HISTORY OF CANADA (part 1 of 2): CANADA’S PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES FIND OUT MORE The first people in Canada came from Asia 70,000 to 12,000 years ago, via a land bridge now covered by the Bering Sea. The “First Nations” spread across Canada, obtaining food by hunting, gathering, and farming. Around 6000 BC, the Inuit settled in the north. By the time Europeans reached Canada, the native peoples had well-developed trading patterns, societies, and cultures. 70,000–10,000 BCNomadic hunters arrive in Canada c. 6000 BCInuit arrive in Canada c. AD 1000Leif Eriksson and other Vikings visit Labrador and L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland 1003Vikings establish a colony in Labrador (Vinland), but it is abandoned two years later 1497John Cabot’s first voyage to North America; Cape Breton Island claimed for Henry VII of England 1534Jacques Cartier visits the Strait of Belle Isle (Newfoundland) and charts the Gulf of St. Lawrence 1608Samuel de Champlain, “Father of New France,” founds Quebec City, the first permanent European settlement in Canada 1610Henry Hudson explores Hudson Bay 1642Montreal is founded 1670The Hudson Bay Company is founded by royal charter and granted trade rights over all territory draining into Hudson Bay 1713The Treaty of Utrecht confirms British possession of Newfoundland, Hudson Bay, and Acadia (except Cape Breton Island) 1754Start of French and Indian War in America. Marks the final phase in the struggle between France and Britain in North America 1755Britain expels the Acadians from Nova Scotia, scattering them throughout her North American colonies 1759General Wolfe defeats the French on the Plains of Abraham and takes the city of Quebec for the British 1763France cedes its North American possessions to Britain in the Treaty of Paris 1774The Quebec Act provides for British criminal law but restores French civil law and guarantees religious freedom for Roman Catholics 1775–76American revolutionary forces capture Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point; Quebec City withstands a five-month American siege until the appearance of a British fleet 1791The Constitutional Act divides Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada 1792George Vancouver begins his explorations of the Pacific Coast 1818Canada’s border with the United States is defined as the 49th Parallel from Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains 1841Act of Union unites Upper and Lower Canada as the Province of Canada 184790,000 immigrants, mostly from Ireland, arrive in Canada. 5,000 die of cholera while in quarantine; 15,000 die after moving to Quebec City, Montreal, Toronto, and Kingston 1849The boundary of the 49th Parallel is extended to the Pacific Ocean 1867Britain’s North American colonies are united to become the Dominion of Canada and Sir John A. Macdonald becomes Canada’s first prime minister 1870The Red River Rebellion, in which the Métis (led by Louis Riel) resist Canadian authority in the northwest of the country, is put down 1885Riel leads the Northwest Rebellion. The Métis are defeated at Batoche, and Riel is hanged for treason. The last spike of the transcontinental railway is put in place 1895Gold is discovered in the Klondike River, prompting the biggest gold rush in history. Nearly 2.4 million settlers arrive in the country in several waves of immigration 1899The first Canadian troops ever sent overseas are dispatched to the Boer War 1903Canada loses the Alaska boundary dispute with the US 1914Britain declares war on Germany, automatically drawing Canada into the conflict in Europe. The War Measures Act orders all German and Austro-Hungarian Canadians to carry identity cards 1916The government of Manitoba grants women the right to vote and hold office 1917Munitions ship explodes in Halifax harbor, killing 2,000 and injuring 9,000. Income tax is introduced as a temporary wartime measure 1918Canadians break through the German trenches at Amiens beginning “Canada’s Hundred Days.” Armistice ends World War I 1922Canadians Charles Best, Frederick Banting, and John MacLeod win the Nobel Prize for the discovery of insulin 1929Great Depression

HISTORY OF CANADA (part 2 of 2): 1931The Statute of Westminster grants Canada full legislative authority 1935Ten percent of Canadians rely on welfare or “relief.” The “On to Ottawa Trek” by young men from government work camps ends in a riot at Regina 1939Canada declares war on Germany 1942Canadians of Japanese descent are moved inland from the coast of British Columbia as “security risks”; their property is confiscated 1944Canadian troops push farther inland than any other Allied units on D-Day 1945World War II ends. One million Canadians fought in World War II; 42,042 were killed. Canada joins the UN. Canada’s first nuclear reactor goes online in Chalk River, Ontario 1950Canadian troops participate in the Korean War as part of a UN force 1952Canada’s first television station begins broadcasting in Montreal and Toronto 1960The separation crisis begins in Quebec. Supporters of the Parti Québécois call for independence from a federal Canada 1965Canada’s new flag is inaugurated after a bitter political debate 1967Montreal plays host to Expo ’67 1976The Olympic games are held in Montreal 1980Quebec votes “no” to separatism in a referendum 1982Canada gains a new Constitution and Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The charter entrenches English/French bilingualism within federal institutions and provides for minority language education across the country 1988Calgary hosts the XV Winter Olympics 1989The Free Trade Agreement between Canada and the US goes into effect 1991Canadian forces join the battle to drive Iraqi troops from Kuwait. Yukon First Nations members sign an agreement on land claims and self-government 1995People of Quebec vote by a narrow majority to remain part of Canada 1999The Inuit territory of Nunavut, which covers one-fifth of Canada’s landmass, is established 2000At the largest state funeral in the country’s history, Canada bids farewell to ex-Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau 2003The Parti Québécois is ousted by Quebec’s Liberal party in the provincial elections CANADA’S PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES Table 60. CANADA’S PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES 1867New Brunswick 1867Nova Scotia 1867Ontario 1867Quebec 1870Manitoba 1871British Columbia 1873Prince Edward Island 1898Yukon Territory 1905Alberta 1905Northwest Territories 1905Saskatchewan 1949Newfoundland 1999Nunavut Territory

MIDDLE EAST: WHY HAS THERE BEEN FIGHTING IN ISRAEL? WHO CAME TO POWER IN IRAQ? The Middle East saw much conflict during the last century. Its deserts contain the world’s biggest oil fields, which have brought wealth to the area’s rulers but also colonial interference and wars. Other flashpoints were the creation of Israel and disputes over the role of Islam in government. WHY HAS THERE BEEN FIGHTING IN ISRAEL? In 1948, the UN made part of Palestine the Jewish nation of Israel. Jewish people returned to their traditional homeland, but many displaced Palestinian Arabs became refugees. The struggle between Israelis and Palestinians for this land continues. WHO CAME TO POWER IN IRAQ? In 1963, the Ba’ath party seized power in Iraq with US support. In 1979, Saddam Hussein became president. Iraq fought against Iran, and invaded oil-rich Kuwait, which was liberated by a US-led coalition in 1991. In 2003, the US and Great Britain claimed that Hussein remained an international threat and invaded Iraq.

