The World's 14 Highest Mountain Peaks (above 8,000 meters)All 14 of the world's 8,000-meter peaks are located in the Himalaya or the Karakoram ranges in Asia. According to E verestnews.com, only 17 climbers have reached the summits of all 14: Reinhold Messner (Italy) was first, followed by Jerzy Kukuczka (Poland), Ehardt Loretan (Switzerland), Carlos Carsolio (Mexico), Krzysztof Wielicki (Poland), Juan Oiarzabal (Spain), Sergio Martini (Italy), Park Young Seok (Korea), Hang-Gil Um (Korea), Alberto Inurrategui (Spain), Han Wang Yong (Korea), Ed Viesturs (U.S.), Alan Hinkes (British), and Silvio Mondinelli (Italy), Ivan Vallejo (Ecuador), Denis Urubko (Kazakhstan), Andrew Lock (Australia). MountainLocationHeightFirst to summit (nationality)Date MetersFeet 1. Everest 1Nepal/Tibet8,85029,035Edmund Hillary (New Zealander, UK), Tenzing Norgay (Nepalese)May 29, 1953 2. K2 (Godwin Austen)Pakistan/China8,61128,250A. Compagnoni, L. Lacedelli (Italian)July 31, 1954 3. Kangchenjunga Nepal/India8,58628,169G. Band, J. Brown, N. Hardie, S. Streather (UK)May 25, 1955 4. Lhotse Nepal/Tibet8,51627,940F. Luchsinger, E. Reiss (Swiss)May 18, 1956 5. Makalu Nepal/Tibet8,46327,766J. Couzy, L. Terray, J. Franco, G. Magnone-Gialtsen, J. Bouier, S. Coupé, P. Leroux, A. Vialatte (French)May 15, 1955 6. Cho Oyu Nepal/Tibet8,20126,906H. Tichy, S. Jöchler (Austrian), Pasang Dawa Lama (Nepalese)Oct. 19, 1954 7. Dhaulagiri Nepal8,16726,795A. Schelbert, E. Forrer, K. Diemberger, P. Diener (Swiss), Nyima Dorji, Nawang Dorji (Nepalese)May 13, 1960 8. Manaslu Nepal8,16326,781T. Imamishi, K. Kato, M. Higeta, (Japanese) G. Norbu (Nepalese)May 9, 1956 9. Nanga Parbat Pakistan8,12526,660Hermann Buhl (Austrian)July 3, 1953 10. AnnapurnaNepal8,09126,545M. Herzog, L. Lachenal (French)June 3, 1950 11. Gasherbrum IPakistan/China8,06826,470P. K. Schoeing, A. J. KauffmanJuly 4, 1958 12. Broad PeakPakistan/China8,04726,400M. Schmuck, F. Wintersteller, K. Diemberger, H. Buhl (Austrian)June 9, 1957 13. Gasherbrum IIPakistan/China8,03526,360F. Moravec, S. Larch, H. Willenpart (Austrian)July 7, 1956 14. Shisha PangmaTibet8,01326,289Hsu Ching and team of 9 (Chinese)May 2, 1964 1. The 1955 elevation of Everest, 29,028 ft. (8,848 m), was revised on Nov. 11, 1999, and now stands at 29,035 ft. (8,850 m). See Named Summits in the U.S. Over 14,000 Feet Above Sea Levelfor U.S. Peaks. See also Climbing the World's 14 8,000- meter Peaks, The Seven Summits, Mortals on Mount Olympus: A History of Climbing Everest, and the Everest Almanac.

World Land Areas and Elevations The following table lists the approximate land area, highest elevation, and lowest elevation of the world's continents, including Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America, according to the World Atlas. AreaApproximate land area sq. kmApproximate land area sq. mi.Percentage of total land areaElevation, feet and meters HighestLowest WORLD148,647,00057,393,000100.0%Mt. Everest, Tibet-Nepal, 29,035 ft. (8,850 m)1Dead Sea, Israel-Jordan, 1,349 ft. below sea level (–411 m) AFRICA30,065,00011,608,00020.2Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, 19,340 ft. (5,895 m)Lake Assal, Djibouti, 512 ft. below sea level (–156 m) ANTARCTICA13,209,0005,100,0008.9Vinson Massif, Ellsworth Mts., 16,066 ft. (4,897 m)Lowest land point hidden within Bentley Subglacial Trench2 ASIA(includes the Middle East)44,579,00017,212,00030.0Mt. Everest, Tibet-Nepal, 29,035 ft. (8,850 m)Dead Sea, Israel-Jordan, 1,349 ft. below sea level (–411 m) AUSTRALIA (includes Oceania)8,112,0003,132,0005.3Mt. Kosciusko, Australia, 7,310 ft. (2,228 m)Lake Eyre, Australia, 52 ft. below sea level (–12 m) EUROPE(the Ural Mountains in Russia form the boundary between Europe and Asia)9,938,0003,837,0006.7Mt. Elbrus, Russia/Georgia, 18,510 ft. (5,642 m)Caspian Sea, Russia/Kazakhstan 92 ft. below sea level (–28 m) NORTH AMERICA(includes Central America and the Caribbean)24,474,0009,449,00016.5Mt. McKinley, Alaska, 20,320 ft. (6,194 m)Death Valley, Calif., 282 ft. below sea level (–86 m) SOUTH AMERICA17,819,0006,879,00012.0Mt. Aconcagua, Argentina, 22,834 ft. (6,960 m)Valdes Peninsula, Argentina 131 ft. below sea level (–40 m) 1. The 1954 elevation of Everest, 29,028 ft. (8,848 m) was revised on Nov. 11, 1999, and now stands at 29,035 ft. (8,850 m). 2. Bentley Subglacial Trench itself (ice, not land) is –8,327 ft. below sea level (–2,538 m). Source: WorldAtlas.com.

Continental Drift and Plate-Tectonics Theory Source:U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey According to the theory of continental drift, the world was made up of a single continent through most of geologic time. That continent eventually separated and drifted apart, forming into the seven continents we have today. The first comprehensive theory of continental drift was suggested by the German meteorologist Alfred Wegenerin 1912. The hypothesis asserts that the continents consist of lighter rocks that rest on heavier crustal material—similar to the manner in which icebergs float on water. Wegener contended that the relative positions of the continents are not rigidly fixed but are slowly moving—at a rate of about one yard per century. According to the generally accepted plate-tectonics theory, scientists believe that Earth's surface is broken into a number of shifting slabs or plates, which average about 50 miles in thickness. These plates move relative to one another above a hotter, deeper, more mobile zone at average rates as great as a few inches per year. Most of the world's active volcanoes are located along or near the boundaries between shifting plates and are called plate-boundary volcanoes. The peripheral areas of the Pacific Ocean Basin, containing the boundaries of several plates, are dotted with many active volcanoes that form the so-called Ring of Fire. The Ring provides excellent examples of plate-boundary volcanoes, including Mount St. Helens. However, some active volcanoes are not associated with plate boundaries, and many of these so-called intra-plate volcanoes form roughly linear chains in the interior of some oceanic plates. The Hawaiian Islands provide perhaps the best example of an intra-plate volcanic chain, developed by the northwest-moving Pacific plate passing over an inferred “hot spot” that initiates the magma-generation and volcano-formation process. Plate-Tectonics Theory—The Lithosphere Plates of Earth This figure shows the boundaries of lithosphere plates that are active at present. The double lines indicate zones of spreading from which plates are moving apart. The lines with barbs show zones of underthrusting (subduction), where one plate is sliding beneath another. The barbs on the lines indicate the overriding plate. The single line defines a strike-slip fault along which plates are sliding horizontally past one another. The stippled areas indicate a part of a continent, exclusive of that along a plate boundary, which is undergoing active extensional, compressional, or strike-slip faulting. Source:U.S. Geological Survey.

The Continents A continent is defined as a large unbroken land mass completely surrounded by water, although in some cases continents are (or were in part) connected by land bridges. The seven continents are North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica. The island groups in the Pacific are often called Oceaniabut this name doesnotimply that scientists consider them the remains of a continent. Political considerations have often overridden geographical facts when it came to naming continents. Geographically, Europe, including the British Isles, is a large western peninsula of the continent of Asia; and many geographers, when referring to Europe and Asia, speak of the Eurasian continent. But traditionally, Europe is counted as a separate continent, with the Uraland the Caucasus mountains forming the line of demarcation between Europe and Asia. To the south of Europe, Asia has an odd-shaped peninsula jutting westward, which has a large number of political subdivisions. The northern section is taken up by Turkey; to the south of Turkey there are Syria, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and a number of smaller Arab countries. All these are part of Asia. Traditionally, the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean is also considered to be part of Asia. The Caribbean islands, Central America, and Greenland are considered part of North America.

World Geography Glossary Find the definition of geography terms and phrases. (last part): Tropic of Capricorn A line of latitude located at 23°30' south. The Sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Capricorn on the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere (Dec. 20 or 21). It marks the southernmost point of the tropics. Arctic Circle A line of latitude located at 66°30' north, delineating the Northern Frigid Zone of the Earth. Antarctic Circle A line of latitude located at 66°30' south, delineating the Southern Frigid Zone of the Earth. globe The most accurate map of the Earth, duplicating its spherical shape and relative size. pole Point at which the earth turns; the north and south poles illustrate the axis on which the earth rotates. map Representation of a physical plane with selective information. Maps represent a definite area and contain detailed geographical information. atlas Combination of maps and charts. An atlas usually includes geographical information, as well as varied non-geographical information (population statistics, sea levels, etc.) about a particular location. compass A directional device that is made of a magnetic needle that synchronizes with the north and south poles. climate maps Give general information about the climate and precipitation (rain and snow) of a region. Cartographers, or mapmakers, use colors to show different climate or precipitation zones. economic or resource maps Feature the type of natural resources or economic activity that dominates an area. Cartographers use symbols to show the locations of natural resources or economic activities. For example, oranges on a map of Florida tell you that oranges are grown there. physical maps Illustrate the physical features of an area, such as the mountains, rivers and lakes. The water is usually shown in blue. Colors are used to show relief-differences in land elevations. Green is typically used at lower elevations, and orange or brown indicate higher elevations. political maps Do not show physical features. Instead, they indicate state and national boundaries and capital and major cities. A capital city is usually marked with a star within a circle. road maps Show major-some minor highways-and roads, airports, railroad tracks, cities and other points of interest in an area. People use road maps to plan trips and for driving directions. topographic maps Include contour lines to show the shape and elevation of an area. Lines that are close together indicate steep terrain, and lines that are far apart indicate flat terrain. map projections Two-dimensional representations of the three-dimensional Earth. Because projections attempt to present the spherical Earth on a flat plane, they inevitably produce distortions. Map projections are numerous and complex (e.g., there are a variety of cylindrical, conic, or azimuthal projections). Each projection has advantages and serves different purposes, and each produces different types of distortions in direction, distance, shape, and relative size of areas. One of the most famous projections is the Mercator, created by Geradus Mercator in 1569. It is a rectangular-shaped map in which all longitude and latitude lines are parallel and intersect at right angles (on a globe, meridians are not parallel, but grow narrower, eventually converging at the poles). Near the equator, the scale of the Mercator is accurate, but the farther one moves toward the poles, the greater the distortion—Antarctica in the far south and Greenland in the far north, for example, appear gigantic. The Mercator projection was used well into the 20th century, but has now been superseded by others, including the widely used Robinson projection. The Robinson projection is an elliptical-shaped map with a flat top and bottom. Developed in 1963 by Arthur H. Robinson, it is an orthophanic (“right appearing”) projection, which attempts to reflect the spherical appearance of the Earth. The meridians, for example, are curved arcs, which gives the flat map a three-dimensional appearance. But to convey the likeness of a curved, three-dimensional globe, the Robinson projection must in fact distort shape, area, scale, and distance. The Albers, Lambert, Mollweide, and Winkel Tripel are some of the other commonly used map projections.

World Geography Glossary Find the definition of geography terms and phrases. geography The study of the physical features of the earth. Includes study of regional formations and their relation to humans. latitude lines Imaginary lines running horizontally around the globe. Also called parallels, latitude lines are equidistant from each other. Each degree of latitude is about 69 miles (110 km) apart. Zero degrees (0°) latitude is the equator, the widest circumference of the globe. Latitude is measured from 0° to 90° north and 0° to 90° south—90° north is the North Pole and 90° south is the South Pole. longitude lines Imaginary lines, also called meridians, running vertically around the globe. Unlike latitude lines, longitude lines are not parallel. Meridians meet at the poles and are widest apart at the equator. Zero degrees longitude (0°) is called the prime meridian. The degrees of longitude run 180° east and 180° west from the prime meridian. geographic coordinates Latitude and longitude lines form an imaginary grid over the Earth's surface. By combining longitude and latitude measurements, any location on earth can be determined. The units of measurement for geographic coordinates are degrees (°), minutes ('), and seconds ("). Like a circle, the Earth has 360 degrees. Each degree is divided into 60 minutes, which in turn is divided into 60 seconds. Latitude and longitude coordinates also include cardinal directions: north or south of the equator for latitude, and east or west of the prime meridian for longitude. The geographic coordinates of New York City, for example, are 40° N, 74° W, meaning that it is located 40 degrees north latitude and 74 degrees west longitude. Using minutes and seconds as well as degrees, the coordinates for New York would be 40°42'51" N, 74°0'23" W. (Latitude is always listed first.) A less common format for listing coordinates is in decimal degrees. The Tropic of Cancer, for example, can be expressed in degrees and minutes (23°30' N) or in decimal degrees (23.5° N). continental drift Theory that the earth's continents at one time were once part of a singular landmass. It is believed that the continents have spread out due to plate tectonics. hemisphere A hemisphere is half the Earth's surface. The four hemispheres are the Northern and Southern hemispheres, divided by the equator (0° latitude), and the Eastern and Western hemispheres, divided by the prime meridian (0° longitude) and the International Date Line (180°). equator Zero degrees latitude. The Sun is directly overhead the equator at noon on the two equinoxes (March and Sept. 20 or 21). The equator divides the globe into the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The equator appears halfway between the North and South poles, at the widest circumference of the globe. It is 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 km) long. prime meridian Zero degrees longitude (0°). The prime meridian runs through the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, England (the location was established in 1884 by international agreement). The prime meridian divides the globe into the Western and Eastern hemispheres. The Earth's time zones are measured from the prime meridian. The time at 0° is called Universal Time (UT) or Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). With the Greenwich meridian as the starting point, each 15° east and west marks a new time zone. The 24 time zones extend east and west around the globe for 180° to the International Date Line. When it is noon along the prime meridian, it is midnight along the International Date Line. International Date Line Located at 180° longitude (180° E and 180° W are the same meridian). Regions to the east of the International Date Line are counted as being one calendar day earlier than the regions to the west. Although the International Date Line generally follows the 180° meridian (most of which lies in the Pacific Ocean), it does diverge in places. Since 180° runs through several countries, it would divide those countries not simply into two different time zones, but into two different calendar days. To avoid such unnecessary confusion, the date line dips and bends around countries to permit them to share the same time. tropics Also referred to as the torrid zone or tropical zone, all the water and land of the earth between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The tropics experience at least one day per year in which the sun passes directly overhead. Tropic of Cancer A line of latitude located at 23°30' north of the equator. The Sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Cancer on the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere (June 20 or 21). It marks the northernmost point of the tropics, which falls between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.

Millennium Milestones The 100 Most Significant Events of the Last Thousand Years Reducing the millennium to a laundry list of highlights cannot pretend to be a definitive or accurate exercise. Note that only events judged to haveworldsignificance are included. Apologies for the inevitable bias toward Western as well as twentieth century events—we are all prisoners of our own history. For a less whirlwind glance at the last thousand years, see our Millennium Timeline. *.1066— Norman Conquestof Britain *.1095—Pope Urban II calls for the Crusades *.1100s— Angkor Watis built *.1206— Genghis Khanbegins creation of largest land empire in history *.1215— Magna Cartasigned *.1260— Chartres Cathedralconsecrated *.1271— Marco Polobegins travels to Asia *.1273— Thomas Aquinas'sSumma theologica *.1300s— Renaissancebegins in Italy *.1347— Bubonic plague(Black Death) spreads in Europe *.c.1387— Chaucer'sCanterbury Tales *.1399— Tamerlanebegins last great conquest *.1438— Incan Empireformed in Peru *.1455— Gutenberg's movable-type printing press produces the Bible *.1492— Columbusreaches the New World *.1509— Michelangelobegins painting Sistine Chapel *.1513— Machiavelli'sThe Prince *.1517— Martin Lutherinitiates Reformation *.1519— Aztec Empireat height as Spanish arrive *.1520— Suleiman I“the Magnificent” presides over the Ottoman Empire's greatest period *.1522— Magellan's expedition circumnavigates the globe *.1543— Copernicuspostulates a heliocentric universe *.1582— Pope Gregory XIIIreforms calendar *.1603— Shakespeare'sHamlet *.1605— Cervantes'sDon Quixote,first modern novel *.1609— Galileomakes first astronomical observations with a telescope *.1637— DescartespublishesDiscours de la méthode *.1643— Taj Mahalcompleted *.1664— Newton's theory of universal gravitation *.1667— Milton'sParadise Lost *.1684— Leibniz's calculuspublished *.1690— Locke'sEssay Concerning Human Understanding *.1721— Bachcompletes the Brandenburg Concertos *.1755— Johnson'sDictionary of the English Language *.1760— Industrial Revolutionbegins in England *.1762— Rousseau'sThe Social Contract *.1764— Mozart(aged eight) writes first symphony *.1769— Wattpatents first practical steam engine *.1776—U.S. Declaration of Independence; Adam Smith'sWealth of Nations *.1787— U.S. Constitutionsigned *.1789— French Revolutionbegins *.1792— Wollstonecraft'sVindication of the Rights of Woman *.1796— Jennerdiscovers smallpox vaccine *.1808— Beethoven'sFifth Symphony *.1815—Battle of Waterloo crushes Napoleon *.1819— Bolívardefeats Spanish forces at Boyacá *.1826—Niepce takes first photograph *.1833— Slavery abolishedin British Empire *.1842—Long uses first anesthetic(ether) *.1859— Darwin'sOn the Origin of Species;Lenoir builds first practical internal-combustion engine *.1862— Pasteur's experiments lead to germ theory; Salon des Refusés introduces impressionism *.1867—Japan ends 675-year shogun rule *.1876— Bellpatents the telephone *.1879— Edisoninvents electric light *.1880s—Europe colonizes African continent *.1885—World's first skyscraperbuilt in Chicago *.1893— New Zealandbecomes first country in the world to grant women the vote *.1895—Lumiére brothers introduce motion pictures; Marconisends first radio signals *.1897—Herzl launches Zionist movement *.1900— Freud'sInterpretation of Dreams *.1903— Wright brothersfly first motorized airplane *.1905— Einsteinannounces theory of relativity *.1907— Picasso'sLes Demoiselles d'Avignonintroduces cubism *.1911— Rutherforddiscovers structure of atom *.1913— Forddevelops first moving assembly line *.1914— World War Ibegins *.1916— Sangerfounds international birth control movement *.1917— Leninleads the BolshevikRevolution *.1918—Global “Spanish flu” epidemic *.1922— Joyce'sUlyssespublished *.1927— Farnsworthdemonstrates working model of a television; Lemaitreproposes big bang theory *.1928— Flemingdiscovers penicillin *.1929— Hubbleproposes theory of expanding universe; U.S. stock market crash precipitates global depression *.1936— Keynes'sThe General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money *.1939— Hitlerinvades Poland; World War IIbegins *.1942—Nazi leaders at Wannsee Conferencecoordinate “final solution to the Jewish question” *.1945— Atomic bombsare dropped on Hiroshimaand Nagasaki; first electronic computer, ENIAC, is built; Arab Leaguelaunches modern pan-Arabism *.1946—First meeting of U.N. General Assembly; Churchill's “Iron Curtain” speech marks beginning of cold war *.1947— Gandhi's civil disobedience movement leads to an independent India *.1949—Communist victory in Chinaunder Mao Zedong *.1950s— Abstract expressionismintroduced

Time Tangled Island: Ancient Greece Factropica Fast Facts and quizzes Ancient Greece Quiz! Factropica Fast Facts The Oracle of Delphi, which dates to 1400 B.C., was the most important shrine in Greeceand was considered the center of the world. The Oracle at Delphi is also known as Pythiaor Sybil. People believed the Pythia could see into the future. People traveled from all over Greece and beyond to ask the Oracle of Delphi questions, ranging from when to plant crops to predict opportune times to wage war. If people didn't like Pythia's predictions, she would make another for more gold. Greek city-states agreed to work together to protect Delphi, which is on Mount Parnassus. The Oracle of Delphi was a religious site from pre-historic times to c. 395, when the Roman Emperor Theodosiusordered it closed. According to Greek legend, the first Olympics occurred in 776 BC. Opinions differ about their origins. Some credit them to Hercules, who brought a sacred olive tree to Olympia. Another myth says the hero Pelopsestablished the festival after defeating King Oenomaus in a chariot race. Olympia was famous for its temples and monuments, especially 40-foot tall, gold and ivory Statue of Zeus, which was built c. 432 BC. It is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The Lion Gate at Mycenae, which stood at the entrance to the city of Mycenae, was built c. 1250 BC. Mycenae was a center of commerce and culture in ancient Greece. Triremes were a type of ship developed and used in Greece in the 5th century B.C. These ships, which were used in warfare, had three groups of rowers who sat almost on top of each other on each side of the ship.

Time Tangled Island: Aztec Empire Factropica Fast Facts and quizzes Aztec Empire Quiz! Factropica Fast Facts The Aztecsruled what is now Mexicofrom about 1428 to 1521. Tenochtitlán (modern Mexico City) was the capital of the Aztec empire. The Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlanstood about 197 feet (60 meters) high. A shrine to the god Huitzilopochtlisat atop the Great Pyramid. It was the site of both sacrifices and festivals. The Aztecs made important developments in engineering, architecture, art, math, and astronomy. The Aztecs used two calendars: a 260-day cycle for rituals and a 365-day cycle for the civil year. The Aztec sun stone is 12 feet in diameter and shows both calendars. It is one of the most famous sculptures from the Aztec Empire. Montezumaruled the Aztecs from about 1502–1520. He was a brutal ruler, and his reign was known for continuous warfare. The Aztecs worshipped many gods, including Huitzilopochtli. He was the Aztec's primary god, and the god of the sun and of war. Hernán Cortés, along with 500 Spaniards, arrived in Mesoamericain 1519 and found the region rich in gold. He captured Montezuma and forced him to pledge allegiance to the king of Spain. Cacao beans were used as currency in the Aztec Empire. Nahuatlwas the native language of the Aztecs. Dialects of it are still spoken in rural areas of Mexico. The words avocado, chocolate, and tomato are derived from Nahuatl.

Time Tangled Island: Viking Explorers Factropica Fast Facts and quizzes: Viking Explorer Quiz! Factropica Fast Facts Vikings lived in Scandinavia, which is present day Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. The Vikings were the best shipbuilders and sailors of their time. If the direction of land was unknown, Viking sailors would release a raven into the air and follow its course. Viking warriors were buried with their weapons, but not their armor. Viking women could get divorced, own property, control their wealth, and join or lead raiding parties. Vikings used runes, a complicated system of symbols, to write their language. Each rune represented a different goddess or god. Vikings believed Valkyries, female warriors, watched over battles and decided who would die. Vikings believed their dead went to Valhalla, the banquet hall of the god Odinin Asgard. Leif Ericssonwas the first European discoverer of North America, c. 1000. The last attempt by the Vikings to establish a colony in North America occurred around 1013 A.D.

Time Tangled Island: Ancient China Factropica Fast Facts and quizzes by Mark Hughes Related Links Great Wall of China Famous Buildings and Structures Seven New Wonders Try our Great Wall of China Quiz! Factropica Fast Facts Chinese astronomers made the first recorded sighting of Halley's Cometin 240 B.C. The Chinese have been using wheeled vehicles for the last 3,500 years. Chinese mathematicians were among the first to use powers of 10 to express magnitudesand to use negative numbers. The lessons of Confuciuswere written down around 470 B.C. His teachings are notable for being ethical rather than religious, for example, centering on the golden rule of doing to others as one would have done to oneself. From 214 B.C. to 206 B.C., General Meng Dian began connecting the existing defensive walls in northern China in order to form a single fortified system that became known as the Great Wall of China. The wall became the largest human building project in history. Chinese scholars recognized the connection between ocean tides and the phases of the moon about 2,200 years ago. The Silk Road was a trade route connecting China to Europe, a distance of 8,000 miles (12,800 km). In addition to defense, the Great Wall of China was used to store and protect state documents, which were written on paper. Gunpowder was invented in Chinaaround 270 A.D. It was first used to make fireworks. About 1,500 years ago, the Chinese were making flying toys that used horizontal propellers to slow their descent. That practice is similar to modern day helicopters.

