nepal vs. Maoists1996–2010 Democratic Republic of Congo and allies vs. Rwanda, Uganda, and indigenous rebels1997–2001 Ethiopia vs. Eritrea1998–2000 Chad vs. Muslim separatists (MDJT)1998–2002 Solomon Islands vs. Malaitan Eagle Force and Isatabu Freedom Movement1998–2003 Serbia and Montenegro vs. Kosovo1998–2006 Liberia vs. LURD rebels2000–2003 Fiji vs. insurgents2000 Cote d'Ivoire vs. militias2002–2008 Haiti vs. rebel groups2004–2008 Israel vs. Lebanon2006 Sources:Project Ploughshares, www.ploughshares.ca, and news sources.

U.S.-Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations: The U.S. State Department has designated these groups as Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs). The table includes the name and acronym of each terrorist group and the year it was designated. Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations Date Designated Name 10/8/1997 Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) 10/8/1997 Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) 10/8/1997 Aum Shinrikyo (AUM) 10/8/1997 Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) 10/8/1997 Gama’a al-Islamiyya (Islamic Group) (IG) 10/8/1997 HAMAS 10/8/1997 Harakat ul-Mujahidin (HUM) 10/8/1997 Hizballah 10/8/1997 Kahane Chai (Kach) 10/8/1997 Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) (Kongra-Gel) 10/8/1997 Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) 10/8/1997 National Liberation Army (ELN) 10/8/1997 Palestine Liberation Front (PLF) 10/8/1997 Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) 10/8/1997 Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLF) 10/8/1997 PFLP-General Command (PFLP-GC) 10/8/1997 Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) 10/8/1997 Revolutionary Organization 17 November (17N) 10/8/1997 Revolutionary People’s Liberation Party/Front (DHKP/C) 10/8/1997 Shining Path (SL) 10/8/1999 al-Qa’ida (AQ) 9/25/2000 Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) 5/16/2001 Real Irish Republican Army (RIRA) 9/10/2001 United Self Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) 12/26/2001 Jaish-e-Mohammed (JEM) 12/26/2001 Lashkar-e Tayyiba (LeT) 3/27/2002 Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade (AAMB) 3/27/2002 Asbat al-Ansar (AAA) 3/27/2002 al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) 8/9/2002 Communist Party of the Philippines/New People's Army (CPP/NPA) 10/23/2002 Jemaah Islamiya (JI) 1/30/2003 Lashkar i Jhangvi (LJ) 3/22/2004 Ansar al-Islam (AAI) 7/13/2004 Continuity Irish Republican Army (CIRA) 12/17/2004 Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) 12/17/2004 al-Qaida in Iraq (AQI) 6/17/2005 Islamic Jihad Union (IJU) 3/5/2008 Harakat ul-Jihad-i-Islami/Bangladesh (HUJI-B) 3/18/2008 al-Shabaab 5/18/2009 Revolutionary Struggle (RS) 7/2/2009 Kata'ib Hizballah (KH) 1/19/2010 al-Qa'ida in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) 8/6/2010 Harakat ul-Jihad-i-Islami (HUJI) 9/1/2010 Tehrik-e Taliban Pakistan (TTP) 11/4/2010 Jundallah 5/23/2011 Army of Islam (AOI) 9/19/2011 Indian Mujahedeen (IM) 3/13/2012 Jemaah Anshorut Tauhid (JAT) 5/30/2012 Abdallah Azzam Brigades (AAB) 9/19/2012 Haqqani Network (HQN) 3/22/2013 Ansar al-Dine (AAD) 1. As of September 2012. Source:U.S. Department of State, Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism.

RankCountrySpending level: ($ billions)Per capita ($)World share (%) 1. United States$528.7$1,75646% 2. United Kingdom59.29905 3. France53.18755 4. China49.5374 5. Japan43.73414 6. Germany37.04473 7. Russia34.72443 8. Italy29.95143 9. Saudi Arabia2, 329.01,1523 10. India23.9212 11. South Korea21.94552 12. Australia313.86761 13. Canada313.54141 14. Brazil13.4711 15. Spain12.32841 Subtotal, top 15963.783 World1,158177100 1. Market Exchange Rate. 2. Data for Iran and Saudi Arabia include expenditure for public order and safety and might be slight overestimates. 3. The populations of Australia, Canada, and Saudi Arabia each constitute less than 0.5% of the total world population. Source:SIPRI Yearbook 2007,Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.

Significant Ongoing Armed Conflicts, 2010: The following table shows where wars and armed conflicts are raging throughout the world in 2010. Find the year that war began and the major warring parties involved by region of conflict, including the Middle East, Asia, Africa, Europe, and Latin America. Main warring partiesYear began1 Middle East U.S. and UK vs. Iraq2003 Israel vs. Palestinians1948 Yemen: Government forces vs. the rebel group Shabab al-Moumineen (The Youthful Believers)2004 Turkey: Government forces vs. the Kurdish Workers' Party (PKK)1999 Asia Afghanistan: U.S., UK, and Coalition Forces vs. al-Qaeda and Taliban2001 India vs. Kashmiri separatist groups/Pakistan1948 India vs. Assam insurgents (various)1979 Philippines vs. Mindanaoan separatists (MILF/ASG)1971 Sri Lanka vs. Tamil Eelan21978 Africa Algeria vs. Armed Islamic Group (GIA)1991 Somalia vs. rival clans and Islamist groups1991 Sudan vs. Darfur rebel groups2003 Uganda vs. Lord's Resistance Army (LRA)1986 Europe Russia vs. Chechen separatists1994 Latin America Colombia vs. National Liberation Army (ELN)1978 Colombia vs. Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC)1978 Colombia vs. Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia (AUC)1990 NOTE: As of Oct. 2009. 1. Where multiple parties and long-standing but sporadic conflict are concerned, date of first combat deaths is given. 2. 2002 cease-fire collapsed in 2006. Sources:Project Ploughshares, www.ploughshares.ca,and news sources.

Countries with Nuclear Weapons Capability: *.Acknowledged:U.K., China, France, India, Pakistan, Russia, United States, Israel, North Korea1 *.Seeking:Syria, Iran2 *.Abandoned:South Africa constructed but then voluntarily dismantled six uranium bombs. Belarus, Kazakhstan, Ukraine; when Soviet Union broke up, these former states possessed nuclear warheads that they have since given up and declared themselves non-nuclear weapon states. 1. North Korea tested its first nuclear device on October 9, 2006; a second test took place in 2009. The 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) recognizes five nuclear weapon states (France, China, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) 2. In Aug. 2005, U.S. intelligence estimated that Iran would possess nuclear weapons in the next decade. In Jan. 2006, Iran announced its decision to restart nuclear research. Both Syria and Iran have undertaken questionable nuclear activities and been referred to the United Nations Security Council due to judgments of noncompliance with their IAEA safeguards agreements. Source:U.S. State Department,TIMEmagazine and the Nuclear Threat Initiative.

Per Capita Foreign Aid Assistance by World's Wealthiest Countries, 2002: CountryPer capita government aidPer capita private giving Australia14¢3¢ Austria182 Belgium282 Canada172 Denmark641 Finland241 France251 Greece70.1 Germany183 Ireland286 Italy110.2 Japan20¢0.4¢ Netherlands574 New Zealand81 Norway10224 Portugal90.1 Spain111 Sweden611 Switzerland357 United Kingdom232 United States135 Source:© Center for Global Development and Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. From “Ranking the Rich,”Foreign Policy,May/June 2004. Reprinted with permission.