DECOLONIZATION: WHEN DID WINDS OF CHANGE BLOW? APARTHEID After 1945, European nations began to give up their colonies. In some places, power was handed back to local people peacefully. White South Africans refused to share power, creating a system of APARTHEID. WHEN DID WINDS OF CHANGE BLOW? In 1960, the British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan made a speech in South Africa, declaring that a “wind of change” was blowing through the African continent. He meant that the age of empires and colonies was coming to an end. Today only a few colonies or “overseas territories” still exist. APARTHEID Apartheid is a word from the Afrikaans language that means “staying apart.” It was the South African government’s policy of racial separation from 1948 to 1994. White people, who made up only 14 percent of the population, refused to give the vote to black or Asian people. These peoples were denied basic rights and were not allowed to mix with the whites. WHAT WERE THE EFFECTS OF APARTHEID? Black people were not permitted to live in areas reserved for whites. They were not even allowed to sit on the same benches. Many black people endured bad housing, poverty, and inadequate education. Black and white South Africans who protested against apartheid risked imprisonment or death. WHEN DID APARTHEID END? The end of apartheid came in 1994, when Nelson Mandela won South Africa’s first democratic general election. This occasion marked the end of two centuries in which Europeans had attempted to rule the rest of the world. However, the newly independent nations of Africa still face many problems. BIOGRAPHY: NELSON MANDELA 1918- Nelson Mandela was a black lawyer who campaigned against apartheid. Imprisoned from 1964–1990, he became a symbol of resistance. After his release, he became South Africa’s first black president.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: WHY WAS THE UNITED NATIONS FOUNDED? WHAT OTHER ALLIANCES WERE SET UP? Nations have always formed alliances. In the 20th century, many new international organizations were set up worldwide for economic and political reasons, defense and peacekeeping, and health and welfare. WHY WAS THE UNITED NATIONS FOUNDED? The League of Nations was founded in 1919 to keep the peace after World War I. But it failed to prevent World War II in 1939, so in 1945 the nations of the world set up a new organization, the United Nations (UN). Since then, the UN has encouraged international cooperation and worked to resolve conflict. THE OLIVE BRANCH The United Nations flag shows the world surrounded by olive branches, a symbol of peace. The UN has sent peacekeeping forces around the world. WHAT OTHER ALLIANCES WERE SET UP? Some alliances have been political, such as the Arab League (1945) or the Organization of African Unity (1963). The European Economic Community (1958) grew from a small trading alliance into the European Union. Military alliances included the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949–) and the Warsaw Pact (1955–1991).

COLD WAR: WHAT WAS THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS? WHAT WAS THE VIETNAM WAR? WHAT WAS THE IRON CURTAIN? After World War II, allies who had fought fascism together became rivals for world power. From 1945 to 1990, there was a period of tension called the Cold War. Capitalist countries, led by the US, clashed with the communist countries of the Soviet Union and China. WHAT WAS THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS? Both sides in the Cold War were heavily armed with nuclear weapons. In 1962, the Soviet Union secretly stationed missiles in communist Cuba. The US found out and demanded that the missiles be removed. The Soviet Union gave in, and the world narrowly avoided a nuclear war. WHAT WAS THE VIETNAM WAR? In 1954, the French colonial army in Vietnam was defeated by communist rebels. The country was divided into North and South Vietnam, and the US intervened to support an anticommunist government in the South. During the 1960s, troops were sent to fight the communists. They failed to defeat them, and Vietnam united under communist rule in 1975. WHAT WAS THE IRON CURTAIN? World War II had left communist governments in control of central and eastern Europe. They were opposed by the nations of western Europe and the United States. The two hostile sides, or “blocs,” became isolated from each other. In a speech, British politician Winston Churchill said that it was as if an “iron curtain” had fallen across Europe.

WORLD WAR II: HOW DID THE WAR BEGIN? WHY WAS THIS A WORLD WAR? WAR IN THE PACIFIC WHEN DID THE TIDE TURN? BLITZKRIEG HOLOCAUST ATOM BOMB In 1939, Nazi Germany invaded its neighboring countries, beginning a world war that left about 40 million people dead. Unlike World War I, this was high-speed warfare, or BLITZKRIEG. It ended with the discovery of the terrible truth about the Nazi HOLOCAUSTand the unleashing of the ATOM BOMB. Table 59. A WORLD AT WAR 1939Germany invades Poland; Britain and France declare war 1940Germany invades most of western Europe; Italy enters war 1941Germany invades Yugoslavia, Greece, Soviet Union; Japan attacks US 1942Japan invades southeast Asia and Pacific 1944France liberated 1945Allied victory HOW DID THE WAR BEGIN? The military power of Nazi Germany grew unchecked until its tanks invaded Poland. In 1939, Britain and France declared war against Hitler, but in 1940 he invaded the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Denmark, and Norway. Only a period of air warfare, the Battle of Britain, saved the United Kingdom from invasion. WHY WAS THIS A WORLD WAR? The Allies included British, Australians, New Zealanders, Canadians, and South Africans, as well as exiled French and Poles. They were joined in 1941 by two giants—the Soviet Union and the US. The Axis alliance of Germany and Italy was extended to include Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Japan. WAR IN THE PACIFIC In 1941, Japan launched an unprovoked attack on Pearl Harbor, a US naval base in Hawaii. The US, the world’s most powerful nation, entered the war. The Pacific conflict with Japan lasted nearly four years. WHEN DID THE TIDE TURN? In 1942, the US smashed Japanese naval power at the Battle of Midway. Allied victories in North Africa allowed an advance through Italy in 1943. In heavy fighting on Europe’s Eastern Front, the Russians defeated the Germans at Stalingrad. By 1945, the Allies were invading Germany from east and west. BLITZKRIEG Blitzkrieg means “lightning war” in German. The term was first used in 1939 to describe the tactics of high-speed warfare that launched the Nazi invasion of Europe. It was made possible by new technology and weapons. WHAT WERE THE NEW WAYS OF WAGING WAR? Blitzkrieg used fast tanks and aircraft to bypass ground defenses. Paratroops were dropped behind enemy lines. Civilians died in cities that were bombed. The British shortened blitzkrieg to “blitz” to describe the massive bombing of their cities. The Allies also adopted blitzkrieg tactics and bombed German cities into rubble. This war also saw the development of radar for detecting enemy aircraft, as well as submarine warfare, flying bombs, and rockets. BIOGRAPHY: WINSTON CHURCHILL 1874–1965 Churchill had a long and controversial political career, which most people regarded as over in the years before the war. However, his outspoken opposition to Nazi Germany made him the ideal choice for prime minister in 1940. His determination, eloquence, and sense of humor made him a popular and successful leader. HOLOCAUST The Holocaust (“sacrifice by burning”) was an attempt to murder the entire Jewish people. German concentration camps had existed since the 1930s, but this act of genocide was accelerated by Nazi leaders at the Wannsee Conference in 1942. About six million Jews died. WHO DISCOVERED THE CONCENTRATION CAMPS? In 1945, as Allied forces advanced, they found evidence of this monstrous crime. Jews from all over Europe had been rounded up, forced into cattle cars on trains, and taken to prison camps, along with other peoples the Nazis despised, such as Roma. Some victims were forced to work as slave labor; others were killed immediately in gas chambers. ATOM BOMB Throughout the war, the US had secretly been developing the most destructive weapon ever known—the atom bomb. This produced energy by nuclear fission. In August 1945, US planes dropped two atom bombs on Japan. Japan surrendered. WHY DID THE US DROP THE BOMB? The United States government wished to bring the war to a rapid end and prevent the loss of any more troops. Critics of the bomb believed that the extent of its power, and the resulting loss of so many civilian lives, was morally unacceptable.

FASCISM: FASCIST DICTATOR WERE THERE FASCISTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES? WHO WERE THE NAZIS? BIOGRAPHY: ADOLF HITLER 1889–1945 SPANISH CIVIL WAR In 1922 a political movement called fascism grew up in Italy. It took its name from the fasces, an ax emblem that symbolized state power in Ancient Rome. Fascists believed in the authority of the state. Extremely nationalistic, they opposed democracy and communism. FASCIST DICTATOR Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) marched on Rome in 1922 and became Italian dictator in 1925. WERE THERE FASCISTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES? Fascism found supporters in many Western nations. It attracted people who were more worried about public order and unemployment than personal freedom. The National Socialist German Workers’ Party was founded in 1920. The Falange, a fascist movement founded in 1933, took part in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR. WHO WERE THE NAZIS? Germany’s National Socialists were known as Nazis. Their leader was Adolf Hitler. During the 1930s he provided work for the unemployed and built up Germany’s forces illegally. Nazi thugs bullied, cheated, and murdered their way to power. They were extreme racists, consumed by hatred of the Jewish people. BIOGRAPHY: ADOLF HITLER 1889–1945 Austrian-born Adolf Hitler served in a German regiment during World War I. Embittered by defeat, he organized the Nazis and their seizure of power in Germany. As dictator, Hitler persecuted Jews and crushed opposition. His invasions of neighboring lands led to World War II. SPANISH CIVIL WAR Civil war raged in Spain from 1936 to 1939. An alliance led by General Franco overthrew the elected government of the Spanish Republic. Franco’s supporters were Falangists, conservatives, monarchists, and Catholics. Fighting for the government were socialists, communists, and regionalists. WHO JOINED THE WAR? Franco was backed by fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Government forces received help from the Soviet Union and were backed by antifascist volunteers from all over Europe and the Americas. Many of these young idealists died fighting for Republican International Brigades. But the Republic fell, and Franco ruled Spain as dictator until his death in 1975.