2005 World History Mahmoud Abbas (1935– ) Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (1956– ) Angela Merkel (1954– ) Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf (1938– ) 2005 Worldwide aid pours in to help the 11 Asian countries devastated by the Dec. 26, 2004, tsunami(Jan.). Mahmoud Abbaswins presidency of the Palestinian Authorityin a landslide(Jan. 9). The Sudanesegovernment and rebels from southern Sudan sign a peace agreement to end a 20-year conflict that has claimed about 2 million people(Jan. 9). George W. Bushis officially sworn in for his second term as president(Jan. 20). Iraqi elections to select a 275-seat National Assembly take place despite threats of violence. A total of 8.5 million people voted, representing about 58% of those Iraqis eligible to vote(Jan. 30).In State of the Union address, President Bush announces his plan to reform Social Security; despite months of campaigning, his plan receives only a lukewarm reception(Feb. 2).Saudis (men only) are allowed to vote for the first time in municipal elections(Feb. 10).Former Lebanese prime minister Rafik Hariri> a nationalist who had called for Syria'swithdrawal from Lebanon—is assassinated(Feb. 14). The Terry Schiavocase becomes the focus of an emotionally charged battle in Congress(March 20).Schiavo dies 13 days after a federal judge refuses to order the reinsertion of her feeding tube(March 31). Pope John Paul IIdies(April 2).Violent protests follow March elections in Kyrgyzstan,which international monitors deem severely flawed. President Askar Akayevflees the country and then resigns(April 4). Benedict XVIbecomes the next pope(April 24).The Syrianmilitary, stationed in Lebanonfor 29 years, withdraws(April 26). Tony Blairbecomes first Labour Party prime minister to win three successive terms, but his party loses a large number of seats in the elections(May 5).South Korean scientist Hwang Woo-sukannounces that he has devised a new procedure to successfully produce human stem cell lines from a cloned human embryo(May 20),but claim is discredited in Dec. 2005. The European Union abandons plans to ratify the proposed European constitution by 2006 after both France and the Netherlands vote against it(June 16).Former Tehran mayor Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, a hard-line conservative, wins Iran's presidential election with 62% of the vote. He defiantly pursues Iran's nuclear ambitions over the course of his first year(June 24).Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connorannounces her retirement(July 1). NASA's Deep Impact spacecraft hits comet Tempel 1in effort to research primordial remnants of our solar system(July 4). Londonhit by Islamic terrorist bombings, killing 52 and wounding about 700. It is Britain's worst attack since World War II(July 7). Group of Eightindustrial nations pledge to double aid to Africa to $50 billion a year by 2010, cancel the debt of many poor countries, and open trade.(July 8).Federal appeals court upholds lower court decision that so-called Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act is unlawful because it fails to make an exception to the law for women whose health would be in jeopardy without the late-term procedure(July 8).Pentagon assessment finds Iraq'spolice force is, at best, “partially capable” of fighting the country's insurgency. The U.S.'s eventual withdrawal plan hinges upon Iraqi security forces replacing U.S. soldiers: “As Iraqis stand up, Americans will stand down,” President Bush had stated(July 20).The Irish Republican Army announces it is officially ending its violent campaign for a united Ireland and will instead pursue its goals politically(July 27). President Bushsigns the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), which will remove trade barriers between the U.S. and Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua(Aug. 2).The Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) sign a peace accordto end their nearly 30-year-long civil war(Aug. 15). Israelbegins evacuating about 8,000 Israeli settlers from the Gaza Strip, which has been occupied by Israel for the last 38 years(Aug. 15). Hurricane Katrinawreaks catastrophic damage on the Gulf Coast; more than 1,000 die and millions are left homeless. Americans are shaken not simply by the magnitude of the disaster but by how ill-prepared all levels of government were in its aftermath.(Aug. 25–30).Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist,who served on the U.S. Supreme Court for 33 years, dies(Sept. 3). John Roberts, Jr.,becomes 17th chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court(Sept. 22).Another major hurricane, Rita, ravages the Gulf Coast(Sept. 23).House majority leader Tom DeLayis accused of conspiring to violate Texas's election laws. He steps aside from his House leadership position(Sept. 28).A 7.6 earthquake centered in the Pakistani-controlled part of the Kashmir region kills more than 80,000 and leaves an estimated 4 million homeless(Oct. 2). President Bushselects Harriet Miers,White House counsel, to replace Justice Sandra Day O'Connor(Oct. 3).

2004 World History Viktor Yushchenko (1954– ) 2004 Former Enron CFO Andrew Fastow pleads guilty to defrauding Enron(Jan. 13).Bush proposes ambitious space program that includes flights to the Moon, Mars, and beyond(Jan. 14).Iraq weapons investigator David Kayresigns, says there’s no evidence of weapons of mass destruction, one of the Bush administration’s chief reasons for launching war in Iraq(Jan. 23).About one third of Iran's Parliament steps down to protest hard-line Guardian Council’s banning of more than 2,000 reformists from running in parliamentary elections(Feb. 1).A.Q. Khan, founder of Pakistan'snuclear program, admits he sold nuclear-weapons designs to other countries, including North Korea, Iran, and Libya(Feb. 4).Armed rebels in Haiti force President Aristideto resign and flee the country(Feb. 29). John Kerrysecures Democratic nomination after winning nine out of ten primaries and caucuses(March 2). Spainis rocked by terrorist attacks, killing more than 200. Al-Qaedatakes responsibility(March 11).Spain's governing Popular Party loses election to opposition Socialists. Outcome seen as a reaction to terrorist attacks days before and Popular Party's support of the U.S.-led war in Iraq(March 14). North Atlantic Treaty Organizationformally admits seven new countries: Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia(March 29).U.S. troops launch offensive in Falluja in response to killing and mutilation on March 31 of four U.S. civilian contractors.(April 5–May 1).Israeli prime minister Sharonannounces plan to unilaterally withdraw from Gaza Strip(April 12).Greek Cypriots reject UN reunification plan with Turkish Cypriots(April 24).U.S. media release graphic photos of American soldiers abusing and sexually humiliating Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison. Images spark outrage around the world(April 30). Gay marriagesbegin in Massachusetts, the first state in the country to legalize such unions(May 17). Sudanrebels (SPLA) and government reach accord to end 21-year civil war. However, separate war in western Darfurregion between Arab militias and black Africans continues unabated(May 26).U.S. hands over power to Iraqi interim government; Iyad Allawibecomes prime minister(June 28).InRasulv.Bush,Supreme Court rules that “enemy combatants” held at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, are legally entitled to file petitions for writs of habeas corpus; and inHamdiv.Rumsfeld,court rules that the detention of a U.S. citizen held as an enemy combatant is invalid, rejecting government's claim that the executive branch has unreviewable authority in time of war(June 28).Israeli Supreme Court orders removal of part of security barrier dividing Israeli and Palestinian lands(June 30).Senate Intelligence Committee reports that intelligence on Iraq's weapons programs was “overstated” and flawed(July 5).Sept. 11 commission harshly criticizes government’s handling of terrorist attacks(July 22).Democratic National Convention in Boston nominates John Kerryfor president(July 26–29).Security Council demands Sudanese government disarm militias in Darfur that are massacring civilians(July 30). Florida hit by hurricanesBonnie(Aug. 12)and Charley(Aug. 13). Summer Olympicstake place in Athens, Greece(Aug. 13–29). Venezuelanpresident Hugo Chavezsurvives recall referendum(Aug. 16).Pentagon-sponsored Schlesinger report rejects idea that Abu Ghraib prison abuse was work of a few aberrant soldiers, and asserts there were “fundamental failures throughout all levels of command”(Aug. 24).Republican Convention in New York renominates President Bush(Aug. 30–Sept. 2). Chechen terroriststake about 1,200 schoolchildren and others hostage in Beslan, Russia; 340 people die when militants detonate explosives(Sept. 1–3). Hurricane Ivan ravages U.S. south(Sept. 15).U.S.’s final report on Iraq’s weapons finds no WMDs(Sept. 16). UN Atomic Energy Agencytells Iran to stop enriching uranium; a nascent nuclear weapons program suspected(Sept. 18).Bush eases trade restrictions on Libya(Sept. 20).Congress extends tax cuts due to expire at the end of 2005(Sept. 23). Hurricane Jeannehits Florida(Sept. 26).380 tons of explosives reported missing in Iraq(Oct. 25). Bushreelected president(Nov. 2).U.S. troops launch attack on Falluja, stronghold of the Iraqi insurgency(Nov. 8). Yasir Arafatdies in Paris(Nov. 11). Ukrainepresidential election declared fraudulent(Nov. 21).Red Cross alleges abuse at U.S.-run Guantánamo prison(Nov. 30). Hamid Karzaiinaugurated as Afghanistan's first popularly elected president(Dec. 7).Missile test fails; setback for Bush administration's missile defense system(Dec. 15).Massive protests by supporters of opposition candidate Viktor Yushchenko'slead to a new Ukrainian election; Yushchenko eventually declared prime minister(Dec. 26).Enormous tsunamidevastates Asia; at least 225,000 killed(Dec. 26).

2003 World History George W. Bush (1946– ) Saddam Hussein (1937– ) INA/Reuters/Archive Photos Donald H. Rumsfeld (1932– ) Paul Martin (1938– ) 2003 North Koreawithdraws from treaty on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons(Jan. 10).Illinois governor George Ryancommutes 167 death row sentences, calling capital punishment flawed(Jan. 11).White House announces huge deficits expected to top $200 billion in 2003(Jan. 15).The UN's report on Iraqi weapons inspections is highly critical, but not damning(Jan. 27).In State of the Union address, Bush announces that he is ready to attack Iraq even without a UN mandate(Jan. 28). Ariel Sharonelected Israeli prime minister(Jan. 29). Space shuttle Columbiaexplodes, killing all seven astronauts(Feb. 1).Nine-week general strike in Venezuela calling for President Chavez's resignation ends in defeat(Feb. 2).U.S. Secretary of State Powellpresents Iraq war rationale to UN, citing Iraqi weapons as imminent threat to world security(Feb. 5).Massive peace demonstrations take place around the world, protesting potential invasion of Iraq(Feb. 15).UN Security Council members France, Germany, and Russia insist that “the military option should only be a last resort” concerning Iraq(Feb. 24).Serbian prime minister Zoran Djindjic assassinated(March 12).Hu Jintao succeeds Chinese president Jiang Zemin(March 15).The United States and Britain launch war against Iraq(March 19).Baghdad falls to U.S. troops(April 9).European Union expands by ten nations(April 16).First Palestinian prime minister, Mahmoud Abbas,sworn in(April 29).U.S.-backed “road map” for peace proposed for Middle East(April 30).The United States declares official end to combat operations in Iraq(May 1).U.S. diplomat Paul Bremerbecomes civil administrator of occupied Iraq(May 12).Terrorists strike in Saudi Arabia,killing 34 at Western compound; al-Qaedasuspected(May 12). Bushsigns ten-year, $350-billion tax-cut package, the third-largest tax cut in U.S. history(May 28).Burmese opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyiagain placed under house arrest by military regime(May 30).Eric Rudolph, Olympic bombing suspect, arrested(May 31).International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) discovers Iran'sconcealed nuclear activities and calls for intensified inspections(June 18).The U.S. Supreme Court decisively upholds the use of affirmative actionin higher education(June 23).Palestinian militant groups announce cease-fire toward Israel(June 29).Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeldannounces price of Iraq war is about $3.9 billion a month, nearly double the April estimate(July 9).Iraq's interim governing council is inaugurated(July 13).Saddam Hussein's sonskilled in firefight(July 22).Mutinous troops attempt unsuccessful coup in Philippines(July 27).Terrorist bombing at Indonesian hotel kills ten(Aug. 6).Liberia's autocratic president Charles Taylorforced to leave civil war–ravaged country(Aug. 11).NATO assumes control of peacekeeping force in Afghanistan(Aug. 11). Libyaaccepts blame for 1988 bombing of flight over Lockerbie, Scotland; agrees to pay $2.7 billion to the families of the 270 victims(Aug. 15).Suicide bombing destroys UN headquarters in Baghdad, killing 24, including top envoy Sergio Vieira de Mello(Aug. 19).Palestinian suicide bombing in Jerusalem kills 20 Israelis, including 6 children(Aug. 19).Venezuelan opposition files petition for referendum to recall President Hugo Chavez(Aug. 20).After Israel retaliates for suicide bombing by killing top member of Hamas, militant Palestinian groups formally withdraw from cease-fire in effect since June 29(Aug. 24). Investigation into the loss of space shuttle Columbiacites egregious organizational problems at NASA(Aug. 25).Palestinian prime minister Mahmoud Abbasresigns; “road map” to peace effectively collapses(Sept. 6).California governor Gray Davis ousted in recall vote; actor Arnold Schwarzeneggerelected in his place(Oct. 7).UN votes in favor of a resolution ordering Israel to end construction of security barrier dividing Israeli and Palestinian areas(Oct. 24).Bush signs bill banning so-called partial-birth abortion procedure(Nov. 5).President Bush signs $87.5 billion emergency package for post-war Iraq reconstruction; this supplements $79 billion approved in April(Nov. 5).New Palestinian prime minister Ahmed Qureitakes office(Nov. 12).Alabama chief justice Roy S. Mooreforced from office after his refusal to remove monument of the Ten Commandments(Nov. 13).The Bush administration reverses policy, agrees to transfer power to an interim Iraqi government sooner than originally planned(Nov. 14).Suicide bombers attack two synagogues in Istanbul, Turkey, killing 25(Nov. 15).Massachusetts Supreme Court rules in favor of gay marriage(Nov. 18).Another terrorist attack in Istanbul kills 26; al-Qaeda suspected in both(Nov. 20).Georgian president Eduard Shevardnadzeresigns after weeks of protests(Nov. 23).

2002 World History Jacques Chirac (1932–) Tony Blair (1953–) Hugo Chavez (1954–) Hu Jintao (1942–) Luiz Ignácio Lula da Silva (1945–) 2002 The euro currency debuts in 12 European countries(Jan. 2).U.S. takes Talibanand al-Qaedaprisoners to GuantanamoBay(Jan. 10).Defrocked priest John Geoghan convicted of child molestation; church's role in cover-up sparks national outrage(Jan. 18).U.S. reporter Daniel Pearl kidnapped in Pakistan(Jan. 23). Kenneth L. Lay,chairman of bankrupt energy trader Enron, resigns; company under federal investigation for hiding debt and misrepresenting earnings(Jan. 24).President Bush's first State of Union address labels Iran, Iraq, and North Korea“an axis of evil”(Jan. 29). Queen Elizabeth IIof England marks 50 years as monarch(Feb 6).The trial of Slobodan Milosevicon charges of crimes against humanity opens at The Hague(Feb. 12).American Taliban soldier John Walker Lindhcharged with supporting terrorism(Feb. 13).Reporter Pearl confirmed dead in Pakistan(Feb. 21).Angolan UNITA rebel leader Jonas Savimbikilled in battle(Feb. 22).Tamil Tigers and Sri Lankan government sign a cease-fire agreement(Feb. 22).Hundreds in India die in Hindu-Muslim clashes(March 2).U.S. and Afghan troops launch Operation Anaconda against remaining al-Qaeda and Taliban fighters in Afghanistan(March 2).Saudi peace proposal—offering Israel normal relations with all Arab nations in return for withdrawal from occupied territories—approved at Arab Leaguesummit(March 28).Israeli tanks and warplanes attack West Bank towns of Nablus, Jenin, Bethlehem, and others in response to string of Palestinian suicide attacks. In the first three months of 2002, 14 suicide bombers killed dozens of Israeli civilians and wounded hundreds(March 29–April 21). Israeli prime minister Sharoncalls for exile of Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat(April 2).UNITA Rebels and Angolan government sign a cease-fire ending 30 years of civil war(April 4).International Criminal Court wins UN ratification, but U.S. refuses to ratify(April 11). Venezuelan president Hugo Chavezousted in coup, then reinstated(April 12, 14).U.S. and Russia reach landmark arms agreement to cut both countries' nuclear arsenals by up to two-thirds over the next ten years(May 13). East Timorbecomes a new nation(May 20).In letter to Director, FBI lawyer Coleen Rowley criticizes FBI for thwarting terrorist efforts(May 21).Dirty bomb plot foiled with arrest of Jose Padilla(June 10).U.S. abandons 31-year-old Antiballistic Missile treaty(June 13).At national conference, U.S. bishops recommend zero tolerance policy for priests who abuse children(June 14).Arthur Andersen firm convicted of destroying documents relating to former client Enron Corp.(June 15).Bush announces U.S. will not recognize an independent Palestinian state until Yasir Arafat is replaced(June 24).WorldCom, after admitting to misstating profits, files for bankruptcy—largest claim in U.S. history(July 21).Pennsylvania miners rescued after spending 77 hours in a dark, flooded mine shaft(July 28).Bush signs corporate reform bill in response to spate of corporate scandals(July 30).Bush addresses United Nations, calls for a “regime change” in Iraq(Sept. 12).Tyco executives L. Dennis Kozlowski and Mark Swartz indicted in stock-fraud scheme(Sept. 12).Terrorist bomb in Balikills hundreds(Oct. 12).Government suspended in Northern Irelandin protest of suspected IRA spy ring(Oct. 14).Former ImClone Executive Sam Waksal pleads guilty to charges including fraud and perjury(Oct. 15). North Korea admits to developing nuclear arms in defiance of treaty(Oct. 16).Vatican calls for softening of U.S. bishops' abuse policy(Oct. 18).Chechen rebels take 763 hostages in Moscow theater; Russian authorities release a gas into theater, killing 116 hostages and freeing remaining survivors(Oct. 23–26).Snipers prey upon DC suburbs, killing ten and wounding others(Oct. 2–24).Police arrest two sniper suspects, John Allen Muhammad and John Lee Malvo(Oct. 24).CIA kills six al-Qaeda members in Yemen(Nov. 4).Republicans retake the Senate in midterm elections; gain additional House seats(Nov. 5).UN Security Council passes unanimous resolution calling on Iraq to disarm or else face “serious consequences”(Nov. 8).China's Jiang Zeminofficially retires as general secretary; Hu Jintaonamed as his successor(Nov. 14).UN arms inspectors return to Iraq(Nov. 18).EPA relaxes Clean Air Act(Nov. 22).Bush signs legislation creating cabinet-level Department of Homeland Security(Nov. 25).Boston archbishop Cardinal Bernard Law resigns over growing child sexual abuse scandal in the Catholic Church(Dec. 13). Trent Lottsteps down as Republican leader after furor over pro-segregationist remark(Dec. 20).Sen. Bill Frist unanimously elected Republican leader of the Senate(Dec. 23).

2001 World History Yasir Arafat (1929–2004) Ariel Sharon (1928– ) Mohammad Khatami (1943–) World Trade Center Hamid Karzai (1957– ) 2001 Congo president Laurent Kabilaassassinated by bodyguard(Jan. 16).In final days of presidency, Bill Clintonissues controversial pardons, including one for Marc Rich, billionaire fugitive financier(Jan. 20). George W. Bushis sworn in as 43rd president(Jan. 20).Earthquake kills thousands in India (Jan. 26et seq.). Libyan convicted in Flight 103 bombing over Lockerbie, Scotland(Jan. 31).Right-winger Ariel Sharonwins election in Israel(Feb. 6).U.S. submarineGreenevillesinks Japanese fishing boat, killing 9(Feb. 9).FBI agent Robert Hanssen is charged with spying for Russia for 15 years(Feb. 20).The long-simmering resentment of Macedonia's ethnic Albanians erupts into violence (March 15et seq.). British livestock epidemic, foot-and- mouth disease,reaches crisis levels(March 23).Bush abandons global-warming treaty (Kyoto Protocol), angering European leaders(March 30).U.S. spy plane and Chinese jet collide. The 24 crew members of the U.S. plane are detained for 11 days; U.S. issues a formal statement of regret (April 2et seq.). Race riots in Cincinnati continue for several days following a shooting of an unarmed black man by a white police officer (April 7et seq.). U.S. millionaire Dennis Titobecomes first space tourist, visiting the International Space Station aboard a Russian booster(April 28).Former Klansman Thomas E. Blanton convicted of 1963 murder of four black girls in Birmingham, Ala.(May 1).After a Palestinian suicide bomber kills 5 and wounds more than 100 in a Netanya shopping mall, Israeli warplanes retaliate by bombing West Bank and Gaza strip(May 18).Four are declared guilty in 1998 terrorist bombings of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania(May 29).Balance of the Senate shifts after Jim Jeffords of Vermont changes his party affiliation from Republican to Independent. The move strips Republicans of control of the Senate and gives Democrats the narrowest of majorities (50–49–1)(June 5).Bush signs new tax-cut law, cutting taxes by $1.35 trillion over 11 years, the largest tax cut in 2 decades(June 7). Mohammad Khatami,Iran's moderate president, is reelected in a landslide(June 9).Oklahoma City bomber Timothy McVeighexecuted(June 11).Syrian forces evacuate Beirut area after decades of occupation(June 19).Former Yugoslav president Slobodan Milosevic is delivered to UN tribunal in The Hague to await war-crimes trial(June 29).Without U.S., 178 nations reach agreement on climate accord, which rescues, though dilutes, 1997 Kyoto Protocol(July 23).Bush allows stem cell research, approving federal funds for studies using existing strains of stem cells(Aug. 9).After six months of fighting, a peace agreement is signed between rebels and the Macedonian government(Aug. 13).Budget surplus dwindles; some blame the slowing economy and the Bush tax cut(Aug. 22). Terrorists attack United States.Hijackers ram jetliners into twin towers of New York City's World Trade Centerand the Pentagon. A fourth hijacked plane crashes 80 mi outside of Pittsburgh. Toll of dead is more than 3,000. Within days, Islamic militant Osama bin Ladenand the al-Qaeda terrorist network are identified as the parties behind the attacks(Sept. 11). Anthraxscare rivets nation, as anthrax-laced letters are sent to various media and government officials. Several die after handling the letters (October 5et seq.). In response to Sept. 11 terrorist attacks, U.S. and British forces launch bombing campaign against Talibangovernment and al-Qaeda terrorist camps in Afghanistan. Bombings continue on a daily basis (Oct. 7et seq.). Irish Republican Armyannounces that it has begun to dismantle its weapons arsenal, marking a dramatic leap forward in Northern Ireland peace process(Oct. 23).Plane crash kills 260 in Queens, N.Y.(Nov. 12).Afghani factions create a post-Taliban government(Nov. 27).Enron Corp., one of world's largest energy companies, files for bankruptcy(Dec. 2).Israel condemns the Palestinian Authority as a “terror-supporting entity” and severs ties with leader Yasir Arafatfollowing mounting violence against Israelis. The Israeli Army begins bombing Palestinian areas (Dec. 4et seq.). Taliban regime in Afghanistan collapses after two months of bombing by American warplanes and fighting by Northern Alliance ground troops(Dec. 9). Hamid Karzai,new interim Afghan leader, is sworn in(Dec. 22).

2000 World History Hillary Clinton (1947–) Vladimir Putin (1952–) Vicente Fox Quesada (1942–) Vojislav Kostunica (1944– ) 2000 Socialist president, Ricardo Lagos,elected in Chile(Jan. 16). George W. Bushand Al Goretake Iowa caucuses in U.S. presidential race(Jan. 22).Austria at center of European dispute after conservative People's Party forms coalition with the far-right Freedom Party, headed by xenophobe Jörg Haider(Feb. 3).First Lady Hillary Clintonofficially enters N.Y. Senate race(Feb. 6).Hijackers seize Afghan plane; release hostages in Stansted, England(Feb. 6–12).Britain ends self-rule in Northern Ireland after Irish Republican Army misses disarmament deadline(Feb. 11).NEAR spacecraft becomes first to orbit an asteroid(Feb. 14).Wary investors cause stock plunge; beginning of the end of the Internet stock boom(Feb. 25).Reformists win control of Iranian parliament for first time since 1979 Islamic revolution(Feb. 26).Gun maker Smith & Wesson limits the manufacture and distribution of handguns in light of lawsuits(March 17). Mass murder or suicide of hundreds in Ugandan doomsday cult(March 18).Acting Russian president Vladimir V. Putinformally chosen for post(March 25).Microsoft loses antitrust suit; appeal expected(April 3).Controversial Osprey plane crash kills 19 marines(April 8). Cuban boy Elián Gonzálezreunited with father after federal raid of Miami relatives' home(April 22).Vermont approves same-sex unions(April 25).“I love you” virus disrupts computers worldwide(May 4).South Carolina removes Confederate battle flag from capitol dome(May 18).Chile ends Augusto Pinochet'simmunity, clearing way for trial on murder and torture charges during years as dictator(May 24).Israeli troops withdraw from Lebanese security zone after 22 years of occupation(May 24).Former Indonesian president Suhartounder house arrest, charged with corruption and abuse of power(May 29).Britain restores parliamentary powers to Northern Ireland after Sinn Feinagrees to disarm(June 4).Presidents of North and South Korea sign peace accord, ending half-century of antagonism(June 15).British find 58 bodies of illegal Asian immigrants suffocated in Dutch truck that transported them(June 20).Elián González returns to Cuba with father(June 23).U.S. navy resumes shelling exercises of Puerto Rico's Vieques Island,used as a training site(June 25). Human genomedeciphered; expected to revolutionize the practice of medicine(June 26).Iraq believed to resume missile program(June 30).Vicente Fox Quesada elected president of Mexico(July 2).Bashar al-Assad succeeds late father, Hafez al-Assad, as Syrian president(July 10).Concorde crash kills 113 near Paris(July 25).Republican convention picks Texas governor George W. Bush as presidential candidate; Dick Cheneyfor vice presidential spot(Aug. 2).Democratic convention selects Vice President Al Gore and Sen. Joseph I. Liebermanto head ticket(Aug. 14).Los Alamos scientist Wen Ho Lee,accused of stealing sensitive nuclear weapons data, freed after serving nine months in prison(Sept. 13).Olympic Games open in Australia(Sept. 15).Six-year Whitewater investigation of the Clintons ends without indictments(Sept. 20).Yugoslav opposition claims victory; incumbent Slobodan Milosevicdenies results(Sept. 25).Danish voters reject euro(Sept. 26).Abortion pill, RU-486, wins U.S. approval(Sept. 28).Palestinians and Israelis clash, spurred by visit of right-wing Israeli leader Ariel Sharonto a joint Jewish/Muslim holy site; “Al Aksa intifada” continues unabated(Sept. 30et seq.).Nationwide uprising overthrows Yugoslavian president Milosevic(Oct. 5). Vojislav Kostunicasworn in as Yugoslav president(Oct. 7).17 U.S. sailors on navy destroyerColedie in Yemen terrorist explosion(Oct. 12).U.S. presidential election closest in decades; Bush's slim lead in Florida leads to automatic recount in that state(Nov. 7–8).Republicans file federal suit to block manual recount of Florida presidential election ballots sought by Democrats(Nov. 11).Philippine president Joseph Estradaimpeached after receiving gambling payoffs(Nov. 13).Florida Supreme Court rules hand count of presidential ballots may continue(Nov. 21).Global warming talks collapse at Hague conference(Nov. 25).Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harriscertifies Bush as winner by 537 votes(Nov. 26). Mad Cow diseasealarms Europe(Nov. 30et seq.).Israeli prime minister Ehud Barakresigns(Dec. 9).U.S. Supreme Court orders halt to manual recount of presidential votes in Florida(Dec. 9).Supreme Court seals Bush victory by 5–4; rules there can be no further recounting(Dec. 12).

The Persian Gulf War (Jan. 16, 1991–April 6, 1991) 1990 Iraq invades its tiny neighbor, Kuwait, after talks break down over oil production and debt repayment. Iraqi president Saddam Hussein later annexes Kuwait and declares it a 19th province of Iraq(Aug. 2).President Bush believes that Iraq intends to invade Saudi Arabia and take control of the region's oil supplies. He begins organizing a multinational coalition to seek Kuwait's freedom and restoration of its legitimate government. The UN Security Council authorizes economic sanctions against Iraq. Bush orders U.S. troops to protect Saudi Arabia at the Saudis' request and “Operation Desert Shield” begins(Aug. 6).230,000 American troops arrive in Saudi Arabia to take defensive action, but when Iraq continues a huge military buildup in Kuwait, the President orders an additional 200,000 troops deployed to prepare for a possible offensive action by the U.S.-led coalition forces. He subsequently obtains a UN Security Council resolution setting aJan. 15, 1991deadline for Iraq to withdraw unconditionally from Kuwait(Nov. 8). 1991 Bush wins congressional approval for his position with the most devastating air assault in history against military targets in Iraq and Kuwait(Jan. 16).He rejects a Soviet-Iraq peace plan for a gradual withdrawal that does not comply with all the UN resolutions and gives Iraq an ultimatum to withdraw from Kuwait by noonFeb. 23(Feb. 22).The president orders the ground war to begin(Feb. 24).In a brilliant and lightning-fast campaign, U.S. and coalition forces smash through Iraq's defenses and defeat Saddam Hussein's troops in only four days of combat. Allies enter Kuwait City(Feb. 26).Iraqi army sets fire to over 500 of Kuwait's oil wells as final act of destruction to Kuwait's infrastructure. Bush orders a unilateral cease-fire 100 hours after the ground offensive started(Feb. 27).Allied and Iraqi military leaders meet on battlefield to discuss terms for a formal cease-fire to end the Gulf War. Iraq agrees to abide by all of the UN resolutions(Mar. 3).The first Allied prisoners of war are released(Mar. 4).Official cease-fire accepted and signed(April 6).532,000 U.S. forces served in Operation Desert Storm. There were a total of 147 U.S. battle deaths during the Gulf War, 145 nonbattle deaths, and 467 wounded in action.

Korean War (1950–1953) 1950 North Korean Communist forces invade South Korea(June 25).UN calls for cease-fire and asks UN members to assist South Korea(June 27).Truman orders U.S. forces into Korea(June 27).North Koreans capture Seoul(June 28).Gen. Douglas MacArthur designated commander of unified UN forces(July 8).Pusan Beachhead—UN forces counterattack and capture Seoul(Aug.–Sept.),capture Pyongyang, North Korean capital(Oct.).Chinese Communists enter war(Oct. 26),force UN retreat toward 38th parallel(Dec.). 1951 Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway replaces MacArthur after he threatens Chinese with massive retaliation(April 11).Armistice negotiations(July)continue with interruptions untilJune 1953. 1953 Armistice signed(July 27).Chinese troops withdraw from North Korea(Oct. 26, 1958),but over 200 violations of armistice noted to1959.

Vietnam War U.S., South Vietnam, and Allies versus North Vietnam and National Liberation Front (Viet Cong). 1950 President Truman sends 35-man military advisory group to aid French fighting to maintain colonial power in Vietnam. 1954 After defeat of French at Dien Bien Phu, Geneva Agreements(July)provide for withdrawal of French and Vietminh to either side of demarcation zone (DMZ) pending reunification elections, which are never held. Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (from 1954onward) send civilian advisers and, later, military personnel to train South Vietnamese. 1960 Communists form National Liberation Front in South. 1960–1963 U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam rise from 900 to 15,000. 1963 Ngo Dinh Diem, South Vietnam's premier, slain in coup(Nov. 1). 1964 North Vietnamese torpedo boats reportedly attack U.S. destroyers in Gulf of Tonkin(Aug. 2).President Johnson orders retaliatory air strikes. Congress approves Gulf of Tonkin resolution(Aug. 7)authorizing president to take “all necessary measures” to win in Vietnam, allowing for the war's expansion. 1965 U.S. planes begin combat missions over South Vietnam. InJune,23,000 American advisers committed to combat. By end of year over 184,000 U.S. troops in area. 1966 B-52s bomb DMZ, reportedly used by North Vietnam for entry into South(July 31). 1967 South Vietnam National Assembly approves election of Nguyen Van Thieu as president(Oct. 21). 1968 U.S. has almost 525,000 men in Vietnam. In Tet offensive(Jan.–Feb.),Viet Cong guerrillas attack Saigon, Hue, and some provincial capitals. In My Lai massacre, American soldiers kill 300 Vietnamese villagers(March 16).President Johnson orders halt to U.S. bombardment of North Vietnam(Oct. 31).Saigon and N.L.F. join U.S. and North Vietnam in Paris peace talks. 1969 President Nixon announces Vietnam peace offer(May 14)—begins troop withdrawals(June).Viet Cong forms Provisional Revolutionary Government. U.S. Senate calls for curb on commitments(June 25).Ho Chi Minh, 79, North Vietnam president, dies(Sept. 3);collective leadership chosen. Some 6,000 U.S. troops pulled back from Thailand and 1,000 marines from Vietnam (announcedSept. 30). Massive demonstrations in U.S. protest or support war policies(Oct. 15). 1970 U.S. troops invade Cambodia in order to destroy North Vietnamese sanctuaries(May 1). 1971 Congress bars use of combat troops, but not air power, in Laos and Cambodia(Jan. 1).South Vietnamese troops, with U.S. air cover, fail in Laos thrust. Many American ground forces withdrawn from Vietnam combat.New York Timespublishes Pentagon papers, classified material on expansion of war(June). 1972 Nixon responds to North Vietnamese drive across DMZ by ordering mining of North Vietnam ports and heavy bombing of Hanoi-Haiphong area(April 1).Nixon orders “Christmas bombing” of North to get North Vietnamese back to conference table(Dec.). 1973 President orders halt to offensive operations in North Vietnam(Jan. 15).Representatives of North and South Vietnam, U.S., and N.L.F. sign peace pacts in Paris, ending longest war in U.S. history(Jan. 27).Last American troops departed in their entirety(March 29). 1974 Both sides accuse each other of frequent violations of cease-fire agreement. 1975 Full-scale warfare resumes. South Vietnam premier Nguyen Van Thieu resigns(April 21).South Vietnamese government surrenders to North Vietnam; U.S. Marine embassy guards and U.S. civilians and dependents evacuated(April 30).More than 140,000 Vietnamese refugees leave by air and sea, many to settle in U.S. Provisional Revolutionary Government takes control(June 6). 1976 Election of National Assembly paves way for reunification of North and South.

World War II (1939–1945) Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria)versusAllies (U.S., Britain, France, USSR, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Greece, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Yugoslavia). 1939 Germanyinvades Polandand annexes Danzig; Britainand Francegive Hitlerultimatum(Sept. 1),declare war(Sept. 3).Disabled German pocket battleshipAdmiral Graf Speeblown up off Montevideo, Uruguay, on Hitler's orders(Dec. 17).Limited activity (“Sitzkrieg”) on Western Front. 1940 Nazis invade Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg(May 10). Chamberlainresigns as Britain's prime minister; Churchilltakes over(May 10).Germans cross French frontier(May 12)using air/tank/infantry “Blitzkrieg” tactics. Dunkerque evacuation> about 335,000 out of 400,000 Allied soldiers rescued from Belgium by British civilian and naval craft(May 26–June 3).Italy declares war on France and Britain; invades France(June 10).Germans enter Paris; city undefended(June 14).France and Germany sign armistice at Compiègne(June 22).Nazis bomb Coventry, England(Nov. 14). 1941 Germans launch attacks in Balkans. Yugoslavia surrenders—General Mihajlovic continues guerrilla warfare; Tito leads left-wing guerrillas(April 17).Nazi tanks enter Athens; remnants of British Army quit Greece(April 27).Hitler attacks Russia(June 22).Atlantic Charter—FDR and Churchill agree on war aims(Aug. 14).Japanese attacks on Pearl Harbor, Philippines, Guam force U.S. into war; U.S. Pacific fleet crippled(Dec. 7).U.S. and Britain declare war on Japan. Germany and Italy declare war on U.S.; Congress declares war on those countries(Dec. 11). 1942 British surrender Singapore to Japanese(Feb. 15).Roosevelt orders Japanese and Japanese Americans in western U.S. to be exiled to “relocation centers,” many for the remainder of the war(Feb. 19).U.S. forces on Bataan peninsula in Philippines surrender(April 9).U.S. and Filipino troops on Corregidor island in Manila Bay surrender to Japanese(May 6).Village of Lidice in Czechoslovakia razed by Nazis(June 10).U.S. and Britain land in French North Africa(Nov. 8). 1943 Casablanca Conference—Churchill and FDR agree on unconditional surrender goal(Jan. 14–24).German 6th Army surrenders at Stalingrad—turning point of war in Russia(Feb. 1–2).Remnants of Nazis trapped on Cape Bon, ending war in Africa(May 12).Mussolini deposed; Badoglio named premier(July 25).Allied troops land on Italian mainland after conquest of Sicily(Sept. 3).Italy surrenders(Sept. 8).Nazis seize Rome(Sept. 10).Cairo Conference: FDR, Churchill, Chiang Kai-shek pledge defeat of Japan, free Korea(Nov. 22–26).Tehran Conference: FDR, Churchill, Stalin agree on invasion plans(Nov. 28–Dec. 1). 1944 U.S. and British troops land at Anzio on west Italian coast and hold beachhead(Jan. 22).U.S. and British troops enter Rome(June 4).D-Day—Allies launch Normandy invasion(June 6).Hitler wounded in bomb plot(July 20).Paris liberated(Aug. 25).Athens freed by Allies(Oct. 13).Americans invade Philippines(Oct. 20).Germans launch counteroffensive in Belgium—Battle of the Bulge(Dec. 16). 1945 Yalta Agreement signed by FDR, Churchill, Stalin—establishes basis for occupation of Germany, returns to Soviet Union lands taken by Germany and Japan; USSR agrees to friendship pact with China(Feb. 11).Mussolini killed at Lake Como(April 28).Admiral Doenitz takes command in Germany; suicide of Hitler announced(May 1).Berlin falls(May 2).Germany signs unconditional surrender terms at Rheims(May 7).Allies declare V-E Day(May 8).Potsdam Conference—Truman, Churchill, Atlee (afterJuly 28), Stalin establish council of foreign ministers to prepare peace treaties; plan German postwar government and reparations(July 17–Aug. 2).A-bomb dropped on Hiroshima by U.S.(Aug. 6).USSR declares war on Japan(Aug. 8).Nagasaki hit by A-bomb(Aug. 9).Japan agrees to surrender(Aug. 14).V-J Day—Japanese sign surrender terms aboard battleshipMissouri(Sept. 2).

The Holocaust (1933–1945) “Holocaust” is the term describing the Nazi annihilation of about 6 million Jews (two thirds of the pre-World War II European Jewish population), including 4,500,000 from Russia, Poland, and the Baltic; 750,000 from Hungary and Romania; 290,000 from Germany and Austria; 105,000 from The Netherlands; 90,000 from France; 54,000 from Greece. The Holocaust was unique in its beinggenocide—the systematic destruction of a people solely because of religion, race, ethnicity, nationality, or sexual preference—on an unmatched scale. Along with the Jews, another 9 to 10 million people—Gypsies, Slavs (Poles, Ukrainians, and Belarussians), homosexuals, and the disabled—were exterminated. 1933 Hitler named German Chancellor(Jan.).Dachau, first concentration camp, established(March).Boycotts against Jews begin(April). 1935 Anti-Semitic Nuremberg Laws passed by Reichstag; Jews lose citizenship and civil rights(Sept.). 1937 Buchenwald concentration camp opens(July). 1938 Extension of anti-Semitic laws to Austria after annexation(March).Kristallnacht(Night of Broken Glass)—anti-Semitic riots and destruction of Jewish institutions in Germany and Austria(Nov. 9).26,000 Jews sent to concentration camps; Jewish children expelled from schools(Nov. 9–10).Expropriation of Jewish property and businesses(Dec.). 1940 As war continues, Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing squads) follow German army into conquered lands, rounding up and massacring Jews and other “undesirables.” 1941 Goering instructs Heydrich to carry out the “final solution to the Jewish question”(July 31).Deportation of German Jews begins; massacres of Jews in Odessa and Kiev(Nov.);and in Riga and Vilna(Dec.). 1942 Mass killings using Zyklon-B begin at Auschwitz-Birkenau(Jan.).Nazi leaders attend Wannsee Conference to coordinate the “final solution”(Jan. 20).100,000 Jews from Warsaw Ghetto deported to Treblinka death camp(July). 1943 Warsaw Ghetto uprisings(Jan.andApril);Ghetto exterminated(May). 1944 476,000 Hungarian Jews sent to Auschwitz(May–June).D-day(June 6).Soviet Army liberates Maidanek death camp(July).Nazis try to hide evidence of death camps(Nov.). 1945 As Allies advance, Nazis force concentration camp inmates on death marches. Americans liberate Buchenwald and British liberate Bergen-Belsen camps(April).Nuremberg War Crimes Trial(Nov. 1945–Oct. 1946).

World War I (1914–1918) Imperial, territorial, and economic rivalries led to the “Great War” between the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey) and the Allies (U.S., Britain, France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Romania, Montenegro, Portugal, Italy, and Japan). About 10 million combatants killed, 20 million wounded. 1914 Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and wife assassinated in Sarajevo by Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip(June 28).Austria declares war on Serbia(July 28).Germany declares war on Russia(Aug. 1),on France(Aug. 3),invades Belgium(Aug. 4).Britain declares war on Germany(Aug. 4).Germans defeat Russians in Battle of Tannenberg on Eastern Front(Aug.).First Battle of the Marne(Sept.).German drive stopped 25 miles from Paris. By end of year, war on the Western Front is “positional” in the trenches. 1915 German submarine blockade of Great Britain begins(Feb.).Dardanelles Campaign—British land in Turkey(April),withdraw from Gallipoli(Dec.–Jan. 1916).Germans use gas at second Battle of Ypres(April–May).Lusitaniasunk by German submarine—1,198 lost, including 128 Americans(May 7).On Eastern Front, German and Austrian “great offensive” conquers all of Poland and Lithuania; Russians lose 1 million men (bySept. 6). “Great Fall Offensive” by Allies results in little change from 1914(Sept.–Oct.).Britain and France declare war on Bulgaria(Oct. 14). 1916 Battle of Verdun—Germans and French each lose about 350,000 men(Feb.).Extended submarine warfare begins(March).British-German sea battle of Jutland(May);British lose more ships, but German fleet never ventures forth again. On Eastern Front, the Brusilov offensive demoralizes Russians, costs them 1 million men(June–Sept.).Battle of the Somme—British lose over 400,000; French, 200,000; Germans, about 450,000; all with no strategic results(July–Nov.).Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary(Aug. 27).Bucharest captured(Dec.). 1917 U.S. declares war on Germany(April 6).Submarine warfare at peak(April).On Italian Front, Battle of Caporetto—Italians retreat, losing 600,000 prisoners and deserters(Oct.–Dec.).On Western Front, Battles of Arras, Champagne, Ypres (third battle), etc. First large British tank attack(Nov.).U.S. declares war on Austria-Hungary(Dec. 7).Armistice between new Russian Bolshevik government and Germans(Dec. 15). 1918 Great offensive by Germans(March–June).Americans' first important battle role at Château-Thierry—as they and French stop German advance(June).Second Battle of the Marne(July–Aug.)—start of Allied offensive at Amiens, St. Mihiel, etc. Battles of the Argonne and Ypres panic German leadership(Sept.–Oct.).British offensive in Palestine(Sept.).Germans ask for armistice(Oct. 4).British armistice with Turkey(Oct.).German Kaiser abdicates(Nov.).Hostilities cease on Western Front(Nov. 11).

1999 World History Thabo Mbeki (1942–) Eileen Collins (1956– ) NASA 1999 U.S. agrees to ease restrictions on Cuba(Jan. 4).Dennis Hastert elected to replace Newt Gingrich as Speaker of the House(Jan. 6).NBA ends 191-day labor dispute(Jan. 6).International Olympic Committee expels six members as bribery scandal widens(Jan. 24).King Hussein of Jordan dies(Feb. 7).Senate acquits President Clinton of impeachment charges(Feb. 12).Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo elected president of Nigeria(Feb. 28).First nonstop balloon flight around world completed in 20 days by Bertrand Piccard (Switzerland) and Brian Jones (UK)(March 1–20).Marine pilot acquitted in killing of 20 in 1998 Italian ski gondola accident; Italians outraged(March 4).U.S. accuses China of stealing nuclear secrets(March 5).Joe DiMaggio dies at age 84(March 8). Czech Republic, Poland, and Hungary join NATO(March 12).NATO launches air strikes on Serbia to end attacks against ethnic Albanians in Kosovo(March 24).Dr. Jack Kevorkian convicted of second-degree murder in assisted-suicide case(March 26).“Melissa” computer virus spreads through the Internet(March 27).Libya hands over two suspects in 1988 Pan Am jet bombing(April 5).Two Colo. students go on shooting spree in ColumbineHigh School, killing 15, including themselves(April 20).NATO bombs mistakenly hit Chinese embassy in Belgrade(May 7).Citadel graduates its first woman(May 8).Crime rate in U.S. falls for seventh consecutive year(May 16).Ehud Barak defeats Benjamin Netanyahu in Israeli prime minister election(May 17).U.S. inspects suspected nuclear weapons site in North Korea, finds nothing(May 20–24).Serbs sign agreement to pull troops out of Kosovo after 11 weeks of NATO air attacks(June 9).Nelson Mandela retires as president of South Africa; succeeded by Thabo Mbeki(June 16).Britain's Prince Edward marries Sophie Rhys-Jones(June 19). Kurdleader Abdullah Ocalan sentenced to death for treason in Turkey(June 29).White supremacist goes on shooting spree in Midwest, killing three including self and wounding eight(July 2–5).U.S. soccer team tops China for women's World Cup(July 10).Taiwanese leader Lee Teng-hui challenges “One China” policy(July 11).Serial killer Rafael Reséndez-Ramirez surrenders himself to U.S. authorities(July 13). John F. Kennedy, Jr., wife Carolyn Bessette Kennedy, and sister-in-law Lauren Bessette killed in plane crash off coast of Martha's Vineyard(July 16).Col. Eileen Collins becomes first female to head a space shuttle mission(July 16).Falun Gong meditation sect banned by Chinese government(July 22).Day-trader kills 9 and wounds 13 in two Atlanta brokerage offices before committing suicide(July 29).Yeltsin replaces Prime Minister Stepashin with Vladimir Putin in fourth government shakeup in 17 months(Aug. 9).Islamic militants declare independence for Dagestanand announce holy war against Russia(Aug. 10).White supremacist opens fire at Jewish community center in LA, wounding five and killing one as he flees(Aug. 10).More than 17,000 people die in 7.4 earthquake in Turkey(Aug. 17).Attorney General Janet Reno reopens investigation of 1993 Waco, Tex., stand-off(Aug. 25).People of East Timorvote for independence from Indonesia(Aug. 31).Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and PLO leader Yasir Arafat announce peace accord(Sept. 4).Larry Gene Ashbrook goes on rampage in Tex. church, killing seven and himself(Sept. 15).NASA accidentally loses $125 million spacecraft as it orbits Mars(Sept. 23).Dozens of people exposed to radiation in Japan's worst nuclear accident(Sept. 30).Russia sends ground troops to Chechnya as conflict with Islamic militants intensifies(Oct. 1).World population reaches six billion milestone(Oct. 11).Military coup led by Gen. Pervez Musharraf overthrows Pakistani government(Oct. 12).Tobacco companies admit to harm caused by cigarette smoking(Oct. 13).Senate rejects 1996 nuclear test-ban treaty; international leaders upset by U.S. stand(Oct. 13).Indonesia elects Muslim leader Abdurrahman Wahidpresident(Oct. 20).Pro golfer Payne Stewart and five others killed in plane crash(Oct. 25).EgyptAir flight crashes over Atlantic, killing all 217 on board(Oct. 31).Judge finds Microsoft to be a monopoly(Nov. 5).U.S. and China reach landmark trade agreement(Nov. 15).China launches first spacecraft(Nov. 21).Five-year-old Cuban refugee Elián González gets caught in politically charged custody battle(Nov. 25).World Trade Organization conference disrupted by violent protests in Seattle (Nov. 29et seq.). New Northern Ireland government begins self-rule for first time in 25 years(Dec. 2).Muslim terrorists hijack Indian Airlines jet with 189 on board(Dec. 24).

1998 World History 1998 Ramzi Ahmed Yousef sentenced to life for 1993 World Trade Center bombing(Jan. 9).Pope John Paul II visits Cuba(Jan. 21–25).President accused in White House sex scandal; denies allegations of affair with White House intern, Monica Lewinsky (Jan. 21et seq.). President outlines first balanced budget in 30 years(Feb. 3).U.S. plane cuts ski cable in Italy and sends car plunging; 20 killed(Feb. 3).Thousands dead in Afghanistan quake (Feb. 4et seq.). U.S. court rules line-item veto unconstitutional(Feb. 12).Serbs battle ethnic Albanians in Kosovo(March 5et seq.). U.S. drops condemnation of China's human rights record(March 13).Hindu nationalist Vajpayee becomes India's prime minister(March 19).FDA approves Viagra, male impotence drug(March 27).Federal judge in Arkansas throws out Paula Jones case(April 1).Landmark peace settlement, the Good Friday Accord, reached in Northern Ireland(April 10).U.S. trade deficit biggest in decade(April 17).Europeans agree on single currency, the euro(May 3).Unabomber, Theodore Kaczynski, sentenced to four life terms(May 4).India conducts three atomic tests despite worldwide disapproval(May 11, 13).Indonesian dictator Suhartosteps down after 32 years in power(May 21).Pakistan stages five nuclear tests in response to India's(May 29, 30).Serbs renew attack on Kosovo rebels(June 1).Life sentence meted out to Terry Nichols, convicted in Oklahoma City bombing fatal to 168(June 4).Nigerian dictator Sani Abacha dies(June 8).Congress votes to overhaul IRS(July 9).Iraq ends cooperation with UN arms inspectors(Aug. 5).U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzaniabombed(Aug. 7).Clinton admits to affair with White House intern in televised address to nation(Aug. 17).Russia fights to avert financial collapse(Aug. 17).U.S. cruise missiles hit suspected terrorist bases in Sudan and Afghanistan(Aug. 20).North Korea fires missile across Japan(Aug. 31).Swissair jet crashes; kills 229(Sept. 2).Starr Report by independent counsel outlines case for impeachment proceedings against president(Sept. 11).Senate sustains veto of bill to outlaw late-term abortions(Sept. 18).Iran lifts death threat against Salman Rushdie(Sept. 24).German chancellor Helmut Kohl defeated by Gerhard Schröder(Sept. 27).U.S. budget surplus largest in three decades(Oct. 5).Matthew Shepard, gay Wyoming student, fatally beaten in hate crime(Oct. 6).NATO, on verge of air strikes, reaches settlement with Milosevic on Kosovo(Oct. 12).Former Chilean dictator Pinochet arrested in London(Oct. 16). Wye Mills Agreementbetween Netanyahu and Arafat moves Middle East peace talks forward(Oct. 23).More than 10,000 die in Central American hurricane, Mitch(Nov. 1).Democrats unexpectedly gain five House seats in national election; Republicans keep control of House and Senate(Nov. 3).House Speaker Gingrich to step down(Nov. 9).House panel drafts impeachment charges; votes along party lines to approve four articles(Dec. 11–12).Clinton orders air strikes on Iraq(Dec. 16–19).House impeaches President Clinton along party lines on two charges, perjury and obstruction of justice(Dec. 19).