ASIAN CONFLICT: HOW DID GANDHI FIGHT FOR FREEDOM? WHEN DID JAPAN BECOME POWERFUL? The first half of the 20th century saw Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands being challenged by the peoples they ruled in south and southeast Asia. At the same time, Japan was trying to take the place of the Europeans and create its own Asian empire. Table 58. ASIA 1920–1942 1920–1922Gandhi leads Indian National Congress Campaign 1926–1942Nationalist agitation in Indochina 1940Japan occupies French Indochina 1942The Vietminh founded HOW DID GANDHI FIGHT FOR FREEDOM? When Indian nationalists were demanding self-rule, one of the leading campaigners against the British was Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948). Instead of calling for an uprising, Gandhi used nonviolent methods of protest. He lived very simply and called for India to return to the traditional values of village life. He became known as Mahatma or “great soul.” This man of peace was assassinated in 1948. WHEN DID JAPAN BECOME POWERFUL? After 1868, Japan turned itself into an industrial nation. It defeated Russia in 1904–1905 and annexed Korea in 1910. In 1919, it gained former German territories in the Far East. During the 1930s, extreme nationalists and the military planned Japan’s invasion of China. In the 1940s, during World War II, Japanese armies finally swept through southeast Asia.

THE DEPRESSION: WHAT WAS THE WALL STREET CRASH? HOW WIDESPREAD WAS THE DEPRESSION? An economic depression is a period of falling prices, low production of goods, and high unemployment. The Great Depression of 1929–1934 caused hardship in the United States, in the countries of Europe, and in their overseas empires. Banks closed and firms went out of business. WHAT WAS THE WALL STREET CRASH? In 1929, US investors found that their shares of stock had become worthless. All trading ceased on Wall Street, New York City’s financial district, as the New York Stock Exchange crashed. Fortunes were lost overnight and factories laid off workers. HOW WIDESPREAD WAS THE DEPRESSION? The 1920s and 1930s were already desperate times in Australia and New Zealand, in Great Britain, and across Europe. When an Austrian bank collapsed, chaos spread to central Europe. Germany was struggling, too, as it tried to recover from World War I and pay money to France as reparation for the war.

REVOLUTIONARY RUSSIA: WHEN WAS BLOODY SUNDAY IN ST. PETERSBURG? WHO OVERTHREW THE CZAR? WHEN WAS THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION? COMMUNISM By the 1890s, many European nations were bringing in democratic reforms, but not Russia. Angry about social injustice, many Russians looked to socialism, anarchism, or COMMUNISMfor an answer. WHEN WAS BLOODY SUNDAY IN ST. PETERSBURG? In 1905, troops in St. Petersburg gunned down workers who wished to present a petition to the czar. This action resulted in strikes, mutinies, and uprisings all over Russia. As a result, a Duma, or parliament, was set up. However, the reforms it demanded were rejected by the czar. WHO OVERTHREW THE CZAR? In March 1917, strikes, mutinies, and protests brought Russia to a standstill. Russian troops fighting in World War I deserted the Eastern Front. The czar was forced from power and Russia became a republic. This became known as the February Revolution (Russia followed a different calendar than Western countries). WHEN WAS THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION? The republican Duma failed to bring the chaos in Russia under control. A communist group known as the “Bolsheviks” rejected attempts at liberal reform. They appealed directly to workers to rise up in a communist revolution. The Bolsheviks seized power in “October” (that is, November) 1917. LENIN’S CALL Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870–1924) returned from exile in 1917. He called for power to be handed over to soviets (councils of revolutionary workers). After the October Revolution, he led the governing Communist Party. COMMUNISM Communists around the world were inspired by the writings of Karl Marx (1818–1883). Marx believed history was driven by economic forces and that a just and progressive society could only be created if the workers took control of the economic system. WHEN WAS THE SOVIET UNION FOUNDED? In 1918–1920, civil war raged through Russia as the communist Red Army fought opponents of the revolution (“the Whites”). The communists won, and a Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (“Soviet Union”) was founded in 1922. Only the Communist Party held power. Most industries came under state ownership, and the economy was centrally controlled. WHO WAS STALIN? Lenin’s successor was Joseph Stalin (1879–1953). His secret police murdered many of his opponents and millions were sent to forced labor camps. Stalin was criticized after his death, but the Soviet system failed to reform and collapsed in 1991.

REVOLUTIONARY CHINA: WHO CONTROLLED CHINA AFTER THE REVOLUTION? WHO WON THE STRUGGLE? WHAT WAS “NEW CHINA”? CULTURAL REVOLUTION By the late 19th century, the Chinese Empire was growing weak, and foreign nations were controlling its trade. In 1911 the last emperor, Puyi, was overthrown in a nationalist revolution. Many years of turmoil followed. Table 57. CHINA 1912–1949 1912Chinese republic founded 1919Japan gains Shandong 1931Japan occupies Manchuria 1934–1935The Long March 1937–1945Japan invades China 1949Communist victory WHO CONTROLLED CHINA AFTER THE REVOLUTION? Many forces fought to control China. First there were the nationalists, who founded a republic in 1912. Then there were the generals and regional warlords and, in 1921, the Chinese Communist Party. Finally, there was Japan, which gained Chinese territory in 1919. WHO WON THE STRUGGLE? After 1925, Chiang Kai-Shek became nationalist leader. Nationalists and communists became rivals but were forced into alliances as Japan overran China. Japan’s defeat in 1945 was followed by civil war. By 1949, the communists had defeated the nationalists. WHAT WAS “NEW CHINA”? The nationalists fled to Taiwan, and the communist leader Mao Zedong proclaimed a people’s republic. Its successes in the 1950s included better education, literacy, and health. However, unrealistic agricultural and industrial reforms caused hardship, leading to political chaos during the CULTURAL REVOLUTION. CULTURAL REVOLUTION Economic failures caused dispute within the Chinese Communist Party. Fearing that the ideals of the revolution would be lost, Mao Zedong called for a “cultural revolution,” a change in public attitudes. WHO WERE THE RED GUARDS? Students and young people took up Mao’s ideas with fervor. They declared themselves “Red Guards,” dedicated to never-ending revolution. They tore down temples, denounced their teachers, and rooted out “traitors.” The suffering was immense. By 1967, the regular army was clashing with the Red Guards, and Mao had little choice but to disband them in 1968. DID CHINA REMAIN COMMUNIST? When Mao died in 1976 there was a struggle for power. In the years that followed, China was still governed by the Communist Party, but it started to adopt some capitalist economic policies.

WORLD WAR I: WHY DID WAR BREAK OUT? WHAT NEW WEAPONS WERE USED IN ACTION? WHAT WAS TOTAL WAR? BIOGRAPHY: WILFRED OWEN 1893–1918 TRENCH WARFARE ARMISTICE World War I (1914–1918) was the first war in history to be fought by many different nations around the world. About eight million men were killed, many in horrific TRENCH WARFARE, before the ARMISTICEin 1918. Table 56. WAR AND PEACE 1914Germany invades Belgium in order to attack France 1915Gallipoli offensive in Turkey; Italy joins the Entente 1916Naval battle off Jutland, Denmark 1917US enters the war on the side of the Entente; Russia leaves the war; Italy defeated by the Austrians; Arabs revolt against Turks 1918Armistice ends the war WHY DID WAR BREAK OUT? In the 20th century, European nations formed competing military alliances. War finally broke out in 1914 when a Serbian nationalist assassinated the heir to the throne of Austria. Austria went to war against Serbia, and many other countries joined in. On one side were the British, the French and Russian empires, Italy, and Japan (the Entente Powers). On the other side were the Germans, Austrians, Hungarians, Bulgarians, and Turks (the Central Powers). WHAT NEW WEAPONS WERE USED IN ACTION? Various new technologies were available. In 1915, the German army used poison gas for the first time in warfare, and it was soon in general use. The British were the first to introduce the battle tank. Submarines were now able to torpedo enemy shipping, forcing ships to travel across the ocean in convoys. Aircraft and airships were used to drop bombs, spy on enemy positions, and attack enemy pilots. Tanks were a British invention. They first appeared in 1916 and were used in battle at Cambrai, France, in 1917. Tanks were armor-plated. Their treads could cross muddy trenches and crash through barbed wire. WHAT WAS TOTAL WAR? This was war on a scale never experienced before. It was not just fought by professional soldiers. Most of the troops were civilian conscripts, called up to serve in the armed forces. Ordinary homes in cities such as London were bombed from the air. Even ocean liners carrying passengers from neutral countries came under attack. Entire national economies were geared to the war effort. BIOGRAPHY: WILFRED OWEN 1893–1918 Many young men on both sides of the conflict, who had been idealists in 1914, became horrified by the war and its cruelty. One of them was the English war poet Wilfred Owen, killed just a week before the Armistice. TRENCH WARFARE In World War I, both sides dug long trenches as lines of defense, which stretched across Western Europe. These trenches filled up with stinking mud. Any order to go “over the top” and attack the enemy resulted in thousands of deaths. DEATH IN GALLIPOLI The Gallipoli campaign between the Entente Powers and Turkey in 1915 included some of the worst trench fighting of the war. The campaign was a failure and cost the lives of many Australians and New Zealanders. WHERE WAS NO MAN’S LAND? The territory between the two front lines was called “no man’s land.” It was a sea of mud, with broken stumps of trees and barbed wire entanglements. The area was raked by machine gun fire and pounded by heavy artillery, leaving craters big enough for soldiers to drown in. ARMISTICE An armistice is a laying down of weapons. The guns of World War I finally fell silent at 11am on the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918. DID PEACE FOLLOW WAR? No; in Germany there was street fighting and starvation. In 1919, the terms of the peace were agreed upon at Versailles, in France. The settlement was harsh on Germany, and this resulted in a sense of grievance that undermined any lasting peace.

NEW ZEALAND: WHEN DID NEW ZEALAND GAIN SELF-RULE? WHAT BECAME OF THE MAORIS? New Zealand is known to the Maoris as Aotearoa. Dutch and English navigators charted these islands, and by the 19th century, traders and whaling crews were landing there. The islands came under British rule in 1840. WHEN DID NEW ZEALAND GAIN SELF-RULE? Britain granted the colonists self-rule in 1852. The country prospered from sheep farming and from the discovery of gold in 1862. In 1893, New Zealand became the first country to give women the vote. In 1907, it became a Dominion, a fully independent nation within the British Empire. WHAT BECAME OF THE MAORIS? The Maoris had possessed firearms since the arrival of the first foreigners. After 1840, the settlers seized more and more land, so between 1845 and 1847, the Maoris rose up in revolt. A second war took place from 1860 to 1872. This won the Maoris representation in the New Zealand Parliament. TREATY OF WAITANGI In 1840, the British signed a treaty with a gathering of Maori chiefs on North Island. It guaranteed Maori rights to the land, but these were ignored by the settlers.

AUSTRALIA: WHY WERE CONVICTS SENT TO AUSTRALIA? WHAT HAPPENED TO THE ABORIGINALS? WHEN DID AUSTRALIA BECOME A NATION? BIOGRAPHY: JAMES COOK 1728–1779 The coasts of Australia were first mapped by Dutch explorers in the 17th century and by the British in the 18th. In 1788, the British founded a colony in New South Wales and went on to settle the rest of this vast land. WHY WERE CONVICTS SENT TO AUSTRALIA? From 1788 until 1852, the British sent criminals to Australia for punishment. The new country was built with forced labor. Free settlers were soon arriving also, to seek their fortune—especially after gold was discovered in 1851. WHAT HAPPENED TO THE ABORIGINALS? About two million Aboriginals lived in Australia in 1788. By 1900 only 50,000 survived. Many died of diseases introduced by the settlers. Others were murdered or driven off their land. Some worked as police trackers, or as laborers on sheep stations. WHEN DID AUSTRALIA BECOME A NATION? The various colonies founded in Australia by the British were mostly granted self-rule in the 1850s. There was great rivalry between them, but they finally agreed to unite as states within a single federal Commonwealth in 1901. BIOGRAPHY: JAMES COOK 1728–1779 Captain Cook was a brilliant English navigator who explored the coasts of Australia and New Zealand. He landed at Botany Bay in New South Wales in 1778 and claimed the land for Britain. Cook was killed in Hawaii by natives of the islands.

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR: WHY DID THE STATES FIGHT EACH OTHER? HOW MANY PEOPLE DIED? WHAT WAS THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD? DID THE CIVIL WAR END SLAVERY IN THE US? BIOGRAPHY: ABRAHAM LINCOLN 1809–1865 In 1860 and 1861, a group of southern states, known as the Confederacy, withdrew from the United States. A civil war began when the Confederates attacked a federal fort in Charleston, South Carolina. In 1865, the Union defeated the Confederacy in this fierce conflict. WHY DID THE STATES FIGHT EACH OTHER? The northern states were building an industrial economy. The agricultural southern states still relied on slave labor. They resented the increasing power of the north and feared that the federal government in Washington would impose reforms and end slavery. HOW MANY PEOPLE DIED? The US was reunited at a terrible cost. The northern troops lost 359,000 soldiers, while the southerners lost 258,000. Civilians suffered from looting and from the devastation of railroads, towns, and cotton plantations. GRANT VERSUS LEE In 1864, the Union general Ulysses S. Grant clashed with the Confederate general Robert E. Lee in a bid to capture Spotsylvania Court House in northern Virginia. Casualties were heavy. The battle was a draw. WHAT WAS THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD? This was a secret network of escape routes and hideouts for African American slaves. Between 1786 and 1861, activists such as Harriet Tubman (c.1820–1913) helped about 50,000 slaves escape to freedom in the northern states and Canada. DID THE CIVIL WAR END SLAVERY IN THE US? Abraham Lincoln proclaimed an end to slavery in 1863, and it was finally abolished in the southern states after the war. African Americans remained poor, and the southern states passed laws that prevented them from voting or gaining equal status despite constitutional amendments guaranteeing these rights. BIOGRAPHY: ABRAHAM LINCOLN 1809–1865 Lincoln was elected President in 1860 and again in 1864. He supported strong federal government and opposed slavery. Having led the Union to victory in the Civil War, he was assassinated at a theater in Washington, D.C., in 1865.