1997 World History Hale-Bopp Comet NASA Mother Teresa (1910–1997) Archive Photos Princess Diana (1961–1997) Archive Photos 1997 Two Hutu sentenced to death in Rwandan genocide(Jan. 3).Floods cause wide damage in U.S. West(Jan. 5).Newt Gingrich reelected as House Speaker(Jan. 7).Hebron agreement signed; Israel gives up large part of West Bank city of Hebron(Jan. 16).U.S. shuttle joins Russian space station(Jan. 17).Gingrich found guilty of ethics violations(Jan. 17).President Clinton starts second term(Jan. 20).U.S., U.K., and France agree to freeze Nazis' gold loot(Feb. 3).O. J. Simpson found liable in civil suit(Feb. 5).Deng Xiaoping, Chinese leader, dead at 92(Feb. 19).Israeli government approves establishment of Jewish settlement in East Jerusalem, a setback in Middle East peace process(Feb. 26). Tornadoeswreak havoc in Arkansas, Ohio, and Kentucky(March 3).State of anarchy in Albania when third of population loses savings because of pyramid schemes(March 13). Hale-Bopp cometis the closest it will be to Earth until 4397(March 22). Heaven's Gatecult members commit mass suicide in California(March 27).U.S. Appeals Court upholds California ban on affirmative action(April 8).U.S. judge upholds California marijuana law(April 11). Tiger Woodsbreaks multiple records in Masters golf tournament(April 13).Fire kills 300 pilgrims outside Mecca(April 15).Senate, 74–26, approves chemical-weapons treaty(April 24).Thousands flee North Dakota flood(April 27).Sergeant Major of the Army, Gene C. McKinney, charged in sex cases(May 7).Russian president Yeltsin signs Chechnya peace treaty(May 12).U.S.-Russian spaceship linkup in orbit ends(May 21).U.S. jobless rate for May reported 4.8%, lowest since 1973(June 6).European Union bolsters currency merger(June 16).Congress votes major tax cuts(June 26).Hong Kong returns to Chinese rule(June 30).U.S. spacecraft begins exploration of Mars(July 4).Andrew Cunanan murders fashion designer Gianni Versace(July 15). Khmer Rougehold trial of longtime leader Pol Pot(July 25).White House and GOP agree on measure to balance budget(July 28).U.S. spacecraft transmits thousands of pictures from Mars(Aug. 8).Clinton exercises new line-item veto(Aug. 11).Timothy J. McVeigh sentenced to death for Oklahoma City bombing(Aug. 14).Princess Diana, 36, killed with two others in Paris car crash(Aug. 31).Three Islamic suicide bombers kill four persons in Jerusalem(Sept. 4). Mother Teresadead at 87(Sept. 5).Swiss plan first payment to Holocaust victims(Sept. 17).Militant Taliban leaders seize Kabul(Sept. 27).Iraq expels all U.S. members of UN arms-inspection team(Oct. 29).GOP victorious in off-year elections(Nov. 4).Pakistani convicted in 1993 CIA killings(Nov. 10).Two convicted in New York World Trade Center bombing(Nov. 12).Egyptian Islamic militants kill 62 at Luxor tourist site(Nov. 17).FBI ends 16-month investigation of crash of Flight 800 off Long Island; denies sabotage(Nov. 18).European Union plans to admit six nations(Dec. 13).U.S. company launches first commercial spy satellite(Dec. 24).Paris court convicts “Carlos the Jackal” of murder(Dec. 24).

1995 World History Seamus Heaney (1939– ) Archive Photos William J. Clinton (1946– ) The White House Yitzhak Rabin (1922–1995) Archive Photos 1995 Republicans take control of Congress(Jan. 4).More than 5,000 dead in Japanese earthquake(Jan. 17et seq.). Criminal trial of O. J. Simpsonopens in California(Jan. 24).U.S. rescues Mexico's economy with $20-billion aid program(Feb. 21).Senate rejects balanced-budget amendment(March 2).Nerve gas attack in Tokyo subway kills eight and injures thousands. The Aum Shinrikyo(“Supreme Truth”) cult is to blame(March 20).Major League Baseball strike ends(April 2).Appeals court upholds woman's plea to enter Citadelmilitary academy(April 13).UN Council votes easier sanctions for Iraq(April 14).Scores killed as terrorist's car bombblows up block-long Oklahoma City federal building(April 19); Timothy McVeigh, 27, Army veteran, arrested as suspect(April 21);authorities seek second suspect, link right-wing paramilitary groups to bombing(April 22).Death toll 2,000 in Rwandamassacre(April 22).Fighting escalates in Bosniaand Croatia(May 1).U.S. shuttle docks with Russian space station(June 27).F.B.I. suspends four in Idaho siege inquiry(Aug. 11).France explodes nuclear device in Pacific; wide protests ensue(Sept. 5).Senator Bob Packwood of Oregon resigns under pressure for sexual and official misconduct(Sept. 6).Israelis and Palestinians agree on transferring West Bank to Arabs(Sept. 24).Los Angeles jury finds O. J. Simpson not guilty of murder charges(Oct. 3).Pope John Paul IIvisits U.S. on whirlwind tour(Oct. 4–8).Warring parties agree on cease-fire in Bosnia(Oct. 5).Million Man March draws hundreds of thousands of black men to capital(Oct. 16).Quebec narrowly rejects independence from Canada(Oct. 30).Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabinslain by Jewish extremist at peace rally(Nov. 4).U.S. servicemen admit rape of Japanese schoolgirl in Okinawa(Nov. 7). Nigeriahangs writer Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other minority rights advocates(Nov. 10).Irish voters approve end to constitutional ban on divorce(Nov. 24).Combatants sign Bosnia peace treaty(Dec. 14).House move stalls Congress–White House negotiations to avert government shutdown(Dec. 20). Seamus Heaneywins Nobel prizefor literature.

1996 World History Ella Fitzgerald (1918–1996) Archive Photos Madeleine Albright (1937– ) U.S. State Department Kofi Annan (1938– ) United Nations 1996 U.S. budget crisis in fourth month(Jan. 3).Clinton approves resumption of many government operations(Jan. 6).Senate ratifies major arms reduction treaty(Jan. 26). Franceannounces end to nuclear tests(Jan. 29).At least 73 dead in Sri Lankan suicide bombing(Feb. 1).Suicide bombers kill 59 in Israel(March 4).Bob Dole sweeps Republican primaries(March 5).Britain alarmed by deadly cow disease (March 20et seq.). UN tribunal charges war crimes by Bosnian Muslims and Croats(March 22).Commerce Secretary Ronald H. Brown killed in plane crash(April 3).FBI arrests suspected Unabomber(April 3).Clinton signs line-item veto bill(April 9).President blocks ban on late-term abortions(April 10).ValuJet crashes in Everglades; all 110 aboard killed(May 11). Chechnyapeace treaty signed(May 27).Israel elects Benjamin Netanyahuas prime minister(May 31). Chinaagrees to world ban on atomic testing(June 6).Leaders in Balkans sign accord on arms limits(June 14).Jazz great Ella Fitzgeralddies(June 15).Truck bomb kills 19 at U.S. base in Saudi Arabia(June 25). Boris Yeltsinis reelected in Russian election(July 3).Prince Charlesand Princess Dianaagree on divorce(July 12).747 airliner crashesin Atlantic off Long Island; all 230 aboard perish(July 17).Bomb mars Summer Olympic games in Atlanta(July 25).Clinton signs bill to raise minimum wage(Aug. 2).Congress passes welfare reform bill(Aug. 2);approved by Clinton(Aug. 22).Republican convention opens in San Diego(Aug. 12);Bob Dole and Jack Kemp nominated(Aug. 14).Democrats convene in Chicago(Aug. 26).Iraqis strike at Kurdish enclave(Aug. 31);after warning, U.S. attacks Iraq's southern air defenses(Sept. 2–3);Iraq halts attacks on U.S. planes enforcing flight exclusion zones in north and south(Sept. 13).Violence flares in Jerusalem over Israel opening tourist tunnel(Sept. 24).Taliban Muslim fundamentalists capture Afghancapital(Sept. 27).Ethnic violence breaks out in Zairian refugee camps(Oct. 13);thousands of refugees from Rwanda and Burundi abandon camps(Oct. 21).Clinton-Gore ticket wins national election; Republicans retain control of Congress(Nov. 5).Mid-air collision in India kills 342(Nov. 12).Texaco settles racial bias suit(Nov. 15).Hundreds of thousands of Hutu refugees return to Rwanda(Nov. 15–18).Clinton appoints Madeleine Albrightas first female U.S. secretary of state(Dec. 5). Kofi Annannamed UN secretary-general(Dec. 13).FBI agent charged with spying for Moscow(Dec. 18).Thousands march in Belgrade in continuing protest against president's annulment of election results(Dec. 26).

1993 World History Toni Morrison (1931– ) Archive Photos Ruth Bader Ginsburg (1933– ) U.S. Supreme Court 1993 Vaclav Havelelected as Czechpresident(Jan. 26).Clinton agrees to compromise on military's ban on homosexuals(Jan. 29).U.S. begins airlift of supplies to besieged Bosniatowns(Feb. 28).Federal agents besiege Texas Branch Davidianreligious cult after six are killed in raid (March 1et seq.). Five arrested, sixth sought in bombing of World Trade Center in New York(March 29).Two police officers convicted on federal civil rights charges in Rodney King beating(April 17);sentenced(Aug. 4).Fire kills 72 as cult standoff in Texas ends with federal assault(April 19).President of Sri Lankaassassinated(May 1).British Commons approves European unity pact(May 20).Twenty-two UN troops killed in Somalia(June 5). Ruth Bader Ginsburgappointed to Supreme Court(June 14).Iraq accepts UN weapons monitoring(July 19).Vincent W. Foster, Jr., senior White House lawyer, commits suicide(July 22).Midwest flood damage expected to exceed $10 billion(July 24). Israeli-Palestinianaccord reached(Aug. 28).U.S. agents blamed in Waco, Tex., siege(Oct. 1). Yeltsin's forces crush revolt in Russian Parliament (Oct. 4et seq.). Chinabreaks nuclear test moratorium(Oct. 5). Canada's opposition Liberal Party regains power in landslide(Oct. 25).Europe's Maastricht Treaty takes effect, creating European Union(Nov. 1).Jean Chretien sworn in as Canada's 20th prime minister(Nov. 4).House of Representatives approves North American Free Trade Agreement(Nov. 17);Senate follows(Nov. 21). South Africaadopts majority rule constitution(Nov. 18).Clinton signs Brady bill regulating firearms purchases(Nov. 30). Toni Morrisonwins Nobel prizefor literature.

1994 World History Nelson Mandela (1918– ) AMW Pressedienst/Archive Photos Jean-Bertrand Aristide (1953– ) Consolidated News/Archive Photos 1994 Serbs' heavy weapons pound Sarajevo(Jan. 5–6).Olympic figure skater Nancy Kerriganattacked(Jan. 6);three arrested in attack(Jan. 13).Major earthquake jolts Los Angeles; 51 dead(Jan. 17et seq.). Clintonends trade embargo on Vietnam(Feb. 9). Aldrich Ames, high C.I.A. official, charged with spying for Soviets(Feb. 22).Four convicted in World Trade Center bombing(March 4). Mexicanpresidential candidate assassinated(March 23). Rwandangenocide of Tutsis by Hutus begins; estimated 800,000 slaughtered in c. 100 days(April 6). South Africaholds first interracial national election(April 29); Nelson Mandelaelected president. Israel and Palestinianssign accord(May 4).Clinton accused of sexual harassment while governor of Arkansas(May 6).Congress votes protection for women's health clinics(May 12). O. J. Simpsonarrested in killings of wife, Nicole Brown Simpson, and friend, Ronald Goldman(June 18).Supreme Court approves limit on abortion protests(June 30).Senate confirms Stephen G. Breyerfor Supreme Court(July 29).Women's health clinic doctor shot dead outside Florida clinic(July 29).Major league baseball players strike(Aug. 13).“Carlos the Jackal,” international terrorist, captured(Aug. 15). IRAdeclares cease-fire in Northern Ireland(Aug. 31).Small plane crashes into White House(Sept. 12).Baseball owners end season and cancel World Series(Sept. 14).Powerful earthquakestrikes Japan(Oct. 4). Aristidereturns to joyous Haiti(Oct. 4).U.S. sends forces to Persian Gulf(Oct. 7).Ulster Protestants declare cease-fire(Oct. 13).Israel and Jordan sign peace treaty(Oct. 17). Reagan, 83, reveals he has Alzheimer's disease(Nov. 6).G.O.P. wins control of House and Senate(Nov. 8).Aristide forms Haitian government with prime minister and full cabinet(Nov. 9).Clinton orders Bosnian arms embargo ended(Nov. 10).Newt Gingrich named House Speaker(Dec. 5). Bentsenresigns as Treasury Secretary(Dec. 6).Russians attack secessionist Republic of Chechnya(Dec. 11et seq.). John Salvi kills two at Massachusetts Planned Parenthood clinic(Dec. 30).

1991 World History Boris Yeltsin (1931–2007) Imapress/Archive Photos 1991 U.S. and Allies at war with Iraq(Jan. 15). Warsaw Pactdissolves military alliance(Feb. 25).Cease-fire ends Persian Gulf War; UN forces are victorious(April 3).Europeans end sanctions on South Africa(April 15).Supreme Court limits death row appeals(April 16).Winnie Mandela sentenced in kidnapping(May 13).William H. Webster retires as director of CIA; Robert H. Gates succeeds him(May 14).France agrees to sign 1968 treaty banning spread of atomic weapons(June 3).Communist government of Albaniaresigns(June 4). Jiang Qing, widow of Mao, commits suicide(June 4).South African Parliament repeals apartheidlaws(June 5).Warsaw Pact dissolved(July 1).Boris N. Yeltsininaugurated as first freely elected president of Russian Republic(July 10).Bush-Gorbachev summit negotiates strategic arms reduction treaty(July 31).China accepts nuclear nonproliferation treaty(Aug. 10). Lithuania, Estonia, and Latviawin independence(Aug. 25);Bush recognizes them(Sept. 2).Haitian troops seize president in uprising(Sept. 30).U.S. suspends assistance to Haiti(Oct. 1).Professor Anita Hill accuses Judge Clarence Thomasof sexual harassment(Oct. 6);Senate, 52–48, confirms Thomas for Supreme Court after stormy hearings(Oct. 15). Israeland Soviet Union resume relations after 24 years(Oct. 18).U.S. indicts two Libyans in 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland(Nov. 15).Anglican envoy Terry Waite and U.S. Prof. Thomas M. Sutherland freed by Lebanese(Nov. 18).Last three U.S. hostages freed in Lebanon(Dec. 2–4). Soviet Unionbreaks up after President Gorbachev's resignation; constituent republics form Commonwealth of Independent States(Dec. 25).

1992 World History 1992 Yugoslav Federationbroken up(Jan. 15). Bushand Yeltsinproclaim formal end to cold war(Feb. 1).U.S. lifts trade sanctions against China(Feb. 21).U.S. recognizes three former Yugoslav republics(April 7).Gen. Noriega, former Panama leader, convicted in U.S. court(April 9).Four police officers acquitted in Los Angeles beating of Rodney King; rioting erupts in South-Central Los Angeles (April 29et seq.). Caspar W. Weinberger indicted in Iran-Contraaffair(June 16).Last Western hostages freed in Lebanon(June 17).Supreme Court reaffirms right to abortion(June 29).Democrats nominate Bill Clintonand Al Gore(July 1).Gen. Noriega sentenced to 40 years on drug charges(July 10).Court clearsExxon Valdezskipper(July 10).Israeli Parliament approves Yitzhak Rabin's coalition government, dominated by Labor Party(July 13).Police officers acquitted in April on criminal charges in Rodney King beating are indicted on federal civil rights charges(Aug. 5).North American trade compact announced(Aug. 12).Republicans renominate Bush and Quayle(Aug. 20).UN expels Serbian-dominated Yugoslavia(Sept. 22).Senate ratifies second Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty(Oct. 1).Top Japanese leader, Shin Kanemaru, resigns in scandal(Oct. 14).Bill Clinton elected president, Al Gore vice president; Democrats keep control of Congress(Nov. 3).Russian Parliament approves START treaty(Nov. 4).U.S. forces leave Philippines, ending nearly a century of American military presence(Nov. 24). CzechoslovakParliament approves separation into two nations(Nov. 25).UN approves U.S.-led force to guard food for Somalia(Dec. 3). Princeand Princess of Walesagree to separate(Dec. 9).Bush pardons former Reagan administration officials involved in Iran-Contra affair(Dec. 24).

1988 World History François Mitterrand (1916–1996) The French Consulate, Boston Benazir Bhutto (1953–2007) Muzammil Paha/Reuters/Archive Photos 1988 U.S. and Canada reach free trade agreement(Jan. 2).Robert C. McFarlane, former National Security Adviser, pleads guilty in Iran-Contracase(March 11).U.S. Navy ship shoots down Iranian airliner in Persian Gulf, mistaking it for jet fighter; 290 killed(July 3).Terrorists kill nine tourists on Aegean cruise(July 11).Democratic convention nominates Gov. Michael Dukakisof Massachusetts for president and Texas senator Lloyd Bentsenfor vice president (July 17et seq.). Republicans nominate George Bushfor president and Indiana senator Dan Quaylefor vice president (Aug. 15et seq.). Plane blast kills Pakistani president Mohammad Zia ul-Haq(Aug. 17).Republicans sweep 40 states in election. Bush beats Dukakis(Nov. 8). Benazir Bhutto, first Islamic woman prime minister, chosen to lead Pakistan(Dec. 2).Pan-Am 747 explodes from terrorist bomband crashes in Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 aboard and 11 on ground(Dec. 21).

1989 World History General Colin Powell (1937– ) U.S. Army Photos Dalai Lama (1935– ) Priscilla Lee Mikhail S. Gorbachev (1931– ) Novosti Photos George Bush (1924– ) The Republican National Committee 1989 U.S. planes shoot down two Libyan fighters over international waters in Mediterranean(Jan. 4).Emperor Hirohitoof Japan dead at 87(Jan. 7). George Herbert Walker Bushinaugurated as 41st U.S. president(Jan. 20).Iran's Ayatollah Khomeinideclares author Salman Rushdie's bookThe Satanic Versesoffensive and sentences him to death(Feb. 14).Ruptured tankerExxon Valdezsends 11 million gallons of crude oil into Alaska's Prince William Sound(March 24).Tens of thousands of Chinese students take over Beijing's Tiananmen Squarein rally for democracy (April 19et seq.). U.S. jury convicts Oliver Northin Iran-Contraaffair(May 4).More than one million in Beijing demonstrate for democracy; chaos spreads across nation (mid-Mayet seq.). Mikhail S. Gorbachevnamed Soviet president(May 25).Thousands killed in Tiananmen Square as Chinese leaders take hard line toward demonstrators (June 4et seq.). Army general Colin R. Powellis first black chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff(Aug. 9). P. W. Bothaquits as South Africa's president(Aug. 14).Voyager 2spacecraft speeds by Neptuneafter making startling discoveries about the planet and its moons(Aug. 29). Deng Xiaopingresigns from China's leadership(Nov. 9).After 28 years, Berlin Wallis open to West(Nov. 11).Czech Parliament ends Communists' dominant role(Nov. 30).Romanian uprising overthrows Communist government (Dec. 15et seq.); President Ceausescuand wife executed(Dec. 25).U.S. troops invade Panama, seeking capture of Gen. Manuel Noriega(Dec. 20);resistance to U.S. collapses(Dec. 24). Dalai Lamawins Nobel Peace Prize.

1990 World History Lech Walesa (1943– ) Archive Photos Hubble Space Telescope NASA 1990 World Wide Web debuts, popularizes Internet. Gen. Manuel Noriegasurrenders in Panama(Jan. 3). YugoslavCommunists end 45-year monopoly of power(Jan. 22). Soviet Communistsrelinquish sole power(Feb. 7). South Africafrees Nelson Mandela, imprisoned 271/2 years(Feb. 11). Violeta Barrios de Chamorroinaugurated as Nicaraguan president. Hubble Space Telescopelaunched(April 25).U.S.-Soviet summit reaches accord on armaments(June 1).Western Alliance ends cold warand proposes joint action with Soviet Union and Eastern Europe(July 6).U.S. Appeals Court overturns Oliver North's Iran-Contraconviction(July 20).Iraqi troops invade Kuwait and seize petroleum reserves, setting off Persian Gulf War(For detailed chronology, see The Persian Gulf War.) (Aug. 2et seq.). East and West Germanyreunited(Oct. 3).Republicans set back in midterm elections(Nov. 8). Gorbachevassumes emergency powers(Nov. 17).Leaders of 34 nations in Europe and North America proclaim a united Europe(Nov. 21).Margaret Thatcherresigns as British prime minister(Nov. 22); John Majorsucceeds her(Nov. 28).Lech Walesawins Poland's runoff presidential election(Dec. 9). Haitielects leftist priest as president in first democratic election(Dec. 17).

1986 World History Corazon Aquino (1933– ) Embassy of the Philippines William Rehnquist (1924–2005) Archive Photos Yoweri Museveni (1944– ) Archive Photos 1986 Spain and Portugal join European Economic Community(Jan. 1).President freezes Libyan assets in U.S.(Jan. 8).Supreme Court bars racial bias in trial jury selection(Jan. 14). Voyager 2spacecraft reports secrets of Uranus(Jan. 26).Space shuttle Challengerexplodes after launch at Cape Canaveral, Fla., killing all seven aboard(Jan. 28).Haiti president Jean-Claude Duvalierflees to France(Feb. 7).President Marcosflees Philippines after ruling 20 years, as newly elected Corazon Aquinosucceeds him(Feb. 26).Prime Minister Olof Palmeof Sweden shot dead(Feb. 28).Austrian president Kurt Waldheim's service as Nazi army officer revealed(March 3).Union Carbide agrees to settlement with victims of Bhopalgas leak in India(March 22).Halley's cometyields information on return visit(April 10).U.S. planes attack Libyan “terrorist centers”(April 14).Desmond Tutuelected archbishop in South Africa(April 14).Major nuclear accident at Soviet Union's Chernobylpower station alarms world (April 26et seq.). Ex-Navy analyst, Jonathan Jay Pollard, 31, guilty as spy for Israel(June 4).Supreme Court reaffirms abortion rights(June 11). World Courtrules U.S. broke international law in mining Nicaraguan waters(June 27).Supreme Court voids automatic provisions of budget-balancing law(July 7).Jerry A. Whitworth, ex-Navy radioman, convicted as spy(July 24);he is also part of Walker family spy ring. Muslim captors release Rev. Lawrence Martin Jenco(July 26).Senate Judiciary Committee approves William H. Rehnquistas chief justice of U.S.(Aug. 14).House votes arms appropriations bill rejecting administration's “Star Wars” policy(Aug. 15).Three Lutheranchurch groups in U.S. set to merge(Aug. 29).Congress overrides Reagan veto of stiff sanctions against South Africa(Sept. 29andOct. 2).Congress approves immigration bill barring hiring of illegal aliens, with amnesty provision(Oct. 17).Reagan signs $11.7-billion budget reduction measure(Oct. 21).He approves sweeping revision of U.S. tax code(Oct. 22).Democrats triumph in elections, gaining eight seats to win Senate majority(Nov. 4).Secret initiative to send arms to Iran revealed (Nov. 6et seq.); Reagan denies exchanging arms for hostages and halts arms sales(Nov. 19);diversion of funds from arms sales to Nicaraguan Contrasrevealed(Nov. 25).