AGE OF EMPIRE: THE WORLD IN 1900 WHY DID EUROPEANS WANT TO RULE THE WORLD? HOW WERE PEOPLE TREATED BY THEIR RULERS? BRITISH RAJ SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA FRENCH FOREIGN LEGION From the 19th century until the early 20th, much of the world was governed by a few very powerful European nations. The BRITISH RAJcontrolled the riches of India. The FRENCH FOREIGN LEGIONdefended remote forts in the Sahara desert, and there was a SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICAby empire-builders. Table 55. EMPIRE 1800–1918 1824Dutch and British divide southeast Asian territories 1883–1885Germany gains colonies in Africa and Pacific 1885Belgian rule in the Congo 1887French rule Indochina 1899–1902Second South African (“Boer”) War 1904Federation of French West Africa 1918German and Ottoman empires broken up after defeat in World War I THE WORLD IN 1900 The chief empire-builders were the French, British, Germans, Danish, Belgians, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese. The United States and Japan were also gaining overseas territories. The Russian Empire now ruled the whole of northern Asia. However, the Chinese Empire was losing territory to foreign powers. WHY DID EUROPEANS WANT TO RULE THE WORLD? The reasons were many. The factories of the newly industrialized lands needed resources, such as rubber. Some empire-builders wanted land for settlement; others were praying for converts to Christianity. HOW WERE PEOPLE TREATED BY THEIR RULERS? Most empire-builders claimed to be bringing civilization to peoples whom they believed to be inferior. Although the ruling countries did build towns, ports, and railroads, in some colonies the local peoples were treated little better than slaves. BRITISH RAJ By the 19th century, real power in India was held by the British East India Company. Following an uprising by Indian soldiers in 1857, British government rule, or Raj, was imposed on India in 1858. WHO BECAME EMPRESS OF INDIA? Queen Victoria (1819–1901) was declared Empress of India in 1876. Under her rule, Great Britain became the world’s most powerful nation. Victoria had a shrewd grasp of politics and took a close interest in her government’s foreign policy. India was believed to be one of the most important parts of the British Empire. The two countries had a great cultural influence on each other. SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA As explorers discovered new lands in Africa, European powers rushed in to take them over. The French clashed with the British in Sudan, and the Germans gained lands in East and West Africa. WHAT HAPPENED IN BERLIN IN 1884? In 1884–1885, the world’s most powerful nations held a conference in Berlin, the capital of Germany. They divided between themselves vast regions of Africa. They knew little of these distant lands and did not consult the peoples living there. Borders were drawn up to serve their own political needs. FRENCH FOREIGN LEGION Empires needed large armies to suppress rebellions or fight rival powers. The Foreign Legion was formed by the French in 1831 to fight in colonial wars. It was recruited from foreigners and gained a reputation for tough discipline. WHERE DID THE LEGIONNAIRES FIGHT? They fought wherever France needed them in their empire. The Legion was most famously associated with desert campaigns in North Africa. French territory stretched all the way from Algeria south to the Congo River. France also ruled Madagascar, French Guiana, and islands in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, and South Pacific.

SOUTH AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE: WHO WAS KNOWN AS THE LIBERATOR? WHO ENDED PORTUGUESE RULE IN BRAZIL? WHEN DID ARGENTINA BECOME INDEPENDENT? WHAT WERE SOUTH AMERICA’S NEW ECONOMIES? The American empires founded by Spain and Portugal broke up in the 19th century. These European countries were no longer powerful, and their colonies struggled to break away. Wars brought liberation, but independence was often followed by strife between the new nations. Table 53. LIBERATION 1816Argentina declares independence 1818San Martín liberates Chile 1819Gran Colombia is founded 1820Brazil annexes Uruguay 1821Peru gains independence Venezuela and Ecuador are liberated 1822Brazil breaks away from Portugal 1825Bolivia is liberated WHO WAS KNOWN AS THE LIBERATOR? Simón Bolívar, “the Liberator,” helped to free much of South America. He fought in Venezuela and ruled Colombia and Ecuador. He freed Peru, and Bolivia was renamed in his honor. Other freedom fighters included Bernardo O’Higgins and José de San Martín, who fought in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. THE TURNING POINT Bolívar was born in Venezuela. He defeated the Spanish at Carabobo in 1821. Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama all became part of an independent republic called Gran Colombia. Venezuela withdrew from this in 1829. WHO ENDED PORTUGUESE RULE IN BRAZIL? When Portugal was invaded by the French emperor Napoleon in 1807, the Portuguese royal family fled to their colony of Brazil. King John VI returned home in 1821, leaving his son Pedro to rule Brazil for him, but in 1822, Pedro declared himself to be emperor of an independent Brazil. WHEN DID ARGENTINA BECOME INDEPENDENT? The capital city of Argentina, Buenos Aires (meaning “fair winds”), was founded by the Spanish in the 16th century. In 1810, its people rose up against Spanish rule, gaining their independence in 1816. There followed a civil war between the city-dwellers and the ranchers of the provinces. The country was finally united in 1861. GAUCHOS OF ARGENTINA The Gauchos were Argentine cowboys of part Spanish, part Indian descent. These daring, hard-living rogues opposed the new Buenos Aires government, backing their own leaders in a struggle for power. WHAT WERE SOUTH AMERICA’S NEW ECONOMIES? In the 19th century, South America’s gold and silver mines began to run out. A new source of wealth was needed. In Brazil, plantations of coffee and rubber were set up, while Argentina’s grasslands supported sheep and cattle. When refrigeration was invented, huge amounts of beef were exported from Buenos Aires.

NATIONALISM: WHY WAS POLAND IN REVOLT? WHEN DID GERMANY COME INTO BEING? WHO WERE THE REDSHIRTS? BIOGRAPHY: OTTO VON BISMARCK 1815–1898 Nationalism means the wish of a people to govern themselves as a nation. This ideal reshaped the map of Europe in the 19th century. Later in the century, nationalism took on a second meaning—an exaggerated belief in the superiority of one’s own nation. Table 54. NEW NATIONS 1830–1831Nationalist agitation; calls for democratic reform across Europe 1832Greece recognized as independent from Turkey 1848Nationalist and liberal uprisings across Europe 1871Germany unites as an empire 1871Italy becomes a single nation WHY WAS POLAND IN REVOLT? Between 1772 and 1795, Poland was divided among Russia, Prussia, and Austria. There were nationalist uprisings against the Russians in 1830 and 1863, but independence was not regained until 1918. WHEN DID GERMANY COME INTO BEING? Since the Middle Ages, Germany had been a patchwork of free cities and small states within the Holy Roman Empire. In the 1800s, these gradually came together, economically, then politically. In 1871, Wilhelm I of Prussia became emperor of a united Germany. WHO WERE THE REDSHIRTS? Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) dreamed of uniting Italy and freeing it from foreign rule. In 1860 he assembled 1,000 volunteers, who wore red shirts as a uniform. They sailed from Genoa to Sicily and joined an uprising against that kingdom’s French rulers. They then crossed to southern Italy. Garibaldi later tried to march on Rome, and fought against Austria. BIOGRAPHY: OTTO VON BISMARCK 1815–1898 Bismarck was a Prussian politician, a conservative and a royalist. He opposed the liberal nationalists who demanded democratic change in Germany in 1848, but played a major role in creating the German Empire of 1871.

INDIAN WARS: WHAT WAS THE TRAIL OF TEARS? WHAT WAS CUSTER’S LAST STAND? For much of the 19th century, especially between 1860 and 1890, a tragic conflict took place in the United States. Settlers and soldiers fought against American Indians. They seized their lands and herded the American Indians onto parcels of land known as reservations. WHAT WAS THE TRAIL OF TEARS? In the 1830s, gold was found in Cherokee territory in the southeastern US. About 16,000 Cherokees from the region were rounded up by the US army and forced to travel west in 1838 on a “Trail of Tears.” Over 4,000 Cherokees died on the journey. WHAT WAS CUSTER’S LAST STAND? In 1876, General George Custer led the United States Seventh Cavalry into the prairie lands around the Little Bighorn River in Montana. Stumbling upon a big assembly of Sioux and Cheyenne warriors, Custer’s force was defeated and killed. It was the last American Indian victory.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: HOW WERE FACTORIES POWERED? WHY WERE GOODS MASS PRODUCED? HOW DID WORKING CONDITIONS CHANGE? BIOGRAPHY: ISAMBARD KINGDOM BRUNEL 1806–1859 TRANSPORTATION URBANIZATION The Industrial Revolution changed the way things were made as new machines invented in the 1700s and 1800s meant it was possible to mass produce goods in factories. Starting in Britain and spreading through Europe and North America, a period of rapid social and economic change began, with widespread URBANIZATION. HOW WERE FACTORIES POWERED? During the 18th century, water was an important source of power for industry, and many machines were driven by waterwheels. Steam power was also developed at this time. Steam engines were used to pump water out of mine shafts and to power new TRANSPORTATIONsystems. Engines and furnaces were all fueled by coal. By the 19th century, coal was being transported to the factories by ship or rail. WHY WERE GOODS MASS PRODUCED? Before the Industrial Revolution, most goods were produced in small workshops or at home. Mass production in factories made it possible to manufacture goods more cheaply and quickly. Huge markets for these goods were opening up in the new cities, and in the lands that the European nations were conquering and settling overseas. HOW DID WORKING CONDITIONS CHANGE? The factory age meant that workers no longer owned the means by which they made a living. Some factory owners pushed up their own profits by pushing down the wages of their workers. Men, women, and children worked long hours for little pay, often in dangerous conditions. It took many years for wages and working environments to improve. BIOGRAPHY: ISAMBARD KINGDOM BRUNEL 1806–1859 Brunel was born of a French father in Portsmouth, England. An engineering genius, he helped to shape the industrial age. He built tunnels, docks, and suspension bridges. He was appointed chief engineer of England’s Great Western Railway and also designed steamships for crossing the Atlantic Ocean. TRANSPORTATION The Industrial Revolution depended on transportation to move materials, goods, and people. Canals were dug in the 18th century. In the 19th, it was the turn of the railroads. WHEN DID THE RAILROAD AGE BEGIN? The first steam locomotive to run on rails was seen in Wales in 1804. Designs were greatly improved in the 1820s by English rail pioneer George Stephenson. Railroads were soon opening up the world. URBANIZATION Urbanization means the spread of towns. Between 1700 and 1900 the world’s population grew from 679 million to 1.633 billion. Many people were city-dwellers. WHAT KINDS OF CITIES WERE BUILT? Cities grew up around coalfields or factories, at important seaports and railroad crossings. They provided cheap housing for the industrial workers. New British cities were often rows of row houses built of brick and slate, with small yards and alleys.

NAPOLEONIC WARS: WHERE DID NAPOLEON’S ARMIES MARCH? WHAT WAS NAPOLEON’S LEGACY? During the French Revolution, France was at war with its neighbors in Europe. These wars resumed in 1800 under the leadership of Napoleon, who was crowned French emperor in 1804. A series of great victories soon brought much of Europe under his control. Table 52. EUROPE AT WAR 1805French victory at Austerlitz 1805British victory at Trafalgar 1808–1814Peninsular War 1812France invades Russia 1815Napoleon defeated WHERE DID NAPOLEON’S ARMIES MARCH? Napoleon was a brilliant soldier. He defeated Austria. He invaded Spain in 1808 and his armies reached Moscow in 1812, only to be beaten back by the harsh winter weather. He made his relatives rulers in Spain, Italy, and Westphalia. He was finally defeated by Britain and Prussia at Waterloo, Belgium, in 1815. WHAT WAS NAPOLEON’S LEGACY? Napoleon (1769–1821) died in exile. He is remembered as the man who brought the French Revolution to a close and as a military genius. He was a skilled administrator whose system of law, theCode Napoléon, gave the poor people of France some of the rights they had demanded in the revolution. The Code was also welcomed in many of the lands he invaded.

CANADA: WHO FOUGHT TO CONTROL CANADA? WHEN DID CANADA BECOME A NATION? BIOGRAPHY: JACQUES CARTIER 1491–1557 European fishermen and fur traders visited Canada from the 16th century onward. They bought furs from the local people, who were related to the other native peoples of North America. France established colonies in Canada in 1608 (Quebec) and 1642 (Montreal), while the British claimed a vast territory around Hudson Bay after 1670. WHO FOUGHT TO CONTROL CANADA? The French and British fought each other for Canada. Both wanted its furs, lumber, and rich fishing grounds. The French were defeated in 1759, and Canada became a British colony four years later. Many American colonists who had remained loyal to Britain during the American Revolution fled to Canada in the 1780s. WHEN DID CANADA BECOME A NATION? In 1791, the areas of Canada settled by Europeans were divided between Upper (English-speaking) and Lower (French-speaking) Canada. These were reunited in 1841. Canada became a self-governing dominion of the British Empire in 1867. Settlement spread westward as Europeans arrived. BIOGRAPHY: JACQUES CARTIER 1491–1557 This French navigator made three voyages to North America between 1534 and 1541. He was the first European to see the St. Lawrence River and claimed the land for France.

FRENCH REVOLUTION: WHY DID THE FRENCH RISE UP? WHAT HAPPENED ON JULY 14? BIOGRAPHY: MAXIMILIEN DE ROBESPIERRE 1758–1794 REIGN OF TERROR The years 1789 to 1799 marked a turning point in European history. In France, calls for political reform were overtaken by a revolution that swept away the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the power of the Church. The revolution was followed by a REIGN OF TERROR. WHY DID THE FRENCH RISE UP? In 1789, the French aristocracy and leading churchmen led privileged lives and had great power. However, the middle classes wanted more power for themselves. Taxes were high, the country was bankrupt, and the poor were starving. King Louis XVI failed to bring in reforms in time to stop a revolution. WHAT HAPPENED ON JULY 14? On July 14, 1789, the people of Paris were afraid that the army had been ordered to attack them. They armed themselves and marched to the Bastille, a royal fort used as a prison, in search of gunpowder. They attacked and captured the fort. The revolution had begun. BIOGRAPHY: MAXIMILIEN DE ROBESPIERRE 1758–1794 Robespierre became one of the most radical leaders of the revolution. He whipped up a climate of fear, and soon his opponents were being sent to the guillotine. He himself was seized and beheaded without trial in 1794. REIGN OF TERROR The French Revolution succeeded in overthrowing a corrupt and unjust system of government, but it soon ran out of control. First, aristocrats were executed, and then the revolutionaries turned on each other in a bloodbath. The Reign of terror had begun, in which the state governed by fear. HOW MANY PEOPLE DIED? During the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), about 40,000 people were executed or murdered. A guillotine was set up in the Place de la Révolution in Paris. This wooden frame contained a sharp blade that dropped onto the victim’s neck. Although it was supposed to be a humane method of execution, its efficiency meant that hundreds were dying every day. WHEN DID THE TERROR END? The creator of the Reign of Terror, Robespierre, was seized by his opponents in the National Convention and beheaded in 1794. In 1795 there were major uprisings. Order was restored by a soldier named Napoleon Bonaparte. Power passed to a five-man group called the Directory, and by 1799 Napoleon had seized power for himself. The revolution was over.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT: WHO PUT TOGETHER A GREAT BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE? WHO ABOLISHED GOD? Scientific advances of the 17th and 18th centuries encouraged new ideas, and this led European philosophers to declare that humans progressed by using reason and logic, rather than faith or superstition. This period became known as the Enlightenment, or Age of Reason. WHO PUT TOGETHER A GREAT BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE? New information systems were needed for this new age. Dictionaries began to appear, and a 17-volume encyclopedia, edited by Denis Diderot, was published in France in 1751–1772. Its contributors included thinkers such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire. WHO ABOLISHED GOD? In 1793, the French National Convention abolished the worship of God and forbade what it regarded as superstitious festivals. A new calendar was drawn up, one that began not with the birth of Christ but with a current human event, the French Revolution.