1987 World History Margaret Thatcher (1925– ) British Information Service 1987 William Buckley, U.S. hostage in Lebanon, reported slain(Jan. 20).Supreme Court rules Rotary Clubsmust admit women(May 4).Iraqi missiles kill 37 in attack on U.S. frigateStarkin Persian Gulf(May 17);Iraqi president apologizes(May 18).Prime Minister Thatcherwins rare third term in Britain(June 11).Supreme Court justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr., retires(June 26).Klaus Barbie, 73, Gestapowartime chief in Lyon, sentenced to life by French court for war crimes(July 4). Oliver North, Jr., tells congressional inquiry higher officials approved his secret Iran-Contraoperations(July 7–10).Admiral John M. Poindexter, former National Security Adviser, testifies he authorized use of Iran arms sale profits to aid Contras(July 15–22).Secretary of State George P. Shultztestifies he was deceived repeatedly on Iran-Contra affair(July 23–24).Defense Secretary Caspar W. Weinberger tells inquiry of official deception and intrigue(July 31, Aug. 3).Reagan says Iran-Contra arms policy went astray and accepts responsibility(Aug. 12).Severe earthquakestrikes Los Angeles, leaving 100 injured and six dead(Oct. 1).Senate, 58–42, rejects Robert H. Borkas Supreme Court justice(Oct. 23).

1984 World History Indira Gandhi (1917–1984) The Permanent Mission of India to the UN 1984 Bell System broken up(Jan. 1).France gets first deliveries of Soviet natural gas(Jan. 1).Syria frees captured U.S. Navy pilot, Lieut. Robert C. Goodman, Jr.(Jan. 3).U.S. and Vatican exchange diplomats after 116-year hiatus(Jan. 10).Reagan orders U.S. Marines withdrawn from Beirut international peacekeeping force(Feb. 7). Yuri V. Andropovdies at 69; Konstantin U. Chernenko, 72, named Soviet Union leader(Feb. 9).Italy and Vatican agree to end Roman Catholicism as state religion(Feb. 18).Reagan ends U.S. role in Beirut by relieving Sixth Fleet from peacekeeping force(March 30).Congress rebukes President Reagan on use of federal funds for mining Nicaraguan harbors(April 10).Soviet Union withdraws from summer Olympic games in U.S., and other bloc nations follow (May 7et seq.). José Napoleón Duarte, moderate, elected president of El Salvador(May 11).Three hundred slain as Indian Army occupies Sikh Golden Temple in Amritsar(June 6).Thirty-ninth Democratic National Convention, in San Francisco, nominates Walter F. Mondale and Geraldine A. Ferraro(July 16–19).Thirty-third Republican National Convention, at Dallas, renominates President Reagan and Vice President Bush(Aug. 20–25). Brian Mulroneyand Conservative party win Canadian election in landslide(Sept. 4).Indian prime minister Indira Gandhiassassinated by two Sikh bodyguards; 1,000 killed in anti-Sikh riots; son Rajivsucceeds her(Oct. 31).President Reagan re-elected in landslide with 59% of vote(Nov. 6).Toxic gas leaks from Union Carbide plant in Bhopal, India, killing 2,000 and injuring 150,000(Dec. 3).

1985 World History 1985 Ronald Reagan, 73, takes oath for second term as 40th president(Jan. 20).General Westmorelandsettles libel action against CBS(Feb. 18).Prime Minister Margaret Thatcheraddresses Congress, endorsing Reagan's policies(Feb. 20).USSR leader Chernenko dies at 73 and is replaced by Mikhail Gorbachev, 54(March 11).Two Shi'ite Muslimgunmen capture TWA airliner with 133 aboard, 104 of them Americans(June 14);39 remaining hostages freed in Beirut(June 30).Supreme Court, 5–4, bars public school teachers from parochial schools(July 1).Arthur James Walker, 50, retired naval officer, convicted by federal judge of participating in Soviet spy ring operated by his brother, John Walker(Aug. 9). P.L.O.terrorists hijackAchille Lauro,Italian cruise ship, with 80 passengers, plus crew(Oct. 7);American, Leon Klinghoffer, killed(Oct. 8); Italian government toppled by political crisis over hijacking(Oct. 16).John A. Walker and son, Michael I. Walker, 22, sentenced in Navy espionage case(Oct. 28).Reagan and Gorbachev meet at summit(Nov. 19);agree to step up arms control talks and renew cultural contacts(Nov. 21).Terrorists seize Egyptian Boeing 737 airliner after takeoff from Athens(Nov. 23);59 dead as Egyptian forces storm plane on Malta(Nov. 24).U.S. budget-balancing bill enacted(Dec. 12).

1980 World History Ronald Reagan (1911–2004) The Republican National Committee 1980 Six U.S. embassy aides escape from Iran with Canadian help(Jan. 29).F.B.I.'s undercover operation “Abscam” (for Arab scam) implicates public officials(Feb. 2).U.S. breaks diplomatic ties with Iran(April 7).Eight U.S. servicemen are killed and five are injured as helicopter and cargo plane collide in abortive desert raid to rescue American hostagesin Tehran(April 25).Supreme Court upholds limits on federal aid for abortions(June 30). Shah of Irandies at 60(July 27). Anastasio Somoza Debayle, ousted Nicaragua ruler, and two aides assassinated in Asunción, Paraguay capital(Sept. 17).Iraq troops hold 90 square miles of Iran after invasion; 8-year Iran-Iraq warbegins(Sept. 19). Ronald Reaganelected president in Republican sweep(Nov. 4).Three U.S. nuns and lay worker found shot in El Salvador(Dec. 4). John Lennonof the Beatles shot dead in New York City(Dec. 8).Smallpox eradicated.

1981 World History Sandra Day O'Connor (1930– ) U.S. Supreme Court 1981 Ronald Reagantakes oath as 40th president(Jan. 20).U.S.-Iran agreement frees 52 hostages held in Tehransince 1979(Jan. 20);hostages welcomed back in U.S.(Jan. 25).President Reagan wounded by gunman, with press secretary and two law-enforcement officers(March 30).Pope John Paul IIwounded by gunman(May 14).Reagan nominates Judge Sandra Day O'Connor, 51, of Arizona, as first woman on Supreme Court(July 7).More than 110 die in collapse of aerial walkways in lobby of Hyatt Regency Hotel in Kansas City; 188 injured(July 18).Air controllers strike, disrupting flights(Aug. 3);government dismisses strikers(Aug. 11). AIDSis first identified.

1982 World History 1982 British overcome Argentina in Falklandswar(April 2–June 15). Israel invades Lebanonin attack on P.L.O.(June 4).John W. Hinckley, Jr., found not guilty because of insanity in shooting of President Reagan(June 21). Alexander M. Haig, Jr., resigns as secretary of state(June 25).Equal Rights Amendment fails ratification(June 30). Princess Grace, 52, dies of injuries when car plunges off mountain road; daughter Stephanie, 17, suffers serious injuries(Sept. 14).Lebanese Christian Phalangists kill hundreds of people in two Palestinian refugee camps in West Beirut(Sept. 15). Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet leader, dies at 75(Nov. 10). Yuri V. Andropov, 68, chosen as successor(Nov. 15).Permanent artificial heart implanted in human for first time in Dr. Barney B. Clark, 61, at University of Utah Medical Center in Salt Lake City(Dec. 2).

1983 World History 1983 Pope John Paul II signs new Roman Catholic code incorporating changes brought about by Second Vatican Council(Jan. 25).Second space shuttle,Challenger,makes successful maiden voyage, which includes the first U.S. space walk in nine years(April 4).U.S. Supreme Court declares many local abortion restrictions unconstitutional(June 15). Sally K. Ride, 32, first U.S. woman astronaut in space as a crew member aboard space shuttleChallenger(June 18).U.S. admits shielding former Nazi Gestapo chief Klaus Barbie, 69, the “butcher of Lyon,” wanted in France for war crimes(Aug. 15).Benigno S. Aquino, Jr., 50, political rival of Philippines president Marcos, slain in Manila(Aug. 21).South Korean Boeing 747 jetliner bound for Seoul apparently strays into Soviet airspace and is shot down by a Soviet SU-15 fighter after it had tracked the airliner for two hours; all 269 aboard are killed, including 61 Americans(Aug. 30).Terrorist explosion kills 237 U.S. Marines in Beirut(Oct. 23).U.S. and Caribbean allies invade Grenada(Oct. 25).

1970 – 1979 World History Richard Nixon (1913–1994) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Mao Zedong (1893–1976) Agence France Press/Archive Photos Ingmar Bergman (1918–2007) Archive Photos Lyndon B. Johnson (1908–1973) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Duke Ellington (1899–1974) Archive Photos Anwar Sadat (1918–1981) Archive Photos Pope John Paul II (1920–2005) Archive Photos Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (1900–1989) Permanent Mission of Islamic Republic of Iran to the UN Tennessee Williams (1911–1983) Archive Photos 1970 Biafra surrenders after 32-month fight for independence from Nigeria(Jan. 15).Rhodesia severs last tie with British crown and declares itself a racially segregated republic(March 1).U.S. troops invade Cambodia(May 1).Four students at Kent State University in Ohio slain by National Guardsmen at demonstration protesting incursion into Cambodia(May 4).Senate repeals Gulf of Tonkin resolution(June 24). 1971 Supreme Court rules unanimously that busing of students may be ordered to achieve racial desegregation(April 20).Anti-war militants attempt to disrupt government business in Washington(May 3)—police and military units arrest as many as 12,000; most are later released. Pentagon Paperspublished(June).Twenty-sixth Amendment to U.S. Constitution lowers voting age to 18. UN seats Communist China and expels Nationalist China(Oct. 25). 1972 President Nixonmakes unprecedented eight-day visit to Communist China and meets with Mao Zedong(Feb. 21–27).Britain takes over direct rule of Northern Irelandin bid for peace(March 24).Gov. George C. Wallaceof Alabama is shot by Arthur H. Bremer at Laurel, Md., political rally(May 15).Five men are apprehended by police in attempt to bug Democratic National Committee headquarters in Washington, D.C.'s Watergatecomplex—start of the Watergate scandal(June 17).Supreme Court rules that death penalty is unconstitutional(June 29).Eleven Israeli athletes at Olympic Games in Munich are killed after eight members of an Arab terrorist group invade Olympic Village; five guerrillas and one policeman are also killed(Sept. 5).“Christmas bombing” of North Vietnam(Dec. 25). 1973 Great Britain, Ireland, and Denmark enter European Economic Community(Jan. 1).Supreme Court rules on Roe v. Wade(Jan. 22).Vietnam War ends with signing of peace pacts(Jan. 27).Nixon, on national TV, accepts responsibility, but not blame, for Watergate; accepts resignations of advisers H. R. Haldeman and John D. Ehrlichman, fires John W. Dean III as counsel(April 30).Greek military junta abolishes monarchy and proclaims republic(June 1).U.S. bombing of Cambodiaends, marking official halt to 12 years of combat activity in Southeast Asia(Aug. 15).Chile's Marxist president, Salvadore Allende, is overthrown(Sept. 11).Fourth and biggest Arab-Israeliconflict begins as Egyptian and Syrian forces attack Israel as Jews mark Yom Kippur, holiest day in their calendar(Oct. 6). Spiro T. Agnewresigns as vice president and then, in federal court in Baltimore, pleads no contest to charges of evasion of income taxes on $29,500 he received in 1967, while governor of Maryland. He is fined $10,000 and put on three years' probation(Oct. 10).In the “Saturday Night Massacre,” Nixon fires special Watergate prosecutor Archibald Cox and Deputy Attorney General William D. Ruckelshaus; Attorney General Elliot L. Richardson resigns(Oct. 20).Egypt and Israel sign U.S.-sponsored cease-fire accord(Nov. 11). Duke Ellington's autobiography,Music Is My Mistress,is published. 1974 Patricia Hearst, 19-year-old daughter of publisher Randolph Hearst, kidnapped by Symbionese Liberation Army(Feb. 5).House Judiciary Committee adopts three articles of impeachment charging President Nixon with obstruction of justice, failure to uphold laws, and refusal to produce material subpoenaed by the committee(July 30).Richard M. Nixon announces he will resign the next day, the first president to do so(Aug. 8).Vice President Gerald R. Fordof Michigan is sworn in as 38th president of the U.S.(Aug. 9).Ford grants “full, free, and absolute pardon” to ex-president Nixon(Sept. 8). 1975 John N. Mitchell, H. R. Haldeman, John D. Ehrlichman found guilty of Watergatecover-up(Jan. 1);sentenced to 30 months to 8 years in jail(Feb. 21).Pol Pot and Khmer Rougetake over Cambodia(April).American merchant shipMayaguez,seized by Cambodian forces, is rescued in operation by U.S. Navy and Marines, 38 of whom are killed(May 15).ApolloandSoyuzspacecraft take off for U.S.-Soviet link-up in space(July 15). President Fordescapes assassination attempt in Sacramento, Calif.(Sept. 5).President Ford escapes second assassination attempt in 17 days(Sept. 22). 1976 Supreme Court rules that blacks and other minorities are entitled to retroactive job seniority(March 24).Ford signs Federal Election Campaign Act(May 11).

1960 – 1969 World History Robert Frost (1874–1963) Archive Photos John H. Glenn, Jr. (1921– ) The Library of Congress Picture Collection William Faulkner (1897–1962) Archive Photos Malcolm X (1925–1965) Archive Photos John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library, Boston James H. Meredith (1933–) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Betty Friedan (1921–2006) The Library of Congress Picture Collection The Beatles Archive Photos Thurgood Marshall (1908–1993) U.S. Supreme Court 1960 American U-2 spy plane, piloted by Francis Gary Powers, shot down over Russia(May 1).Khrushchev kills Paris summit conference because of U-2(May 16).Top Nazi murderer of Jews, Adolf Eichmann, captured by Israelis in Argentina(May 23)—executed in Israel in1962.Powers sentenced to prison for 10 years(Aug. 19)—freed inFebruary 1962in exchange for Soviet spy. Communist China and Soviet Union split in conflict over Communist ideology. Senegal, Ghana, Nigeria, Madagascar, and Zaire(Belgian Congo) gain independence. Cuba begins confiscation of $770 million of U.S. property(Aug. 7).There are 900 U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam. 1961 U.S. breaks diplomatic relations with Cuba(Jan. 3). Robert Frostrecites “The Gift Outright” at John F. Kennedy's inauguration as president of U.S.(Jan. 20).Moscow announces putting first man in orbit around Earth, Maj. Yuri A. Gagarin(April 12).Cuba invaded at Bay of Pigsby an estimated 1,200 anti-Castro exiles aided by U.S.; invasion crushed(April 17).First U.S. spaceman, Navy Cmdr. Alan B. Shepard, Jr., rockets 116.5 miles up in 302-mile trip(May 5).Virgil Grissom becomes second American astronaut, making 118-mile-high, 303-mile-long rocket flightover Atlantic(July 21).Gherman Stepanovich Titov is launched in Soviet spaceshipVostok II:makes 171/2 orbits in 25 hours, covering 434,960 miles before landing safely(Aug. 6).East Germans erect Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin to halt flood of refugees(Aug. 13).USSR fires 50-megaton hydrogen bomb, biggest explosion in history(Oct. 29).There are 2,000 U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam. 1962 Lt. Col. John H. Glenn, Jr., is first American to orbit Earth—three times in 4 hr 55 min(Feb. 20).France transfers sovereignty to new republic of Algeria(July 3). Cuban missile crisis> USSR to build missile bases in Cuba; Kennedy orders Cuban blockade, lifts blockade after Russians back down(Aug.–Nov.).James H. Meredith, escorted by federal marshals, registers at University of Mississippi(Oct. 1). Pope John XXIIIopens Second Vatican Council(Oct. 11)—Council holds four sessions, finally closingDec. 8, 1965.Cuba releases 1,113 prisoners of 1961 invasion attempt(Dec. 24).Burundi, Jamaica, Western Samoa, Uganda, and Trinidad and Tobago become independent. William Faulknerwins Pulitzer forThe Reivers. Rachel Carson'sSilent Spring. 1963 France and West Germany sign treaty of cooperation ending four centuries of conflict(Jan. 22).Michael E. De Bakeyimplants artificial heart in human for first time at Houston hospital; plastic device functions and patient lives for four days(April 21).Pope John XXIII dies(June 3)—succeededJune 21by Cardinal Montini, who becomes Paul VI. U.S. Supreme Court rules no locality may require recitation of Lord's Prayer or Bible verses in public schools(June 17).U.K.'s Profumoscandal(June).Civil rights rally held by 200,000 blacks and whites in Washington, D.C.; Martin Luther Kingdelivers “I have a dream” speech(Aug. 28).Washington-to-Moscow “hot line” communications link opens, designed to reduce risk of accidental war(Aug. 30).President Kennedyshot and killed by sniper in Dallas, Tex. Lyndon B. Johnsonbecomes president same day(Nov. 22). Lee Harvey Oswald, accused assassinof President Kennedy, is shot and killed by Jack Ruby, Dallas nightclub owner(Nov. 24).Kenya achieves independence. Betty FriedanpublishesThe Feminine Mystique.There are 15,000 U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam. 1964 U.S. Supreme Court rules that congressional districts should be roughly equal in population(Feb. 17).Jack Ruby convicted of murder in slaying of Lee Harvey Oswald; sentenced to death by Dallas jury(March 14)—conviction reversedOct. 5, 1966;Ruby diesJan. 3, 1967,before second trial can be held. Three civil rights workers—Schwerner, Goodman, and Cheney—murdered in Mississippi(June).Twenty-one arrests result in trial and conviction of seven by federal jury. Nelson Mandelasentenced to life imprisonment(June 11).Congress approves Gulf of Tonkin resolution(Aug. 7).President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy issues Warren Reportconcluding that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone. The Beatlesappear onThe Ed Sullivan Show. 1965 Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and more than 2,600 other blacks arrested in Selma, Ala., during three-day demonstrations against voter-registration rules(Feb. 1). Malcolm X, black-nationalist leader, shot to death at Harlem rally in New York City(Feb. 21).

1950 – 1959 World History Atomic Bomb National Archives and Records Admin. Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969) National Archives and Records Admin. Dag Hammarskjöld (1905–1961) United Nations Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929–1968) N.A.R.A Fidel Castro (1926– ) United Nations 1950 Brink's robbery in Boston; almost $3 million stolen(Jan. 17). Trumanorders development of hydrogen bomb(Jan. 31).Robert Schuman proposes Schuman Plan to pool European coal and steel(May 9). Korean Warbegins when North Korean Communist forces invade South Korea(June 25).(For detailed chronology, see Korean War.) Assassination attempt on President Truman by Puerto Rican nationalists(Nov. 1). McCarthyismbegins. 1951 Julius and Ethel Rosenbergsentenced to death for passing atomic secrets to Russians(March).Spurred by Schuman Plan, six nations form European Coal and Steel Community(April);effective 1952. Japanese peace treaty signed in San Francisco by 49 nations(Sept. 8).Color television introduced in U.S. Libyagains independence(Dec. 24). 1952 George VI dies; his daughter becomes Elizabeth II(Feb. 6). AECannounces “satisfactory” experiments in hydrogen-weapons research; eyewitnesses tell of blasts near Enewetak(Nov.). Ralph Ellison'sThe Invisible Man. 1953 Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhowerinaugurated president of United States(Jan. 20). Stalindies(March 5). Malenkovbecomes Soviet premier; Beria, minister of interior; Molotov, foreign minister(March 6). Dag Hammarskjöldbegins term as UN secretary-general(April 10).James Watsonand Francis Crickpublish their discovery of the molecular model of DNA(April–May).Edmund Hillaryof New Zealand and Tenzing Norgay of Nepal reach top of Mt. Everest(May 29).East Berliners rise against Communist rule; quelled by tanks(June 17). Egyptbecomes republic ruled by military junta(June 18).Julius and Ethel Rosenbergexecuted in Sing Sing prison(June 19).Korean armistice signed(July 27).Moscow announces explosion of hydrogen bomb(Aug. 20). Titobecomes president of Yugoslavia. James Watson, Francis Crick, and Rosalind Franklin discover structure of DNA. Ernest Hemingwaywins Pulitzer forThe Old Man and the Sea. 1954 First atomic submarineNautiluslaunched(Jan. 21).Five U.S. congressmen shot on floor of House as Puerto Rican nationalists fire from spectators' gallery; all five recover(March 1).Soviet Union grants sovereignty to East Germany(March 23). Army v. McCarthyinquiry—Senate subcommittee report blames both sides(April 22–June 17). Dien Bien Phu, French military outpost in Vietnam, falls to Vietminh army(May 7).(For detailed chronology, see Vietnam War.) U.S. Supreme Court (in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka) unanimously bans racial segregation in public schools(May 17).Eisenhower launches world atomic pool without Soviet Union(Sept. 6).Eight-nation Southeast Asia defense treaty ( SEATO) signed at Manila(Sept. 8).Dr. Jonas Salkstarts inoculating children against polio. Algerian War of Independence against France begins(Nov.);France struggles to maintain colonial rule until 1962 when it agrees to Algeria's independence. William Faulkner'sA Fablewins Pulitzer. 1955 Nikolai A. Bulganinbecomes Soviet premier, replacing Malenkov(Feb. 8). Churchillresigns; Anthony Edensucceeds him(April 6).West Germany becomes a sovereign state(May 5).Western European Union (WEU) comes into being(May 6). Warsaw Pact, east European mutual defense agreement, signed(May 14). Argentinaousts Perón(Sept. 19).President Eisenhower suffers coronary thrombosis in Denver(Sept. 24). Rosa Parksrefuses to sit at the back of the bus. Martin Luther King, Jr., leads black boycott of Montgomery, Ala., bus system(Dec. 1);desegregated service beginsDec. 21, 1956.AFL and CIO become one organization— AFL-CIO(Dec. 5). Tennessee Williams'sCat on a Hot Tin Roofwins Pulitzer. 1956 Nikita Khrushchev, First Secretary of USSR Communist Party, denounces Stalin's excesses(Feb. 24).First aerial H-bomb tested over Namu islet, Bikini Atoll> 10 million tons TNT equivalent(May 21).Workers' uprising against Communist rule in Poznan, Poland, is crushed(June 28–30);rebellion inspires Hungarian students to stage a protest against Communism in Budapest(Oct. 23).Egypt takes control of Suez Canal(July 26).Hungarian rebellion forces Soviet troops to withdraw from Budapest(Oct.).Israel launches attack on Egypt's Sinai peninsula and drives toward Suez Canal(Oct. 29).Imre Nagy announces Hungary's withdrawal from Warsaw Pact(Nov. 1);Soviet troops enter and reclaim Budapest(Nov. 4).British and French invade Port Said on the Suez Canal(Nov. 5).Cease-fire forced by U.S. pressure stops British, French, and Israeli advance(Nov. 6). Moroccogains independence. Ingmar Bergman'sThe Seventh Seal. Allen Ginsberg'sHowl. 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine calls for aid to Mideast countries which resist armed aggression from Communist-controlled nations(Jan. 5).The “Little Rock Nine” integrate Arkansas high school.

1940 – 1949 World History Winston Churchill (1874–1965) National Archives and Records Admin. Yalta Conference U.S. Army Photos Anne Frank (1929–1945) Archive Photos Harry S. Truman (1884–1972) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Woody Guthrie (1912–1967) Archive Photos 1940 Hitlerinvades Norway, Denmark(April 9),the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg(May 10),and France(May 12). Churchillbecomes Britain's prime minister. Trotsky assassinated in Mexico(Aug. 20).Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania annexed by USSR. U.S. trades 50 destroyers for leases on British bases in Western Hemisphere. Selective ServiceAct signed. The first official network television broadcast is put out by NBC. 1941 Germany attacks the Balkans and Russia. Japanese surprise attack on U.S. fleet at Pearl Harborbrings U.S. into World War II; U.S. and Britain declare war on Japan. Manhattan Project(atomic bomb research) begins. Roosevelt enunciates “four freedoms,”signs Lend-LeaseAct, declares national emergency, promises aid to USSR. Orson Welles'sCitizen Kane. 1942 Declaration of United Nationssigned in Washington(Jan. 1). Nazileaders attend Wannsee Conference to coordinate the “final solution to the Jewish question,” the systematic genocide of Jews known as the Holocaust. (For detailed chronology of the Holocaust,see The Holocaust.) Women's military services established. Enrico Fermiachieves nuclear chain reaction. More than 120,000 Japanese and persons of Japanese ancestry living in western U.S. moved to “relocation centers,” some for the duration of the war (Executive Order 9066). Coconut Grove nightclub fire in Boston kills 492(Nov. 28). 1943 Churchill and Roosevelt hold Casablanca Conference(Jan. 14–23). Mussolinideposed. President freezes prices, salaries, and wages to prevent inflation. Income tax withholding introduced. 1944 Allies invade Normandy on D-Day(June 6).G.I. Bill of Rights enacted. Bretton Woods Conferencecreates International Monetary Fundand World Bank(July 1–22).Dumbarton Oaks Conference—U.S., British Commonwealth, and USSR propose establishment of United Nations(Aug. 21–Oct. 7). Battle of the Bulge(Dec. 16). Woody Guthrierecords “This Land is Your Land.” Gunnar Myrdal'sAn American Dilemma. 1945 Yalta Conference(Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin) plans final defeat of Germany(Feb. 4–11). FDRdies(April 12). Hitlercommits suicide(April 30);Germany surrenders(May 7);May 8is declared V-E Day. Potsdam Conference (Truman, Churchill, Stalin) establishes basis of German reconstruction(July–Aug.).U.S. drops atomic bombson Japanese cities of Hiroshima(Aug. 6)and Nagasaki(Aug. 9).Japan signs official surrender on V-J Day(Sept. 2).United Nations established(Oct. 24).First electronic computer, ENIAC, built. 1946 First meeting of UNGeneral Assembly opens in London(Jan. 10).Winston Churchill's “Iron Curtain” speech warns of Soviet expansion(March 5).League of Nations dissolved(April).Italy abolishes monarchy(June).Verdict in Nuremberg war trial: 12 Nazileaders (including 1 tried in absentia) sentenced to hang; 7 imprisoned; 3 acquitted(Oct. 1). Goeringcommits suicide a few hours before 10 other Nazis are executed(Oct. 15). Juan Perónbecomes president of Argentina. Benjamin Spock's childcare classic published. 1947 Britain nationalizescoal mines(Jan. 1).Peace treaties for Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Finland signed in Paris(Feb. 10).Soviet Union rejects U.S. plan for UN atomic-energy control(March 4). Trumanproposes Truman Doctrine, which was to aid Greece and Turkey in resisting communist expansion(March 12). Marshall Planfor European recovery proposed—a coordinated program to help European nations recover from ravages of war(June).(By the time it ended in 1951, this “European Recovery Program” had cost $13 billion.) Indiaand Pakistangain independence from Britain(Aug. 15).U.S. Air Force pilot Chuck Yeagerbecomes first person to break the sound barrier(Oct. 14). Jackie Robinsonjoins the Brooklyn Dodgers. Anne Frank'sThe Diary of a Young Girlpublished. 1948 Gandhiassassinated in New Delhi by Hindu fanatic(Jan. 30). Burma(Jan. 4)and Ceylon(Feb. 4)granted independence by Britain. Communists seize power in Czechoslovakia(Feb. 23–25). Organization of American States(OAS) Charter signed at Bogotá, Colombia(April 30).Nation of Israelproclaimed; British end mandate at midnight; Arab armies attack(May 14). Berlin blockadebegins(June 24),prompting Allied airlift(June 26).(Blockade endsMay 12, 1949;airlift continues untilSept. 30, 1949.) Stalinand Titobreak(June 28).Independent Republic of Koreais proclaimed, following election supervised by UN(Aug. 15).Verdict in Japanese war trial: 18 imprisoned(Nov. 12); Tojoand six others hanged(Dec. 23).United States of Indonesiaestablished as Dutch and Indonesians settle conflict(Dec. 27). Alger Hiss, former U.S. State Department official, indicted on perjury charges after denying passing secret documents to communist spy ring;

1930 – 1939 World History Amelia Earhart (1897–1937) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882–1945) National Archives and Records Admin. Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) National Archives and Records Admin. Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) Archive Photos 1930 Britain, U.S., Japan, France, and Italy sign naval disarmament treaty. Nazisgain in German elections. Cyclotrondeveloped by Ernest O. Lawrence, U.S. physicist. Pluto discovered by astronomers. 1931 Spain becomes a republic with overthrow of King Alfonso XIII. German industrialists finance 800,000-strong Nazi party. British parliament enacts statute of Westminster, legalizing dominion equality with Britain. Mukden Incidentbegins Japanese occupation of Manchuria. In U.S., Hooverproposes one-year moratorium of war debts. Harold C. Ureydiscovers heavy hydrogen. Gangster Al Caponesentenced to 11 years in prison for tax evasion (freed in1939;dies in 1947). Notorious Scottsboro trialbegins, exposing depth of Southern racism. “The Star Spangled Banner”officially becomes national anthem. 1932 Nazislead in German elections with 230 Reichstagseats. Famine in USSR. In U.S., Congress sets up Reconstruction Finance Corporationto stimulate economy. Veterans march on Washington—most leave after Senate rejects payment of cash bonuses; others removed by troops under Douglas MacArthur. U.S. protests Japanese aggression in Manchuria. Amelia Earhartis first woman to fly Atlantic solo. Charles A. Lindbergh's baby son kidnapped, killed. ( Bruno Richard Hauptmannarrested in1934,convicted in1935,executed in1936.) 1933 Hitlerappointed German chancellor, gets dictatorial powers. Reichstag fire in Berlin; Naziterror begins. Germany and Japan withdraw from League of Nations. Giuseppe Zangara executed for attempted assassinationof president-elect Roosevelt in which Chicago mayor Cermak is fatally shot. Rooseveltinaugurated (“the only thing we have to fear is fear itself”); launches New Deal. Prohibitionrepealed. USSRrecognized by U.S. 1934 Chancellor Dollfussof Austria assassinated by Nazis. Hitlerbecomes führer. USSR admitted to League of Nations. Dionne sisters, first quintuplets to survive beyond infancy, born in Canada. Mao Zedongbegins the Long Marchnorth with 100,000 soldiers. 1935 Saarincorporated into Germany after plebiscite. Nazis repudiate Versailles Treaty, introduce compulsory military service. Mussoliniinvades Ethiopia; League of Nations invokes sanctions. Roosevelt opens second phase of New Dealin U.S., calling for social security, better housing, equitable taxation, and farm assistance. Huey Longassassinated in Louisiana. 1936 Germans occupy Rhineland. Italy annexes Ethiopia. Rome-Berlin Axisproclaimed (Japan to join in 1940). Trotskyexiled to Mexico. King George Vdies; succeeded by son, Edward VIII, who soon abdicates to marry an American-born divorcée, and is succeeded by brother, George VI. Spanish civil warbegins. Hundreds of Americans join the “Lincoln Brigades.” ( Franco's fascist forces defeat Loyalist forces by1939,when Madrid falls.) War between China and Japanbegins, to continue through World War II. Japan and Germany sign anti- Cominternpact; joined by Italy in1937. 1937 Hitlerrepudiates war guilt clause of Versailles Treaty; continues to build German power. Italy withdraws from League of Nations. U.S. gunboatPanaysunk by Japanese in Yangtze River. Japan invades China, conquers most of coastal area. Amelia Earhartlost somewhere in Pacific on round-the-world flight. Picasso'sGuernicamural. 1938 Hitlermarches into Austria; political and geographical union of Germany and Austria proclaimed. Munich Pact> Britain, France, and Italy agree to let Germany partition Czechoslovakia. Douglas “Wrong-Way” Corrigan flies from New York to Dublin. Fair Labor Standards Act establishes minimum wage. Orson Welles's radio broadcastWar of the Worlds. 1939 Germany invades Poland; occupies Bohemia and Moravia; renounces pact with England and concludes 10-year non-aggression pact with USSR. Russo- Finnish Warbegins; Finns to lose one-tenth of territory in 1940peace treaty. World War II begins.(For detailed chronology, see World War II.) In U.S., Rooseveltsubmits $1,319-million defense budget, proclaims U.S. neutrality, and declares limited emergency. Einsteinwrites FDR about feasibility of atomic bomb. New York World's Fair opens. DAR refuses to allow Marian Anderson to perform.Gone with the Windpremieres.

1920 – 1929 World History Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) National Archives and Records Admin. Bessie Smith (1894–1937) The Library of Congress Picture Collection William Butler Yeats (1865–1939) Archive Photos Joseph Stalin (1879–1953) U.S. Army Photos Dorothea Lange's photo “Migrant Mother” (1936) documented the Great Depression (1929–1940) The Library of Congress Picture Collection 1920 League of Nationsholds first meeting at Geneva, Switzerland. U.S. Dept. of Justice “red hunt” nets thousands of radicals; aliens deported. Women's suffrage(19th) amendment ratified. Treaty of Sèvres dissolves Ottoman Empire. First Agatha Christiemystery. Sinclair Lewis'sMain Street. 1921 Reparations Commission fixes German liability at 132 billion gold marks. German inflation begins. Major treaties signed at Washington Disarmament Conference limit naval tonnage and pledge to respect territorial integrity of China. In U.S., Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, Italian-born anarchists, convicted of armed robbery murder; case stirs worldwide protests; they are executed in1927. 1922 Mussolinimarches on Rome; forms Fascistgovernment. Irish Free State, a self-governing dominion of British Empire, officially proclaimed. Kemal Atatürk, founder of modern Turkey, overthrows last sultan. James Joyce'sUlysses. 1923 Adolf Hitler's “Beer Hall Putsch” in Munich fails; in 1924he is sentenced to five years in prison where he writesMein Kampf;released after eight months. Occupation of Ruhr by French and Belgian troops to enforce reparations payments. Widespread Ku Klux Klanviolence in U.S. Earthquake destroys third of Tokyo. George Gershwin'sRhapsody in Blue. Bessie Smith, known as “the Empress of the Blues,” makes her first record. Irish poet William Butler Yeatswins Nobel Prize in Literature. 1924 Death of Lenin; Stalinwins power struggle, rules as Soviet dictator until death in1953.Italian Fascists murder Socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti. Interior Secretary Albert B. Fall and oilmen Harry Sinclair and Edward L. Doheny are charged with conspiracy and bribery in the Teapot Domescandal, involving fraudulent leases of naval oil reserves. In1931,Fall is sentenced to year in prison; Doheny and Sinclair acquitted of bribery. Nathan Leopold and Richard Loeb convicted in “thrill killing” of Bobby Franks in Chicago; defended by Clarence Darrow; sentenced to life imprisonment. (Loeb killed by fellow convict in1936;Leopold paroled in1958,dies in1971.) Robert Frostwins first of four Pulitzers. 1925 Nellie Tayloe Ross elected governor of Wyoming; first woman governor elected in U.S. Locarno conferencesseek to secure European peace by mutual guarantees. John T. Scopesconvicted and fined for teaching evolution in a public school in Tennessee “Monkey Trial”; sentence set aside. John Logie Baird, Scottish inventor, transmits human features by television. Hitlerpublishes Volume I ofMein Kampf. 1926 General strike in Britain brings nation's activities to standstill. U.S. marines dispatched to Nicaragua during revolt; they remain until1933. Gertrude Ederleof U.S. is first woman to swim English Channel. Ernest Hemingway'sThe Sun Also Rises. 1927 German economy collapses. Socialists riot in Vienna; general strike follows acquittal of Nazisfor political murder. Trotsky expelled from Russian Communist Party. Charles A. Lindberghflies first successful solo nonstop flight from New York to Paris. Ruth Snyder and Judd Gray convicted of murder of Albert Snyder; they are executed at Sing Sing prison in1928.Philo T. Farnsworth demonstrates working television model. Georges Lemaître proposes Big Bang Theory. Babe Ruthhits 60 home runs in the season; record stands for next 34 years.The Jazz Singer,with Al Jolson, first part-talking motion picture. 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact, outlawing war, signed in Paris by 65 nations. Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin. Richard E. Byrdstarts expedition to Antarctic; returns in1930.Anthropologist Margaret MeadpublishesComing of Age in Samoa.Final volume ofOxford English Dictionarypublished after 44 years of research. 1929 Trotskyexpelled from USSR Lateran Treatyestablishes independent VaticanCity. In U.S., stock market prices collapse, with U.S. securities losing $26 billion—first phase of Depressionand world economic crisis. St. Valentine's Day gangland massacre in Chicago. Edwin Powell Hubble proposes theory of expanding universe. Information Please® Database, © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1910 – 1919 World History 1900–1999 (A.D.) World History 1930 – 1939 World History More on1920 8211 1929 World Historyfrom Infoplease: Hitler: meaning and definitions- Hitler: Definition and Pronunciation woman suffrage: meaning and definitions- woman suffrage: Definition and Pronunciation Adolf Hitler- Hitler, Adolf Hitler, Adolf , 1889–1945, founder and leader of National Socialism (Nazism), ... Hitlerism: meaning and definitions- Hitlerism: Definition and Pronunciation

1910 – 1919 World History Albert Einstein (1879–1955) AIP Niels Bohr Library Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) Novosti Photos Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) The Library of Congress Picture Collection 1910 Boy Scouts of Americaincorporated. Angel Island, in San Francisco Bay, becomes immigration center for Asians entering U.S. 1911 First use of aircraft as offensive weapon in Turkish-Italian War. Italy defeats Turks and annexes Tripoliand Libya. Chinese Republic proclaimed after revolution overthrows Manchudynasty. Sun Yat-sennamed president. Mexican Revolution: Porfirio Diaz, president since 1877, replaced by Francisco Madero. Triangle Shirtwaist Company fire in New York; 146 killed. Amundsenreaches South Pole. Ernest Rutherford discovers the structure of the atom. Richard Strauss'sDer Rosenkavalier. Irving Berlin'sAlexander's Ragtime Band. 1912 Balkan Wars(1912–1913)resulting from territorial disputes: Turkey defeated by alliance of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro; London peace treaty(1913)partitions most of European Turkey among the victors. In second war(1913),Bulgaria attacks Serbia and Greece and is defeated after Romania intervenes and Turks recapture Adrianople. Titanicsinks on maiden voyage; over 1,500 drown. New Mexico and Arizona admitted as states. 1913 Suffragists demonstrate in London. Garment workers strike in New York and Boston; win pay raise and shorter hours. Henry Ford develops first moving assembly line. 16th Amendment (income tax)and 17th (popular election of U.S. senators) adopted. Bill creating U.S. Federal Reserve Systembecomes law. Stravinsky'sThe Rite of Spring. Woodrow Wilsonbecomes 28th U.S. president. Armory Show introduces modern art to U.S.; Duchamp'sNude Descending a Staircaseshocks public. 1914 World War Ibegins: Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinandand wife Sophie are assassinated; Austria declares war on Serbia, Germany on Russia and France, Britain on Germany. (For detailed chronology see, World War I.) Panama Canalofficially opened. Congress sets up Federal Trade Commission, passes Clayton Antitrust Act. U.S. Marines occupy Veracruz, Mexico, intervening in civil war to protect American interests. 1915 Lusitaniasunk by German submarine. Second Battle of Ypres. U.S. banks lend $500 million to France and Britain. Genocide of estimated 600,000 to 1 million Armenians by Turkish soldiers. D. W. Griffith's filmBirth of a Nation. Albert Einstein'sGeneral Theory of Relativity. 1916 Congress expands armed forces. Battle of Verdun. Battle of the Somme. Tom Mooney arrested for San Francisco bombing (pardoned in 1939). Pershingfails in raid into Mexico in quest of rebel Pancho Villa. U.S. buys Virgin Islands from Denmark for $25 million. President Wilson re-elected with “he kept us out of war” slogan. “Black Tom”explosion at munitions dock in Jersey City, N.J., $40,000,000 damages; traced to German saboteurs. Margaret Sangeropens first birth control clinic. Easter Rebellion in Irelandput down by British troops. Jeannette Rankinbecomes first woman elected to Congress. 1917 First U.S. combat troops in France as U.S. declares war on Germany(April 6).Third Battle of Ypres. Russian Revolutionof 1917—climax of long unrest under czars. February Revolution—Nicholas II forced to abdicate, liberal government created. Kerensky becomes prime minister and forms provisional government(July).In October Revolution, Bolsheviks seize power in armed coup d'état led by Leninand Trotsky. Kerenskyflees. BalfourDeclaration promises Jewish homeland in Palestine. U.S. declares war on Austria-Hungary(Dec. 7).Armistice between new Russian Bolshevik government and Germans(Dec. 15). Sigmund Freud'sIntroduction to Psychoanalysis. 1918 Russian revolutionaries execute the former czar and his family. Russian Civil Warbetween Reds (Bolsheviks) and Whites (anti-Bolsheviks); Reds win in1920.Allied troops (U.S., British, French) intervene(March);leave in1919.Second Battle of the Marne(July–Aug.)German Kaiser abdicates(Nov.);hostilities cease on the Western Front. Japanese hold Vladivostokuntil1922.Worldwide influenzaepidemic strikes; by1920,nearly 20 million are dead. In U.S. alone, 500,000 perish. 1919 Third International ( Comintern) establishes Soviet control over international Communist movements. Paris peace conference. Versailles Treaty, incorporating Woodrow Wilson's draft Covenant of League of Nations, signed by Allies and Germany; rejected by U.S. Senate. Congress formally ends war in1921.18th ( Prohibition) Amendment adopted. Alcock and Brown make first trans-Atlantic nonstop flight. Mahatma Gandhiinitiates satyagraha (“truth force”) campaigns, beginning his nonviolent resistance movement against British rule in India.

1900 – 1909 World History Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) Leo Baeck Inst./Archive Photos Henri Matisse (1869–1954) The Library of Congress Picture Collection W.E.B. Du Bois (1868–1963) The Library of Congress Picture Collection 1900 Hurricane ravages Galveston, Tex.; 6,000–8,000 dead. Fauvist movement in painting begins, led by Henri Matisse. Sigmund Freud'sThe Interpretation of Dreams. Carrie Chapman Cattsucceeds Susan B. Anthonyas president of National Woman Suffrage Association. 1901 Queen Victoriadies, and is succeeded by her son, Edward VII. As President McKinleybegins second term, he is shot fatallyby anarchist Leon Czolgosz. Theodore Rooseveltsworn in as successor. 1902 Enrico Caruso's first gramophone recording. Aswan Damcompleted. 1903 Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, fly first powered, controlled, heavier-than-air plane at Kitty Hawk, N.C. Henry Fordorganizes Ford Motor Company. The Boston Red Sox win the first World Seriesagainst the Pittsburgh Pirates. W.E.B. Du BoispublishesThe Souls of Black Folk. 1904 Russo-Japanese War begins—competition for Korea and Manchuria.Entente Cordiale:Britain and France settle their international differences. General theory of radioactivity by Rutherford and Soddy. New York City subway opens. 1905 In Russo-Japanese War, Port Arthur surrenders to Japanese; Russia suffers other defeats. President Roosevelt mediates Treaty of Portsmouth, N.H., which recognizes Japan's control of Korea and restores southern Manchuria to China. The Russian Revolutionof 1905 begins on “Bloody Sunday” when troops fire onto a defenseless group of demonstrators in St. Petersburg. Strikes and riots follow. Sailors on battleshipPotemkinmutiny; reforms, including first Duma (parliament), established by Czar Nicholas II's “October Manifesto.” Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity and other key theories in physics. Franz Lehar'sMerry Widow. 1906 San Francisco earthquakeand three-day fire; more than 500 dead. Roald Amundsen, Norwegian explorer, fixes magnetic North Pole. 1907 Second Hague Peace Conference, of 46 nations, adopts 10 conventions on rules of war. Financial panic of 1907in U.S. Mahlerbegins work on “Song of the Earth.” Oklahoma becomes 46th state. Picasso'sLes Demoiselles d'Avignonintroduces cubism. 1908 Earthquake kills 150,000 in southern Italy and Sicily. U.S. Supreme Court, in Danbury Hatters' case, outlaws secondary union boycotts. Model T produced by Ford Motor Company. 1909 North Pole reportedly reached by American explorers Robert E. Pearyand Matthew Henson. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored Peopleis founded in New York by prominent black and white intellectuals and led by W.E.B. Du Bois.

1800–1899(A.D.)World History (part 3 of 3): 1865 Gen. Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox; the Civil War is over. Lincoln fatally shot at Ford's Theater by John Wilkes Booth. Vice President Johnson sworn as successor. Booth caught and dies of gunshot wounds; four conspirators are hanged. Joseph Listerbegins antiseptic surgery. Gregor Mendel'sLaw of Heredity. Lewis Carroll'sAlice's Adventures in Wonderland. 1866 Alfred Nobelinvents dynamite (patented in Britain,1867). Seven Weeks' War: Austria defeated by Prussia and Italy. 1867 Austria-Hungary Dual Monarchy established. French leave Mexico; Maximilian executed. Dominion of Canada established. U.S. buys Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000. South African diamond field discovered. Japan ends 675–year shogun rule. Volume I of Marx'sDas Kapital. Strauss'sBlue Danube. 1868 Revolution in Spain; Queen Isabella deposed, flees to France. In U.S., Fourteenth Amendmentgiving civil rights to blacks is ratified. Georgia under military government after legislature expels blacks. 1869 First U.S. transcontinental rail route completed. James Fiskand Jay Gould's attempt to control gold market causes Black Friday panic. Suez Canalopens. Mendeleev's periodic table of elements. 1870 Franco-Prussian War(to1871): Napoleon III capitulates at Sedan. Revolt in Paris; Third Republic proclaimed. 1871 France surrenders Alsace-Lorraine to Germany; war ends. German Empire proclaimed with Prussian King as Kaiser Wilhelm I. Fighting with Apaches begins in American West. Boss Tweedcorruption exposed in New York. The Chicago Fire, with 250 deaths and $196-million damage. Stanleymeets Livingstonein Africa. 1872 Congress gives amnesty to most Confederates. Jules Verne'sAround the World in 80 Days. 1873 Economic crisis in Europe. U.S. establishes gold standard. 1875 First Kentucky Derby. 1876 Sioux kill Gen. George A. Custerand 264 troopers at Little Big Horn River. Alexander Graham Bellpatents the telephone. 1877 After presidential election of1876,electoral commission gives disputed electoral college votes to Rutherford B. Hayes despite Tilden's popular majority. Russo-Turkish war(ends in1878with power of Turkey in Europe broken). Reconstructionends in the American South. Thomas Edisonpatents phonograph. The Nez Perce leader Chief Josephis forced to surrender. Tchaikovsky'sSwan Lake. 1878 Congress of Berlinrevises Treaty of San Stefano, ending Russo-Turkish War; makes extensive redivision of southeast Europe. First commercial telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Conn. 1879 Thomas A. Edison invents practical electric light. 1880 U.S.-China treaty allows U.S. to restrict immigration of Chinese labor. 1881 President Garfieldfatally shot by assassin; Vice President Arthur succeeds him. Charles J. Guiteau convicted and executed (1882). 1882 Terrorism in Ireland after land evictions. Britain invades and conquers Egypt. Germany, Austria, and Italy form Triple Alliance. In U.S., Congress adopts Chinese Exclusion Act. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Trust is first industrial monopoly. In Berlin, Robert Kochannounces discovery of tuberculosis germ. 1883 Congress creates Civil Service Commission. Brooklyn Bridge and Metropolitan OperaHouse completed. 1884 Berlin West Africa Conference held in Berlin (lasting untilFeb. 1885), at which the major European nations discuss expansion in Africa. 1885 British general Charles G. “Chinese” Gordonkilled at Khartoum in Egyptian Sudan. World's first skyscraper built in Chicago. 1886 Bombing at Haymarket Square, Chicago, kills seven policemen and injures many others. Eight alleged anarchists accused—three imprisoned, one commits suicide, four hanged. (In1893,Illinois governor Altgeld, critical of trial, pardons three survivors.) Statue of Libertydedicated. Geronimo, Apache Indian chief, surrenders. 1887 Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's first Sherlock Holmes story,A Study in Scarlet. 1888 Historic March blizzard in northeast U.S.—many perish, property damage exceeds $25 million. George Eastman's box camera (the Kodak). J. B. Dunlop invents pneumatic tire. Jack the Ripper murders in London. 1889 Second (Socialist) International founded in Paris. Indian Territory in Oklahoma opened to settlement. Thousands die in Johnstown, Pa. flood. Eiffel Tower built for the Paris exposition. Mark Twain'sA Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. 1890 Congress votes to pass Sherman Antitrust Act. Sioux chief Sitting Bullarrested and killed by police on Pine Ridge reservation; two weeks later, U.S. troops kill over 200 Sioux at Battle of Wounded Knee. 1892 Battle between steel strikers and Pinkerton guards at Homestead, Pa.; union defeated after militia intervenes. Silver mine strikers in Idaho fight non-union workers; U.S. troops dispatched. Diesel enginepatented. 1893 New Zealand becomes first country in the world to grant women the vote.