SLAVE TRADE: HOW WAS THE SLAVE TRADE ORGANIZED? HOW WERE SLAVES TREATED IN THE NEW WORLD? BIOGRAPHY: TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE 1746–1803 PLANTATIONS People have been bought and sold as slaves around the world through much of history. This trade reached new heights in the 16th to 19th centuries, as Arabs and Europeans plundered Africa. In the 18th century, it is believed that up to eight million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic Ocean. HOW WAS THE SLAVE TRADE ORGANIZED? West African slaves were normally captured by African raiders. At the coast they were exchanged for European guns or textiles. The European traders packed the slaves into ships and sailed for the New World. Once the Africans were sold, the European captains picked up cargoes before sailing home. HOW WERE SLAVES TREATED IN THE NEW WORLD? After the ordeal of the Atlantic crossing, the slaves were prepared for auction. Once sold, they were forced to work long hours on PLANTATIONSfor no pay. Many slaves were treated with cruelty, and were chained and branded. Those who tried to escape were punished by whipping or even hanging. BIOGRAPHY: TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE 1746–1803 Toussaint was a freed slave from the French colony of St. Dominique (Haiti). He joined a slave uprising in 1791. When revolutionary France abolished slavery, Toussaint became a respected leader. However, after a change of government, he was seized and imprisoned. PLANTATIONS Slaves in the Caribbean and the US were forced to work on plantations—estates where sugar cane, cotton, or other crops were grown. The owners paid workers no wages, so their profits were huge. WHY WERE PLANTATIONS CREATED? Plantations in the New World marked the start of farming on an industrial, global scale. Plantations produced “cash crops”—crops grown for sale and export rather than local use. The use of slave labor reduced costs.

AMERICAN REVOLUTION: WHY DID THE COLONISTS REVOLT? WHAT WAS THE BOSTON TEA PARTY? WHO FOUGHT IN THE WAR? DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE The period 1765-1788 saw great changes in North America. The 13 eastern colonies demanded democratic government, and went to war against Britain in 1775. In 1776 they issued a DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, and in 1781 the British command surrendered the fight. WHY DID THE COLONISTS REVOLT? The people who had settled in North America valued personal freedom. Many of them had left Europe because of their strong religious or political views. They protested when the British government imposed taxes on them without consulting the local governing bodies of the colonies. WHAT WAS THE BOSTON TEA PARTY? Taxes paid on imported goods were very unpopular. In 1773, colonists disguised as American Indians boarded an English ship in Boston Harbor and threw its cargo of highly taxed tea overboard. This became known as the Boston Tea Party. WHO FOUGHT IN THE WAR? British troops, including German mercenaries, were supported by colonial loyalists. The rebellious Patriots formed a Continental Army after 1775, defeating the British at Saratoga Springs in 1777. The French sent 6,000 troops to fight the British. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In 1774, Patriots convened the first in a series of Continental Congresses in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to coordinate their struggle against the British. The 1776 Congress issued a Declaration of Independence, laying down its principles of freedom. A full United States government was founded in 1788. WHO CALLED FOR FREEDOM? The 1776 Declaration of Independence was issued in Philadelphia, in the name of John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress. It was written by Thomas Jefferson, who later became the third US president. It declared that “all men are created equal” and have a right to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” These ringing words inspired revolutionaries around the world. BIOGRAPHY: GEORGE WASHINGTON 1732–1799 Born in Virginia, Washington was a wealthy landowner and served with the British army. In 1775 he was chosen to command the rebel American army, which he led to victory in 1781. He oversaw the new constitution and in 1789 became the first US president.

AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION: WHY DID CHANGES TAKE PLACE IN FARMING? WHO WORKED ON THE LAND? BIOGRAPHY: THOMAS WILLIAM COKE 1752–1842 MECHANIZATION The 18th and 19th centuries saw great changes across Europe and North America in the way people farmed. Scientific methods were used to improve crop yields and breed better livestock. MECHANIZATIONmade farming more efficient. Seeds had been scattered by hand until Jethro Tull’s seed drill (developed in about 1701) made it possible to plant seeds in rows, which could then be easily hoed. WHY DID CHANGES TAKE PLACE IN FARMING? At this time there was a new interest in science and technology. Many old crafts were becoming modern industries, and farming was no exception. This was necessary, as cities were growing and their populations needed more food. In France, an inefficient farming system had resulted in famine and political unrest. WHO WORKED ON THE LAND? In many parts of Europe, farming had changed very little since the Middle Ages. Peasants labored in the fields in great poverty and often had little freedom to move away from their villages. In Britain, farm work was increasingly carried out by large numbers of low-wage laborers. BIOGRAPHY: THOMAS WILLIAM COKE 1752–1842 Thomas Coke was one of the new landowners determined to improve agriculture. He replaced rye with wheat on his land in Norfolk, England, and bred cattle, sheep, and pigs. He also became a Member of Parliament. MECHANIZATION In the 1800s, new machines, such as reaping and threshing machines, were invented to do jobs that had previously been done by hand. DID MACHINES REPLACE PEOPLE? These new inventions were brought in to make farming easier and also to reduce costs. By the 1830s, English farm laborers were beginning to worry that mechanization would lead to loss of jobs. They protested by smashing new machinery and burning haystacks. Their fears were valid. In the next 150 years, the number of farmworkers declined rapidly.

MONARCHY: WHAT WAS THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS? WERE KINGS EVER ELECTED? DYNASTIES Monarchy means rule by a single person, such as a king or a queen. Normally, rule passes from one generation to the next within the same family, or DYNASTY. In the 17th century monarchs held great power, but this power was increasingly being challenged, often with violence. WHAT WAS THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS? This was the belief that monarchs were appointed by God to rule, and therefore had a right to impose their will on their subjects. This made it almost impossible to criticize or oppose the monarch. WERE KINGS EVER ELECTED? From 1573, kings of Poland were elected by an assembly of lords, called the Republic of Nobles. The great Polish soldier Jan Sobiewski was elected king in 1674, after defeating invading Turks. Many of those chosen as king were foreigners. DYNASTIES Dynasties, or royal families, often held power for hundreds of years. Many became hugely wealthy. Their rule came to an end if there were no children or relatives to inherit the throne, or if a monarch was overthrown by rivals or revolutions. HABSBURG 1273–1918 The Habsburgs ruled Austria and at times the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, and Spain. Charles V reigned 1516–1556. STUART 1371–1714 The Stuarts ruled Scotland and, after 1603, England, Wales, and Ireland. Charles II reigned 1660–1685. BOURBON 1589–1830 The Bourbons ruled in France, Navarre, Naples, and Spain. Louis XIV was King of France 1643–1715. QING 1644–1912 The last dynasty of the Chinese Empire was founded by Manchurian invaders. Emperor Qianlong ruled 1711–1799. ROMANOV 1613–1917 The Romanovs were the last Russian dynasty. Catherine the Great married into the family and was empress 1762–1796. WHICH IS THE WORLD’S OLDEST DYNASTY? The same dynasty has ruled Japan for 2,000 years or more. Legend states that it is even older, having been founded by Jimmu in 660 BC. However, the emperors have not always held great power. Sometimes, real power was held by military governors called shoguns.

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION: WHO WAS THE FIRST PERSON TO SEE GERMS? WHO DISCOVERED HOW BLOOD CIRCULATES? WHO WERE THE FIRST CHEMISTS? REFLECTING TELESCOPE BIOGRAPHY: ROBERT BOYLE 1627–1691 The 18th century was a period of remarkable scientific breakthroughs. This began with the scientific advances of the 16th and 17th centuries, when people began to reject unproven theories and superstition in favor of careful observation, and carried out experiments to test ideas. Table 51. NEW SCIENCE 1609Johannes Kepler works out how planets move 1638Galileo Galilei publishes his theories of mechanics 1687Isaac Newton publishes his three Laws of Motion 1753Carolus Linnaeus works out a way of classifying species 1774Joseph Priestley studies oxygen WHO WAS THE FIRST PERSON TO SEE GERMS? The first microscopes were made in the Netherlands in about 1590. Their design was improved by Robert Hooke and Anton van Leeuwenhoek. Van Leeuwenhoek made many important observations and in 1675 was the first person to see bacteria, or germs. WHO DISCOVERED HOW BLOOD CIRCULATES? In 1597, English student William Harvey went to Padua in Italy, which was then a center for studying the human body. He returned to become royal doctor, and in 1628 declared that blood was pumped around the body by the heart. Many doctors ridiculed his views, but Harvey was correct. His discovery changed our understanding of the human body forever. WHO WERE THE FIRST CHEMISTS? From the Middle Ages to the early 18th century, alchemists believed they could turn ordinary metals into gold, and so find the secret of everlasting life. Although this was impossible, alchemy did provide a basis for useful experiments in chemistry, and inspired the genuine research of Robert Boyle. REFLECTING TELESCOPE Telescopes were invented in the Netherlands in about 1608. In 1668, Isaac Newton was the first to use mirrors to improve the image seen through the telescope. BIOGRAPHY: ROBERT BOYLE 1627–1691 Irish chemist and physicist Robert Boyle experimented with gases and with vacuums (in which gases are pumped out of a space). He introduced the idea of chemical elements, essential to the development of chemistry as a science.