1800–1899(A.D.)World History (part 2 of 3): 1836 Boerfarmers start “Great Trek”—Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State founded in South Africa. Mexican army besieges Texans in Alamo. Entire garrison, including Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie, wiped out. Texans gain independence from Mexico after winning Battle of San Jacinto. Dickens'sPickwick Papers. 1837 Victoriabecomes queen of Great Britain. Mob kills Elijah P. Lovejoy, Illinois abolitionist publisher. 1839 First Opium War(to1842) between Britain and China, over importation of drug into China. 1840 Lower and Upper Canada united. 1841 U.S. President Harrison dies (April 4) one month after inauguration; John Tyler becomes first vice president to succeed to presidency. 1842 Crawford Long uses first anesthetic (ether). 1843 Wagner's operaThe Flying Dutchman. 1844 Democratic convention calls for annexation of Texas and acquisition of Oregon (“Fifty-four-forty-or-fight”). Five Chinese ports opened to U.S. ships. Samuel F. B. Morsepatents telegraph. 1845 Congress adopts joint resolution for annexation of Texas. Edgar Allan PoepublishesThe Raven and Other Poems. 1846 U.S. declares war on Mexico. California and New Mexico annexed by U.S. Brigham Young leads Mormons to Great Salt Lake. W. T. Morton uses ether as anesthetic. Sewing machine patented by Elias Howe. Frederick Douglasslaunches abolitionist newspaperThe North Star.Failure of potato crop causes famine in Ireland. 1848 Revolt in Paris: Louis Philippe abdicates; Louis Napoleon elected president of French Republic. Revolutions in Vienna, Venice, Berlin, Milan, Rome, and Warsaw. Put down by royal troops in1848–1849.U.S.-Mexico War ends; Mexico cedes claims to Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada. U.S. treaty with Britain sets Oregon Territory boundary at 49th parallel. Karl Marxand Friedrich Engels'sCommunist Manifesto.Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery and joins the Underground Railroad. Women's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, N.Y. 1849 California gold rush begins. 1850 Henry Clayopens great debate on slavery, warns South against secession. 1851 Herman Melville'sMoby-Dick. 1852 South African Republic established. Louis Napoleon proclaims himself Napoleon III (“Second Empire”). Harriet Beecher Stowe'sUncle Tom's Cabin. 1853 Crimean Warbegins as Turkey declares war on Russia. Commodore Perryreaches Tokyo. 1854 Britain and France join Turkey in war on Russia. In U.S., Kansas- Nebraska Actpermits local option on slavery; rioting and bloodshed. Japanese allow American trade. Antislavery men in Michigan form Republican Party. Tennyson'sCharge of the Light Brigade. Thoreau'sWalden. 1855 Armed clashes in Kansas between pro- and anti-slavery forces. Florence Nightingalenurses wounded in Crimea. Walt Whitman'sLeaves of Grass. 1856 Flaubert'sMadame Bovary. 1857 Supreme Court, in Dred Scottdecision, rules that a slave is not a citizen. Financial crisis in Europe and U.S. Great Mutiny ( Sepoy Rebellion) begins in India. India placed under crown rule as a result. 1858 Pro-slavery constitution rejected in Kansas. Abraham Lincolnmakes strong antislavery speech in Springfield, Ill.: “This Government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free.” Lincoln-Douglas debates. First trans-Atlantic telegraph cable completed by Cyrus W. Field. 1859 John Brownraids Harpers Ferry; is captured and hanged. Work begins on Suez Canal. Unification of Italy starts under leadership of Count Cavour, Sardinian premier. Joined by France in war against Austria. Jean-Joseph-Étienne Lenoir builds first practical internal-combustion engine. Edward Fitzgerald's translation ofThe Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. Charles Darwin'sOrigin of Species. J. S. Mill'sOn Liberty. 1860 South Carolina secedes from the Union. 1861 U.S. Civil Warbegins as attempts at compromise fail. Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas secede; with South Carolina, they form the Confederate States of America, with Jefferson Davis as president. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina secede and join Confederacy. First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas).(For detailed chronology, see The Civil War.) Congress creates Colorado, Dakota, and Nevada territories; adopts income tax; Lincoln inaugurated. Serfs emancipated in Russia. Pasteur's theory of germs. Independent Kingdom of Italy proclaimed under Sardinian king Victor Emmanuel II. 1862 Several major Civil War battles: Battle of Shiloh, Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), Battle of Antietam. Salon des Refusés introduces impressionism. 1863 French capture Mexico City; proclaim Archduke Maximilianof Austria emperor. Battle of Gettysburg. 1864 Gen. Sherman's Atlanta campaign and “march to the sea.”

1800–1899(A.D.)World History (part 1 of 3): War of 1812 The Civil War Spanish-American War (1898–1899) Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) Richard Wagner (1813–1883) Archive Photos Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Frederick Douglass (1817–1895) National Archives and Records Admin. Harriet Tubman (c. 1820–1913) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811–1896) National Archives and Records Admin. Walt Whitman (1819–1892) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Dred Scott (1795?–1858) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865) National Archives and Records Admin. Charles Darwin (1809–1882) Robert E. Lee (1807–1870) National Archives and Records Admin. William Tecumseh Sherman (1820–1891) National Archives and Records Admin. Chief Joseph (c. 1840–1904) National Archives and Records Admin. Statue of Liberty Tasha Vincent Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) (1835–1910) The Library of Congress Picture Collection The Eiffel Tower Tasha Vincent Marie Curie (1867–1934) AIP Niels Bohr Library 1800 Napoleon conquers Italy, firmly establishes himself as First Consul in France. In the U.S., federal government moves to Washington, D.C. Robert Owen's social reforms in England. William Herschel discovers infrared rays. Alessandro Volta produces electricity. 1801 Austria makes temporary peace with France. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland established with one monarch and one parliament; Catholics excluded from voting. 1803 U.S. negotiates Louisiana Purchasefrom France: for $15 million, U.S. doubles its domain, increasing its territory by 827,000 sq mi (2,144,500 sq km), from Mississippi River to Rockies and from Gulf of Mexico to British North America. 1804 Haiti declares independence from France; first black nation to gain freedom from European colonial rule. Napoleon transforms the Consulate of France into an empire, proclaims himself emperor of France, systematizes French law underCode Napoleon.In the U.S., Alexander Hamiltonis mortally wounded in duel with Aaron Burr. Lewis and Clark expeditionbegins exploration of what is now northwest U.S. 1805 Lord Nelsondefeats the French-Spanish fleets in the Battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon victorious over Austrian and Russian forces at the Battle of Austerlitz. 1807 Robert Fulton makes first successful steamboat trip onClermontbetween New York City and Albany. 1808 French armies occupy Rome and Spain, extending Napoleon's empire. Britain begins aiding Spanish guerrillas against Napoleon in Peninsular War. In the U.S., Congress bars importation of slaves. Beethoven'sFifthandSixth Symphoniesperformed. 1812 Napoleon's Grand Army invades Russia in June. Forced to retreat in winter, most of Napoleon's 600,000 men are lost. In the U.S., war with Britain declared over freedom of the seas for U.S. vessels (War of 1812). USSConstitution(For detailed chronology, see War of 1812.) sinks British frigate. 1814 French defeated by allies (Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Portugal) in War of Liberation. Napoleon exiled to Elba, off Italian coast. Bourbon king Louis XVIII takes French throne. George Stephenson builds first practical steam locomotive. 1815 Napoleon returns: “Hundred Days” begin. Napoleon defeated by Wellington at Waterloo, banished again to St. Helena in South Atlantic. Congress of Vienna: victorious allies change the map of Europe. War of 1812 ends with Treaty of Ghent. 1819 Simón Bolívarliberates New Granada (now Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador) as Spain loses hold on South American countries; named president of Colombia. 1820 Missouri Compromise> Missouri admitted as slave state but slavery barred in rest of Louisiana Purchase north of 36°30' N. 1821 Guatemala, Panama, and Santo Domingo proclaim independence from Spain. 1822 Greeks proclaim a republic and independence from Turkey. Turks invade Greece. Russia declares war on Turkey(1828).Greece also aided by France and Britain. War ends and Turks recognize Greek independence(1829).Brazil becomes independent of Portugal. Schubert'sEighth Symphony(“The Unfinished”). 1823 U.S. Monroe Doctrinewarns European nations not to interfere in Western Hemisphere. 1824 Mexico becomes a republic, three years after declaring independence from Spain. Bolívar liberates Peru, becomes its president. Beethoven'sNinth Symphony. 1825 First passenger-carrying railroadin England. 1826 Joseph-Nicéphore Niepce takes the world's first photograph. 1830 French invade Algeria. Louis Philippe becomes “Citizen King” as revolution forces Charles X to abdicate. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- day Saintsformed in U.S. by Joseph Smith. 1831 Polish revolt against Russia fails. Belgium separates from the Netherlands. In U.S., Nat Turnerleads unsuccessful slave rebellion. 1833 Slavery abolished in British Empire. 1834 Charles Babbage invents “analytical engine,” precursor of computer. McCormick patents reaper.

1700–1799(A.D.)World History French Revolution (1789–1799) Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) Frederick the Great (1712–1786) Samuel Johnson (1709–1784) George Washington (1732–1799) Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804) Napoléon Bonaparte (1769–1821) 1701 War of the Spanish Successionbegins—the last of Louis XIV's wars for domination of the continent. The Peace of Utrecht (1714) will end the conflict and mark the rise of the British Empire. Called Queen Anne's War in America, it ends with the British taking New Foundland, Acadia, and Hudson's Bay Territory from France, and Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain. 1704 Deerfield (Mass.) Massacre of English colonists by French and Indians. Bach's first cantata. Jonathan Swift'sTale of a Tub.Boston News Letter—first newspaper in America. 1707 United Kingdom of Great Britain formed—England, Wales, and Scotland joined by parliamentary Act of Union. 1729 Bach'sSt. Matthew Passion. Isaac Newton'sPrincipiatranslated from Latin into English. 1732 Benjamin Franklinbegins publishingPoor Richard's Almanack.James Oglethorpe and others found Georgia. 1735 John Peter Zenger, New York editor, acquitted of libel in New York, establishing press freedom. 1740 Capt. Vitus Bering, Dane employed by Russia, discovers Alaska. Frederick II “the Great” crowned king of Prussia. 1746 British defeat Scots under Stuart Pretender Prince Charles at Culloden Moor. Last battle fought on British soil. 1751 Publication of theEncyclopédiebegins in France, the “bible” of the Enlightenment. 1755 Samuel Johnson'sDictionaryfirst published. Great earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal—over 60,000 die. U.S. postal service established. 1756 Seven Years' War(French and Indian Wars in America) (to1763), in which Britain and Prussia defeat France, Spain, Austria, and Russia. France loses North American colonies; Spain cedes Florida to Britain in exchange for Cuba. In India, over 100 British prisoners die in “Black Hole of Calcutta.” 1757 Beginning of British Empirein India as Robert Clive, British commander, defeats Nawab of Bengal at Plassey. 1759 British capture Quebec from French. Voltaire'sCandide. Haydn'sSymphony No. 1. 1762 Catherine II(“the Great”) becomes czarina of Russia. Jean Jacques Rousseau'sSocial Contract. Mozarttours Europe as six-year-old prodigy. 1765 James Watt invents the steam engine. Britain imposes the Stamp Act on the American colonists. 1769 Sir William Arkwright patents a spinning machine—an early step in the Industrial Revolution. 1770 The Boston Massacre. 1772 Joseph Priestleyand Daniel Rutherford independently discover nitrogen. Partition of Poland—in1772, 1793,and1795,Austria, Prussia, and Russia divide land and people of Poland, end its independence. 1773 The Boston Tea Party. 1774 First Continental Congressdrafts “Declaration of Rights and Grievances.” 1775 The American Revolutionbegins with battle of Lexington and Concord. Second Continental Congress. Priestley discovers hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. 1776 Declaration of Independence. Gen. George Washingtoncrosses the Delaware Christmas night. Adam Smith'sWealth of Nations.Edward Gibbon'sDecline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Thomas Paine'sCommon Sense.Fragonard'sWasherwoman.Mozart'sHaffner Serenade. 1778 Capt. James Cookdiscovers Hawaii. Franz Mesmer uses hypnotism. 1781 Immanuel Kant'sCritique of Pure Reason.Herschel discovers Uranus. 1783 Revolutionary War ends with Treaty of Paris. William Blake's poems. Beethoven's first printed works. 1784 Crimea annexed by Russia. John Wesley'sDeed of Declaration,the basic work of Methodism. 1785 Russians settle Aleutian Islands. 1787 The Constitution of the United Statessigned. Lavoisier's work on chemical nomenclature. Mozart'sDon Giovanni. 1788 FrenchParlementpresents grievances to Louis XVI who agrees to convening of Estates-General in1789—not called since1613. Goethe'sEgmont.Laplace'sLaws of the Planetary System. 1789 French Revolutionbegins with the storming of the Bastille. (For detailed chronology, see French Revolution (1789–1799).) In U.S., Washington elected president with all 69 votes of the Electoral College, takes oath of office in New York City. Vice President: John Adams. Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson. Secretary of Treasury: Alexander Hamilton. 1790 H.M.S.Bountymutineers settle on Pitcairn Island. Aloisio Galvani experiments on electrical stimulation of the muscles. Philadelphia temporary capital of U.S. as Congress votes to establish new capital on Potomac. U.S. population about 3,929,000, including 698,000 slaves. Lavoisier formulatesTable of 31 chemical elements. 1791 U.S. Bill of Rights ratified. Boswell'sLife of Johnson. 1792 Mary Wollstonecraft'sVindication of the Rights of Woman. 1793 Louis XVIand Marie Antoinetteexecuted. Reign of Terror begins in France. Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin, spurring the growth of the cotton industry and helping to institutionalize slavery in the U.S. South.

1600–1699(A.D.)World History The Revolutionary War Pocahontas (c. 1595–1617) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Galileo (1564–1642) Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) Taj Mahal The Library of Congress Picture Collection John Milton (1608–1674) 1600 Giordano Bruno burned as a heretic. English East India Company established. 1603 Ieyasu rules Japan, moves capital to Edo (Tokyo). Shakespeare'sHamlet. 1605 Cervantes'sDon Quixote de la Mancha,the first modern novel. 1607 Jamestown, Virginia, established—first permanent English colony on American mainland. Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, saves life of John Smith. 1609 Samuel de Champlain establishes French colony of Quebec. TheRelation,the first newspaper, debuts in Germany. 1610 Galileosees the moons of Jupiter through his telescope. 1611 Gustavus Adolphus elected King of Sweden. King James Version of the Bible published in England. Rubens paints hisDescent from the Cross. 1614 John Napier discovers logarithms. 1618 Start of the Thirty Years' War> Protestants revolt against Catholic oppression; Denmark, Sweden, and France will invade Germany in later phases of war. Kepler proposes last of three laws of planetary motion. 1619 A Dutch ship brings the first African slaves to British North America. 1620 Pilgrims, after three-month voyage inMayflower,land at Plymouth Rock. Francis Bacon'sNovum Organum. 1623 New Netherland founded by Dutch West India Company. 1630 Massachusetts Bay Colony. 1632 Maryland founded by Lord Baltimore. 1633 Inquisition forces Galileo (astronomer) to recant his belief in Copernican theory. 1642 English Civil War. Cavaliers, supporters of Charles I, against Roundheads, parliamentary forces. Oliver Cromwell defeats Royalists(1646).Parliament demands reforms. Charles I offers concessions, brought to trial(1648),beheaded(1649).Cromwell becomes Lord Protector(1653).Rembrandt paints hisNight Watch. 1643 Taj Mahal completed. 1644 End of Ming Dynasty in China—Manchus come to power. Descartes'sPrinciples of Philosophy. 1648 End of the Thirty Years' War. German population about half of what it was in1618because of war and pestilence. 1658 Cromwell dies; son Richard resigns and Puritan government collapses. 1660 English Parliament calls for the restoration of the monarchy; invites Charles II to return from France. 1661 Charles II is crowned King of England. Louis XIV begins personal rule as absolute monarch; starts to build Versailles. 1664 British take New Amsterdam from the Dutch. English limit “Nonconformity” with reestablished Anglican Church. Isaac Newton's experiments with gravity. 1665 Great Plague in London kills 75,000. 1666 Great Fire of London. Molière'sMisanthrope. 1667 Milton'sParadise Lost,widely considered the greatest epic poem in English. 1682 Pennsylvania founded by William Penn. 1683 War of European powers against the Turks (to1699). Vienna withstands three-month Turkish siege; high point of Turkish advance in Europe. 1684 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's calculus published. 1685 James II succeeds Charles II in England, calls for freedom of conscience(1687).Protestants fear restoration of Catholicism and demand “Glorious Revolution.” William of Orange invited to England and James II escapes to France(1688).William III and his wife, Mary, crowned. In France, Edict of Nantes of1598,granting freedom of worship to Huguenots, is revoked by Louis XIV; thousands of Protestants flee. 1689 Peter the Greatbecomes Czar of Russia—attempts to westernize nation and build Russia as a military power. Defeats Charles XII of Sweden at Poltava(1709).Beginning of the French and Indian Wars(to1763), campaigns in America linked to a series of wars between France and England for domination of Europe. 1690 William III of England defeats former king James II and Irish rebels at Battle of the Boyne in Ireland. John Locke'sHuman Understanding.

1600–1699(A.D.)World History The Revolutionary War Pocahontas (c. 1595–1617) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Galileo (1564–1642) Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) Taj Mahal The Library of Congress Picture Collection John Milton (1608–1674) 1600 Giordano Bruno burned as a heretic. English East India Company established. 1603 Ieyasu rules Japan, moves capital to Edo (Tokyo). Shakespeare'sHamlet. 1605 Cervantes'sDon Quixote de la Mancha,the first modern novel. 1607 Jamestown, Virginia, established—first permanent English colony on American mainland. Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, saves life of John Smith. 1609 Samuel de Champlain establishes French colony of Quebec. TheRelation,the first newspaper, debuts in Germany. 1610 Galileosees the moons of Jupiter through his telescope. 1611 Gustavus Adolphus elected King of Sweden. King James Version of the Bible published in England. Rubens paints hisDescent from the Cross. 1614 John Napier discovers logarithms. 1618 Start of the Thirty Years' War> Protestants revolt against Catholic oppression; Denmark, Sweden, and France will invade Germany in later phases of war. Kepler proposes last of three laws of planetary motion. 1619 A Dutch ship brings the first African slaves to British North America. 1620 Pilgrims, after three-month voyage inMayflower,land at Plymouth Rock. Francis Bacon'sNovum Organum. 1623 New Netherland founded by Dutch West India Company. 1630 Massachusetts Bay Colony. 1632 Maryland founded by Lord Baltimore. 1633 Inquisition forces Galileo (astronomer) to recant his belief in Copernican theory. 1642 English Civil War. Cavaliers, supporters of Charles I, against Roundheads, parliamentary forces. Oliver Cromwell defeats Royalists(1646).Parliament demands reforms. Charles I offers concessions, brought to trial(1648),beheaded(1649).Cromwell becomes Lord Protector(1653).Rembrandt paints hisNight Watch. 1643 Taj Mahal completed. 1644 End of Ming Dynasty in China—Manchus come to power. Descartes'sPrinciples of Philosophy. 1648 End of the Thirty Years' War. German population about half of what it was in1618because of war and pestilence. 1658 Cromwell dies; son Richard resigns and Puritan government collapses. 1660 English Parliament calls for the restoration of the monarchy; invites Charles II to return from France. 1661 Charles II is crowned King of England. Louis XIV begins personal rule as absolute monarch; starts to build Versailles. 1664 British take New Amsterdam from the Dutch. English limit “Nonconformity” with reestablished Anglican Church. Isaac Newton's experiments with gravity. 1665 Great Plague in London kills 75,000. 1666 Great Fire of London. Molière'sMisanthrope. 1667 Milton'sParadise Lost,widely considered the greatest epic poem in English. 1682 Pennsylvania founded by William Penn. 1683 War of European powers against the Turks (to1699). Vienna withstands three-month Turkish siege; high point of Turkish advance in Europe. 1684 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's calculus published. 1685 James II succeeds Charles II in England, calls for freedom of conscience(1687).Protestants fear restoration of Catholicism and demand “Glorious Revolution.” William of Orange invited to England and James II escapes to France(1688).William III and his wife, Mary, crowned. In France, Edict of Nantes of1598,granting freedom of worship to Huguenots, is revoked by Louis XIV; thousands of Protestants flee. 1689 Peter the Greatbecomes Czar of Russia—attempts to westernize nation and build Russia as a military power. Defeats Charles XII of Sweden at Poltava(1709).Beginning of the French and Indian Wars(to1763), campaigns in America linked to a series of wars between France and England for domination of Europe. 1690 William III of England defeats former king James II and Irish rebels at Battle of the Boyne in Ireland. John Locke'sHuman Understanding.

1500–1599(A.D.)World History Michelangelo's David (1504) Tasha Vincent Martin Luther (1483–1546) Henry VIII(1491–1547) Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603) William Shakespeare (1564–1616) Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669) Catherine de Medici (1519–1589) 1501 First black slaves in America brought to Spanish colony of Santo Domingo. c. 1503 Leonardo da Vincipaints theMona Lisa.Michelangelo sculpts theDavid(1504). 1506 St. Peter's Church started in Rome; designed and decorated by such artists and architects as Bramante, Michelangelo, da Vinci, Raphael, and Bernini before its completion in1626. 1509 Henry VIIIascends English throne. Michelangelo paints the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. 1513 Balboa becomes the first European to encounter the Pacific Ocean. Machiavelli writesThe Prince. 1517 Turks conquer Egypt, control Arabia. Martin Lutherposts his 95 theses denouncing church abuses on church door in Wittenberg—start of the Reformationin Germany. 1519 Ulrich Zwingli begins Reformation in Switzerland. Hernando Cortes conquers Mexico for Spain. Charles I of Spain is chosen Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sets out to circumnavigate the globe. 1520 Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X. Suleiman I(“the Magnificent”) becomes Sultan of Turkey, invades Hungary(1521),Rhodes(1522),attacks Austria(1529),annexes Hungary(1541),Tripoli(1551),makes peace with Persia(1553),destroys Spanish fleet(1560),dies(1566).Magellan reaches the Pacific, is killed by Philippine natives(1521).One of his ships under Juan Sebastián del Cano continues around the world, reaches Spain(1522). 1524 Verrazano, sailing under the French flag, explores the New England coast and New York Bay. 1527 Troops of the Holy Roman Empire attack Rome, imprison Pope Clement VII—the end of the Italian Renaissance. Castiglione writesThe Courtier.The Medici family expelled from Florence. 1532 Pizarro marches from Panama to Peru, kills the Inca chieftain, Atahualpa, of Peru(1533).Machiavelli'sThe Princepublished posthumously. 1535 Reformation begins as Henry VIII makes himself head of English Church after being excommunicated by Pope. Sir Thomas Moreexecuted as traitor for refusal to acknowledge king's religious authority. Jacques Cartier sails up the St. Lawrence River, basis of French claims to Canada. 1536 Henry VIII executes second wife, Anne Boleyn. John Calvin establishes Reformed and Presbyterian form of Protestantism in Switzerland, writesInstitutes of the Christian Religion.Danish and Norwegian Reformations. Michelangelo'sLast Judgment. 1541 John Knox leads Reformation in Scotland, establishes Presbyterian church there(1560). 1543 Publication ofOn the Revolution of Heavenly Bodiesby Polish scholar Nicolaus Copernicus—giving his theory that the earth revolves around the sun. 1545 Council of Trent to meet intermittently until1563to define Catholic dogma and doctrine, reiterate papal authority. 1547 Ivan IV(“the Terrible”) crowned as czar of Russia, begins conquest of Astrakhan and Kazan(1552),battles nobles (boyars) for power(1564),kills his son(1580),dies, and is succeeded by his weak and feeble-minded son, Fyodor I. 1553 Roman Catholicism restored in England by Queen Mary I. 1556 Akbar the Great becomes Mogulemperor of India, conquers Afghanistan(1581),continues wars of conquest (until1605). 1558 Queen Elizabeth Iascends the throne (rules to1603). Restores Protestantism, establishes state Church of England (Anglicanism). Renaissance will reach height in England— Shakespeare, Marlowe, Spenser. 1561 Persecution of Huguenotsin France stopped by Edict of Orleans. French religious wars begin again with massacre of Huguenots at Vassy. St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre—thousands of Huguenots murdered(1572).Amnesty granted(1573).Persecution continues periodically until Edict of Nantes(1598)gives Huguenots religious freedom (until1685). 1568 Protestant Netherlands revolts against Catholic Spain; independence will be acknowledged by Spain in1648. 1570 Japan permits visits of foreign ships. Queen Elizabeth I excommunicated by Pope. Turks attack Cyprus and war on Venice. Turkish fleet defeated at Battle of Lepanto by Spanish and Italian fleets(1571).Peace of Constantinople(1572)ends Turkish attacks on Europe. 1580 Francis Drake returns to England after circumnavigating the globe; knighted by Queen Elizabeth I(1581).Montaigne'sEssayspublished. 1582 Pope Gregory XIII implements the Gregorian calendar. 1583 William of Orange rules the Netherlands; assassinated on orders of Philip II of Spain(1584). 1587 Mary, Queen of Scots, executed for treason by order of Queen Elizabeth I. Monteverdi'sFirst Book of Madrigals. 1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada by English. Henry, King of Navarre and Protestant leader, recognized as Henry IV, first Bourbon king of France. Converts to Roman Catholicism in1593in attempt to end religious wars.

1400–1499(A.D.)World History The Duomo in Florence Linda J. Barnes Joan of Arc (1412–1431) 1407 Casa di San Giorgio, one of the first public banks, founded in Genoa. 1415 Henry V defeats French at Agincourt. Jan Hus, Bohemian preacher and follower of Wycliffe, burned at stake in Constance as heretic. 1418–1460 Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigatorsponsors exploration of Africa's coast. 1420 Brunelleschi begins work on the Duomo in Florence. 1428 Joan of Arcleads French against English, captured by Burgundians(1430)and turned over to the English, burned at the stake as a witch after ecclesiastical trial(1431). 1438 Incasrule in Peru. 1450 Florence becomes center of Renaissance arts and learning under the Medicis. 1453 Turks conquer Constantinople, end of the Byzantine empire, beginning of the Ottoman empire. 1455 The Wars of the Roses, civil wars between rival noble factions, begin in England (to1485). Having invented printing with movable type at Mainz, Germany, Johann Gutenberg completes first Bible. 1462 Ivan the Great rules Russia until1505as first czar; ends payment of tribute to Mongols. 1492 Moors conquered in Spain by troops of Ferdinand and Isabella. Columbusbecomes first European to encounter Caribbean islands, returns to Spain(1493).Second voyage to Dominica, Jamaica, Puerto Rico(1493–1496).Third voyage to Orinoco(1498).Fourth voyage to Honduras and Panama(1502–1504). 1497 Vasco da Gama sails around Africa and discovers sea route to India(1498).Establishes Portuguese colony in India(1502).John Cabot, employed by England, reaches and explores Canadian coast. Michelangelo'sBacchussculpture.

1000–1099(A.D.)World History Mesa VerdeCliff Dwellings(c. 1000–1300) Pete Maio Cathedral and Tower at Pisa Tasha Vincent c. 1000–1300 Classic Puebloperiod of Anasazi culture; cliff dwellings. c. 1000 Hungary and Scandinavia converted to Christianity. Viking raider Leif Eriksson discovers North America, calls it Vinland.Beowulf,Old English epic. c. 1008 Murasaki Shikibu finishesThe Tale of Genji,the world's first novel. 1009 Muslims destroy Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. 1013 Danes control England. Canutetakes throne(1016),conquers Norway(1028),dies(1035);kingdom divided among his sons: Harold Harefoot (England), Sweyn (Norway), Hardecanute (Denmark). 1040 Macbeth murders Duncan, king of Scotland. 1053 Robert Guiscard, Norman invader, establishes kingdom in Italy, conquers Sicily(1072). 1054 Final separation between Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman) churches. 1055 Seljuk Turks, Asian nomads, move west, capture Baghdad, Armenia(1064),Syria, and Palestine(1075). 1066 William of Normandy invades England, defeats last Saxon king, Harold II, at Battle of Hastings, crowned William Iof England (“the Conqueror”). 1068 Construction on the cathedral in Pisa, Italy, begins. 1073 Emergence of strong papacy when Gregory VII is elected. Conflict with English and French kings and German emperors will continue throughout medieval period. 1095 At Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II calls for a holy war to wrest control of Jerusalem from Muslims, which launches the First Crusade (1096), one of at least 8 European military campaigns between 1095 and 1291 to regain the Holy Land. (For detailed chronology, see The Crusades.)

1100–1199(A.D.)World History Chartres Cathedral Tasha Vincent 1100–1300 Construction of Cathedral at Chartres, France. 1144 Second Crusade begins. c. 1150 Angkor Watis completed. 1150–1167 Universities of Paris and Oxford founded in France and England. 1162 Thomas á Becketnamed Archbishop of Canterbury, murdered by Henry II's men(1170).Troubadours (wandering minstrels) glorify romantic concepts of feudalism. 1169 Ibn-Rushd begins translating Aristotle's works. 1189 Richard I (“the Lionhearted”) succeeds Henry II in England, killed in France(1199),succeeded by King John. Third Crusade.

1200–1299(A.D.)World History The Crusades King John (1167–1216) Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) 1200–1204 Fourth Crusade. 1211 Genghis Khan invades China, captures Peking(1214),conquers Persia(1218),invades Russia(1223),dies(1227). 1212 Children's Crusade. 1215 King John forced by barons to sign Magna Cartaat Runneymede, limiting royal power. 1217 Fifth Crusade. 1228 Sixth Crusade. 1231 The Inquisitionbegins as Pope Gregory IX assigns Dominicans responsibility for combating heresy. Torture used(1252).Ferdinand and Isabella establish Spanish Inquisition(1478).Tourquemada, Grand Inquisitor, forces conversion or expulsion of Spanish Jews(1492).Forced conversion of Moors(1499).Inquisition in Portugal(1531).First Protestants burned at the stake in Spain(1543).Spanish Inquisition abolished(1834). 1241 Mongols defeat Germans in Silesia, invade Poland and Hungary, withdraw from Europe after Ughetai, Mongol leader, dies. 1248 Seventh Crusade. 1251 Kublai Khan governs China, becomes ruler of Mongols(1259),establishes Yuan dynasty in China(1280),invades Burma(1287),dies(1294). 1260 Chartres cathedral consecrated. 1270 Eighth Crusade. 1271 Marco Poloof Venice travels to China, in court of Kublai Khan(1275–1292),returns to Genoa(1295)and writesTravels. 1273 Thomas Aquinasstops work onSumma Theologica,the basis of all Catholic theological teaching; never completes it. 1295 English King Edward I summons the Model Parliament.

1300–1399(A.D.)World History 1312–1337 Mali Empire reaches its height in Africa under King Mansa Musa. c. 1325 The beginning of the Renaissancein Italy: writers Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio; painter Giotto. Development ofNohdrama in Japan. Aztecsestablish Tenochtitlán on site of modern Mexico City. Peak of Muslim culture in Spain. Small cannon in use. 1337–1453 Hundred Years' War—English and French kings fight for control of France. 1347–1351 At least 25 million people die in Europe's “Black Death” (bubonic plague). 1368 MingDynasty begins in China. 1376–1382 John Wycliffe, pre-Reformation religious reformer, and followers translate Latin Bible into English. 1378 The Great Schism (to1417)—rival popes in Rome and Avignon, France, fight for control of Roman Catholic Church. c. 1387 Chaucer'sCanterbury Tales. 1398 Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, begins last great conquest—Delhi.

World history (801-999): 800–849 Charlemagne crowned first Holy Roman Emperor in Rome(800).Charlemagne dies(814),succeeded by his son, Louis the Pious, who divides France among his sons(817).Arabs conquer Crete, Sicily, and Sardinia(826–827). 850–899 Norsemen attack as far south as the Mediterranean but are thwarted(859),discover Iceland(861).Alfred the Great becomes king of Britain(871),defeats Danish invaders(878).Russian nation founded by Vikings under Prince Rurik, establishing capital at Novgorod(855–879). 900–949 Beginning of Mayan Post-Classical period (900–1519). Vikings discover Greenland(c. 900).Arab Spain under Abd ar-Rahman III becomes center of learning(912–961).Otto I becomes King of Germany (936). 950–999 Mieczyslaw I becomes first ruler of Poland(960).Eric the Red establishes first Viking colony in Greenland(982).Hugh Capet elected King of France in987;Capetian dynasty to rule until1328.Musical notation systematized(c. 990).Vikings and Danes attack Britain(988–999).Otto I crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII(962).

World History 1–800(A.D.)World History Roman AqueductMontpellier, France Tina Diodati Christ Celtic Cross Renée Scott Mayan Pyramid at Chichén Itzá Renée Scott Japanese Pagoda Erik Hjortshoj Viking Ship (c. 900) 1–49 Birth of Jesus Christ (variously given from4B.C.toA.D.7).After Augustus, Tiberius becomes emperor (dies,A.D.37), succeeded by Caligula (assassinated,A.D.41), who is followed by Claudius. Crucifixion of Jesus (probablyA.D.30). Han dynasty in China founded by Emperor Kuang Wu Ti. Buddhism introduced to China. 50–99 Claudius poisoned(A.D.54),succeeded by Nero (commits suicide,A.D.68). Missionary journeys of Paul the Apostle(A.D.34–60).Jews revolt against Rome; Jerusalem destroyed(A.D.70).Roman persecutions of Christians begin(A.D.64).Colosseum built in Rome(A.D.71–80).Trajan (rulesA.D.98–116); Roman empire extends to Mesopotamia, Arabia, Balkans. First Gospels of St. Mark, St. John, St. Matthew. 100–149 Hadrian rules Rome(A.D.117–138);codifies Roman law, rebuilds Pantheon, establishes postal system, builds wall between England and Scotland. Jews revolt under Bar Kokhba(A.D.122–135);final Diaspora (dispersion) of Jews begins. 150–199 Marcus Aurelius rules Rome(A.D.161–180). Oldest Mayan temples in Central America(c.A.D.200). 200–249 Goths invade Asia Minor(c.A.D.220).Roman persecutions of Christians increase. Persian (Sassanid) empire re-established. End of Chinese Han dynasty. 250–299 Increasing invasions of the Roman empire by Franks and Goths. Buddhism spreads in China. Classic period of Mayan civilization (A.D.250–900); develop hieroglyphic writing, advances in art, architecture, science. 300–349 Constantine the Great (rulesA.D.312–337) reunites eastern and western Roman empires, with new capital (Constantinople) on site of Byzantium(A.D.330);issues Edict of Milan legalizing Christianity(A.D.313);becomes a Christian on his deathbed(A.D.337).Council of Nicaea(A.D.325)defines orthodox Christian doctrine. First Gupta dynasty in India(c.A.D.320). 350–399 Huns (Mongols) invade Europe(c.A.D.360).Theodosius the Great (rulesA.D.392–395)—last emperor of a united Roman empire. Roman empire permanently divided inA.D.395:western empire ruled from Rome; eastern empire ruled from Constantinople. 400–449 Western Roman empire disintegrates under weak emperors. Alaric, king of the Visigoths, sacks Rome(A.D.410).Attila, Hun chieftain, attacks Roman provinces(A.D.433).St. Patrick returns to Ireland(A.D.432) and brings Christianity to the island.St. Augustine'sCity of God(A.D.411). 450–499 Vandals destroy Rome(A.D.455).Western Roman empire ends as Odoacer, German chieftain, overthrows last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and becomes king of Italy(A.D.476).Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy established by Theodoric the Great(A.D.493).Clovis, ruler of the Franks, is converted to Christianity(A.D.496).First schism between western and eastern churches(A.D.484). 500–549 Eastern and western churches reconciled(519).Justinian I, the Great(483–565),becomes Byzantine emperor(527),issues his first code of civil laws(529),conquers North Africa, Italy, and part of Spain. Plague spreads through Europe (542et seq.). Arthur, semi-legendary king of the Britons (killed,c. 537). Boëthius, Roman scholar (executed,524). 550–599 Beginnings of European silk industry after Justinian's missionaries smuggle silkworms out of China(553).Mohammed, founder of Islam(570–632).Buddhism in Japan(c. 560).St. Augustine of Canterbury brings Christianity to Britain(597).After killing about half the population, plague in Europe subsides(594). 600–649 Mohammed flees from Mecca to Medina (theHegira); first year of the Muslim calendar(622).Muslim empire grows(634).Arabs conquer Jerusalem(637),conquer Persians(641). 650–699 Arabs attack North Africa(670),destroy Carthage(697).Venerable Bede, English monk(672–735). 700–749 Arab empire extends from Lisbon to China (by716). Charles Martel, Frankish leader, defeats Arabs at Tours/Poitiers, halting Arab advance in Europe(732).Charlemagne(742–814).Introduction of pagodas in Japan from China. 750–799 Charlemagne becomes king of the Franks(771).Caliph Harun al-Rashid rules Arab empire(786–809):the “golden age” of Arab culture. Vikings begin attacks on Britain(790),land in Ireland(795).City of Machu Picchu flourishes in Peru.

Ancient History (part 2 of 2): Before Christ(B.C.)or Before the Common Era(B.C.E.) 700–600B.C. End of Assyrian Empire(616B.C.)—Nineveh destroyed by Chaldeans (Neo-Babylonians) and Medes(612B.C.).Founding of Byzantium by Greeks(c. 660B.C.).Building of the Acropolis in Athens. Solon, Greek lawgiver(640–560B.C.).Sappho of Lesbos, Greek poet(fl. c. 610–580B.C.). Lao-tse, Chinese philosopher and founder of Taoism (bornc. 604B.C.). 600–500B.C. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar builds empire, destroys Jerusalem(586B.C.).Babylonian Captivity of the Jews (starting587B.C.).Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Cyrus the Great of Persia creates great empire, conquers Babylon(539B.C.),frees the Jews. Athenian democracy develops. Aeschylus, Greek dramatist(525–465B.C.).Pythagoras, Greek philosopher and mathematician(582?–507?B.C.). Confucius(551–479B.C.)develops ethical and social philosophy in China. TheAnalectsor Lun-yü (“collected sayings”) are compiled by the second generation of Confucian disciples. Buddha(563?–483?B.C.)founds Buddhism in India. 500–400B.C. Greeks defeat Persians: battles of Marathon(490B.C.),Thermopylae(480B.C.),Salamis(480B.C.).Peloponnesian Wars between Athens and Sparta(431–404B.C.)—Sparta victorious. Pericles comes to power in Athens(462B.C.).Flowering of Greek culture during the Age of Pericles(450–400B.C.).The Parthenon is built in Athens as a temple of the goddess Athena (447–432B.C.). Ictinus and Callicrates are the architects and Phidias is responsible for the sculpture. Sophocles, Greek dramatist(496?–406B.C.).Hippocrates, Greek “Father of Medicine” (born460B.C.).Xerxes I, king of Persia (rules485–465B.C.). 400–300B.C. Pentateuch—first five books of the Old Testament evolve in final form. Philip of Macedon, who believed himself to be a descendant of the Greek people, assassinated(336B.C.)after subduing the Greek city-states; succeeded by son, Alexander the Great(356–323B.C.), who destroys Thebes(335B.C.),conquers Tyre and Jerusalem(332B.C.),occupies Babylon(330B.C.),invades India, and dies in Babylon. His empire is divided among his generals; one of them, Seleucis I, establishes Middle East empire with capitals at Antioch (Syria) and Seleucia (in Iraq). Trial and execution of Greek philosopher Socrates(399B.C.).Dialogues recorded by his student, Plato(c. 427–348 or 347B.C.).Euclid's work on geometry(323B.C.). Aristotle, Greek philosopher(384–322B.C.).Demosthenes, Greek orator(384–322B.C.).Praxiteles, Greek sculptor(400–330B.C.). 300–251B.C. First Punic War(264–241B.C.):Rome defeats the Carthaginians and begins its domination of the Mediterranean. Temple of the Sun at Teotihuacán, Mexico(c. 300B.C.).Invention of Mayan calendar in Yucatán—more exact than older calendars. First Roman gladiatorial games(264B.C.).Archimedes, Greek mathematician(287–212B.C.). 250–201B.C. Second Punic War(219–201B.C.):Hannibal, Carthaginian general(246–142B.C.),crosses the Alps(218B.C.),reaches gates of Rome(211B.C.),retreats, and is defeated by Scipio Africanus at Zama(202B.C.).Great Wall of China built(c. 215B.C.). 200–151B.C. Romans defeat Seleucid King Antiochus III at Thermopylae(191B.C.)—beginning of Roman world domination. Maccabean revolt against Seleucids(167B.C.). 150–101B.C. Third Punic War(149–146B.C.):Rome destroys Carthage, killing 450,000 and enslaving the remaining 50,000 inhabitants. Roman armies conquer Macedonia, Greece, Anatolia, Balearic Islands, and southern France. Venus de Milo(c. 140B.C.).Cicero, Roman orator(106–43B.C.). 100–51B.C. Julius Caesar(100–44B.C.)invades Britain(55B.C.)and conquers Gaul (France)(c. 50B.C.).Spartacus leads slave revolt against Rome(71B.C.).Romans conquer Seleucid empire. Roman general Pompey conquers Jerusalem(63B.C.).Cleopatra on Egyptian throne(51–31B.C.).Chinese develop use of paper(c. 100B.C.).Virgil, Roman poet(70–19B.C.).Horace, Roman poet(65–8B.C.). 50–1B.C. Caesar crosses Rubicon to fight Pompey(50B.C.).Herod made Roman governor of Judea(37B.C.).Caesar murdered(44B.C.).Caesar's nephew, Octavian, defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Battle of Actium(31B.C.),and establishes Roman empire as Emperor Augustus; rules27B.C.–A.D.14.Pantheon built for the first time under Agrippa, 27B.C.Ovid, Roman poet(43B.C.–A.D.18).

Ancient History (part 1 of 2): Before Christ(B.C.)or Before the Common Era(B.C.E.) 4.5 billion – 1B.C.World History Some Ancient Civilizations Ra, Egyptian Sun God (3000–2000B.C.) See also Egyptian Mythology The Great Pyramid at Giza (c. 2680B.C.) Kim Storm Stonehenge (c. 3000–1500B.C.) Peter F. Harrington Pythagoras (582?–507?B.C.) Buddha (563?–483?B.C.) Confucius(551–479B.C.) Parthenon(447–432B.C.) See also Greek and Roman Mythology Tina Diodati Plato (427?–348 or 347B.C.) Augustus Caesar (63B.C.–A.D.14) Mayan Hieroglyphics (c. 200B.C.) Pantheon in Rome(27B.C.; c.A.D.118–128) See also Greek and Roman Mythology Elaine Ouellette 4.5 billionB.C. Planet Earth formed. 3 billionB.C. First signs of primeval life (bacteria and blue-green algae) appear in oceans. 600 millionB.C. Earliest date to which fossils can be traced. 4.4 millionB.C. Earliest known hominid fossils (Ardipithecus ramidus) found in Aramis, Ethiopia, 1994. 4.2 millionB.C. Australopithecus anamensisfound in Lake Turkana, Kenya, 1995. 3.2 millionB.C. Australopithecus afarenis(nicknamed “Lucy”) found in Ethiopia, 1974. 2.5 millionB.C. Homo habilis(“Skillful Man”). First brain expansion; is believed to have used stone tools. 1.8 millionB.C. Homo erectus(“Upright Man”). Brain size twice that ofAustralopithecinespecies. 1.7 millionB.C. Homo erectusleaves Africa. 100,000B.C. First modernHomo sapiensin South Africa. 70,000B.C. Neanderthal man (use of fire and advanced tools). 35,000B.C. Neanderthal man replaced by later groups ofHomo sapiens(i.e., Cro-Magnon man, etc.). 18,000B.C. Cro-Magnons replaced by later cultures. 15,000B.C. Migrations across Bering Straits into the Americas. 10,000B.C. Semi-permanent agricultural settlements in Old World. 10,000–4,000B.C. Development of settlements into cities and development of skills such as the wheel, pottery, and improved methods of cultivation in Mesopotamia and elsewhere. 5500–3000B.C. Predynastic Egyptian cultures develop(5500–3100B.C.);begin using agriculture(c. 5000B.C.). Earliest known civilization arises in Sumer(4500–4000B.C.).Earliest recorded date in Egyptian calendar(4241B.C.).First year of Jewish calendar(3760B.C.).First phonetic writing appears(c. 3500B.C.).Sumerians develop a city-state civilization(c. 3000B.C.).Copper used by Egyptians and Sumerians. Western Europe is neolithic, without metals or written records. 3000–2000B.C. Pharaonic rule begins in Egypt. King Khufu (Cheops), 4th dynasty(2700–2675B.C.),completes construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza (c. 2680B.C.). The Great Sphinx of Giza (c. 2540B.C.) is built by King Khafre. Earliest Egyptian mummies. Papyrus. Phoenician settlements on coast of what is now Syria and Lebanon. Semitic tribes settle in Assyria. Sargon, first Akkadian king, builds Mesopotamian empire. The Gilgamesh epic(c. 3000B.C.).Systematic astronomy in Egypt, Babylon, India, China. 3000–1500B.C. The most ancient civilization on the Indian subcontinent, the sophisticated and extensive Indus Valley civilization, flourishes in what is today Pakistan. In Britain, Stonehenge erected according to some unknown astronomical rationale. Its three main phases of construction are thought to span c. 3000–1500B.C. 2000–1500B.C. Hyksos invaders drive Egyptians from Lower Egypt(17th centuryB.C.).Amosis I frees Egypt from Hyksos(c. 1600B.C.).Assyrians rise to power—cities of Ashur and Nineveh. Twenty-four-character alphabet in Egypt. Cuneiform inscriptions used by Hittites. Peak of Minoan culture on Isle of Crete—earliest form of written Greek. Hammurabi, king of Babylon, develops oldest existing code of laws(18th centuryB.C.). 1500–1000B.C. Ikhnaton develops monotheistic religion in Egypt(c. 1375B.C.).His successor, Tutankhamen, returns to earlier gods. Greeks destroy Troy(c. 1193B.C.).End of Greek civilization in Mycenae with invasion of Dorians. Chinese civilization develops under Shang Dynasty. Olmec civilization in Mexico—stone monuments; picture writing. 1000–900B.C. Solomon succeeds King David, builds Jerusalem temple. After Solomon's death, kingdom divided into Israel and Judah. Hebrew elders begin to write Old Testament books of Bible. Phoenicians colonize Spain with settlement at Cadiz. 900–800B.C. Phoenicians establish Carthage(c. 810B.C.).TheIliadand theOdyssey,perhaps composed by Greek poet Homer. 800–700B.C. Prophets Amos, Hosea, Isaiah. First recorded Olympic games(776B.C.).Legendary founding of Rome by Romulus(753B.C.).Assyrian king Sargon II conquers Hittites, Chaldeans, Samaria (end of Kingdom of Israel). Earliest written music. Chariots introduced into Italy by Etruscans.

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES: US GOVERNMENT—A SYSTEM OF CHECKS AND BALANCES Native peoples lived throughout the Americas for centuries—arriving from Asia by a land bridge—and they developed complex, diverse cultures. The arrival of Europeans completely changed their way of life. Soon after Columbus landed in North America, other European explorers followed. Within a century, European countries were planning permanent colonies in North America. c. AD 1000Leif Eriksson is the first European to set foot in North America c. 1400Native tribes move into the southwest 1492Christopher Columbus sails west from Spain for Asia and lands in the West Indies 1513Ponce de León claims Florida for Spain 1519–21Hernán Cortés conquers the Aztec Empire 1532Francisco Pizarro conquers the Inca Empire 1585–87Two unsuccessful attempts are made to colonize Roanoke Island 1607Jamestown founded 1620Mayflower compact; Pilgrims found Plymouth 1621First Thanksgiving 1660King Charles II of England assigns land to be sold to colonists 1692Salem witch trials 1754Outbreak of French and Indian War 1763Treaty of Paris ends French claims in North America 1779Boston Massacre 1773Tea Act; Rebellious colonists stage the Boston Tea Party 1774The 13 colonies form First Continental Congress 1775–83American Revolution begins at Lexington and Concord; ends after British surrender at Yorktown July 4, 1776Declaration of Independence signed 1781Articles of Confederation ratified 1787Constitution signed 1789George Washington elected first US president 1791Bill of Rights ratified 1803Louisiana Purchase doubles land area of US 1812–14US at war with Great Britain; British burn Washington, D.C.; “Star-Spangled Banner” written 1820Missouri Compromise signed in attempt to avoid crisis over slavery 1823Monroe Doctrine 1830Indian Removal Act creates “Indian territories” 1840Telegraph first used 1841Oregon trail opens 1846US war against Mexico; US borders extended to Pacific Ocean 1849California Gold Rush 1861Civil War erupts when southern states secede from Union, forming Confederate States of America 1863Battle of Gettysburg; Gettysburg Address; Emancipation Proclamation 186513th Amendment abolishes slavery 1865Lee surrenders to Grant; President Lincoln assassinated 1867Reconstruction Act 186814th Amendment grants citizenship to African Americans 1869Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads meet at Promontory Point 187015th Amendment gives African Americans the right to vote 1876Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone 1879Thomas Edison makes the electric light bulb 1882Chinese Exclusion Act 1886Haymarket riot; American Federation of Labor organized 1890Frontier closes; massacre of American Indians at Wounded Knee 1898Spanish-American War; US acquires the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii 1903First flight by Wright brothers at Kitty Hawk 191316th Amendment places federal tax on income 1914Panama Canal opens 1915German U-boat sinks theLusitania 1916Child Labor Act 1917US enters World War I; end of Progressivism 1918End of World War I 191918th Amendment begins Prohibition 192019th Amendment gives women the vote 1927Charles Lindbergh makes flight across Atlantic; first “talkie” released 1929Stock market crashes; Great Depression 1933Great Plains become the “Dust Bowl”; President Roosevelt launches the New Deal 1939Germany invades Czechoslovakia and Poland; Great Britain and France declare war on Germany Dec. 7, 1941Pearl Harbor attacked; US enters war 1942Relocation of Japanese-Americans begins; Bataan Death March; Battles of Coral Sea and Midway June 6, 1944D-Day May 8, 1945Germany surrenders Aug. 6, 1945US drops atomic bomb on Hiroshima Aug. 9, 1945US drops atomic bomb on Nagasaki Aug. 15, 1945Japan surrenders 1948Marshall Plan implemented; Berlin airlift 1950McCarthy hearings begin; start of Korean War 1954Supreme Court ruling onBrown v. Board of Education 1955Montgomery bus boycott 1957Sputnik Ilaunched 1958First American satellite goes into orbit 1961Bay of Pigs fiasco 1962Cuban Missile Crisis 1963March on Washington, D.C.; Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. delivers “I Have a Dream” speech Nov. 22, 1963President Kennedy assassinated 1965American troops sent to Vietnam 1968My Lai massacre Apr. 4, 1968Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. assassinated; violence erupts in 125 cities 1969Apollo 11crew lands on the Moon 1972Watergate break-in 1974President Nixon resigns 1975US personnel evacuated from Saigon; South Vietnam surrenders 1979Global oil shortage; gas rationing 1979Iranian rebels seize US Embassy 1981Scientists identify Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) Jan. 28, 1986Space shuttleChallengerexplodes 1986Iran-Contra scandal 1989Berlin Wall torn down; fall of communism in eastern Europe begins 1991US leads coalition in Operation Desert Storm 1992US troops join UN mission in Somalia 1995Oklahoma City bombing 1998President Clinton impeached, later acquitted