COLONIAL AMERICA: WHO BUILT ST. AUGUSTINE? WHO WERE THE SETTLERS? WHERE WAS LOUISIANA? WHERE DID THE BRITISH SETTLE? From the 16th to 18th century, European nations invaded and settled large areas of North America. The colonists often attacked and dispersed the American Indians, and fought each other for control of the territory. WHO BUILT ST. AUGUSTINE? The Spanish reached Florida in 1513, and in 1565 founded St. Augustine, the first European settlement in what is now the US. They were the first Europeans to see the Mississippi River and to reach Kansas. The Spanish also extended Mexico northward into Texas, New Mexico, and California. These territories would become part of the US in the 19th century. WHO WERE THE SETTLERS? Europeans settled in the New World for many reasons. Some were religious refugees, such as the Quakers, who were unable to worship freely in their own lands. Some were convicted criminals, sent to work in the colonies as a punishment. Some were outlaws or pirates. Others were farmers or business people looking for good land and opportunities. WHERE WAS LOUISIANA? In 1682, the French explorer Robert de la Salle claimed all the lands around the Mississippi River for France. The region was named Louisiana, after King Louis XIV of France. Most of the eastern part passed to Spain and then to the US, while the western part was purchased by the US from the French in 1803. WHERE DID THE BRITISH SETTLE? The English seafarer Sir Walter Raleigh organized three expeditions to North America after 1584. He named Virginia after Elizabeth I of England, known as the “Virgin Queen” because she never married. In 1607, Jamestown in Virginia became the first British settlement on the Atlantic coast and became wealthy through the export of tobacco. NEW AMSTERDAM In 1626, the Dutch purchased the island of Manhattan. Its port was named New Amsterdam. It was captured by the British in 1664 and renamed New York.

AMERICAN INDIANS: WHAT WAS THE LEAGUE OF FIVE NATIONS? HOW DID PEOPLE IN THE NORTHWEST LIVE? WHY DID FARMERS BECOME HUNTERS? The lands of North America were originally occupied by a wide variety of American Indian peoples, each with their own language and culture. Ways of life varied from one region to another, according to the environment—some peoples lived in farming villages, while others hunted buffalo. Their worlds were changed forever by the European invasion. Table 50. AMERICAN INDIANS 1547Horses introduced to North America by the Spanish c. 1570The Iroquois Confederacy is founded 1626Manhattan Island is sold to the Dutch 1648The Iroquois-Huron War 1722The Tuscarora join the Iroquois Confederacy 1763Pontiac, chief of the Ottawa, unites tribes against British troops WHAT WAS THE LEAGUE OF FIVE NATIONS? Five American Indian nations in the northeast—the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk—made a powerful alliance, called the Iroquois Confederacy. It was founded in about 1570 by a prophet called Deganawida. The League’s goals were cooperation and mutual defense. A council met each year to discuss their laws. HOW DID PEOPLE IN THE NORTHWEST LIVE? The northwest (in what is now both the US and Canada) was an area with a large American Indian population. Many peoples there lived by salmon fishing or whaling, and by gathering fruits and berries. They lived in large houses, which were built of red cedar wood. Cedar was also used to make hats, boats, rope, cloth, boxes, and baskets. WHY DID FARMERS BECOME HUNTERS? As Europeans invaded the northeast, many American Indian peoples were forced to retreat westward. Some had to give up farming. Instead, they became buffalo hunters on the Great Plains, the grasslands that make up the prairie regions of the central part of the modern United States and Canada.

MUGHAL INDIA: WHO WERE THE MUGHALS? WHERE WAS THE MUGHAL EMPIRE? WHO CHALLENGED MUGHAL RULE? TAJ MAHAL The Mughal Empire, founded in 1526, was the most powerful Islamic state to rule in India. It was at its most prosperous during the 17th century, when fine buildings such as the TAJ MAHALwere constructed. Table 49. THE MUGHAL EMPIRE 1526Babur founds Mughal Empire 1556Akbar the Great begins reign 1605Jahangir becomes emperor 1628Shah Jahan comes to power 1659Aurangzeb seizes the throne 1675Sikhs rise against Mughal rule 1707Start of Mughal decline 1857Last emperor WHO WERE THE MUGHALS? Mughal means “Mongol.” Babur, the Asian invader who founded the empire, was descended from Mongol warlords. Under the Mughal emperors, roads were built, trade prospered, and the arts flourished. WHERE WAS THE MUGHAL EMPIRE? The Mughals governed northern India, and at times their rule extended from Afghanistan in the west to Bengal in the east. The emperor Aurangzeb moved the capital from Agra to Delhi and pushed the empire’s borders far to the south. WHO CHALLENGED MUGHAL RULE? The Mughals had to fight against Afghans and many regional Hindu rulers. The early Muslim emperors allowed all kinds of religious worship, but Aurangzeb offended Hindus and caused the Sikhs to rebel. He also clashed fiercely with the west coast kingdom of the Marathas and its ruler, Sivaji. However, it was the growing political power of British traders in India that brought about the final decline and collapse of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century. TAJ MAHAL The most famous monument of Mughal architecture is the Taj Mahal. It was built in the 17th century by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his beloved wife, Mumtaz-i Mahal, who died in childbirth. HOW LONG DID IT TAKE TO BUILD THE TAJ MAHAL? The Taj Mahal was begun in 1632 and completed 22 years later. About 20,000 people were employed, including Asia’s finest craftsmen. Famous for its perfect symmetry, it is exactly as wide as it is high, and the dome is the same height as its façade. The domes, minarets, and arches of the Taj Mahal are reflected in still water. The walls of white marble are inlaid with over 43 varieties of precious stones.

CONQUISTADORS: WHO WAS THE GOD FROM THE SEA? HOW DID THE CONQUISTADORS DEFEAT SO MANY PEOPLE? WHO KILLED THE INCA EMPEROR? BIOGRAPHY: HERNÁN CORTES 1485–1547 EL DORADO In the 16th century, Central and South America were invaded by Spanish soldiers called conquistadors, who overthrew the Aztec and Inca empires. Many went in search of a rich land called EL DORADO. WHO WAS THE GOD FROM THE SEA? In 1517, Aztec spies saw conquistadors on the coast and relayed news of these pale, bearded strangers to Emperor Moctezuma II. He believed that their arrival marked the return of a long-departed god and king called Quetzalcoatl. HOW DID THE CONQUISTADORS DEFEAT SO MANY PEOPLE? The conquistadors were few in number, but they had ships, horses, armor, and deadly firearms. In Mexico they increased their numbers by joining up with native peoples rebelling against Aztec rule. WHO KILLED THE INCA EMPEROR? In 1532, a band of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro met the Inca emperor Atahualpa. They tricked him into being captured, and demanded a vast ransom of silver and gold for his release. It was paid, but in 1533 they executed him anyway. BIOGRAPHY: HERNÁN CORTES 1485–1547 Cortés was born in Spain. In 1518 he was given command of a force of 550 soldiers. He landed in Mexico, and reached the Aztec capital in 1519. He was greeted peacefully, but soon there was bitter fighting. In 1521 Cortés destroyed the city, and in 1522 he became the Spanish governor of this newly conquered land. EL DORADO El Dorado means “the golden one”—it is the Spanish name for a mythical land in South America, said to be rich in gold beyond all dreams. WHY DID THE CONQUISTADORS SEEK EL DORADO? Conquistadors were often brave, but they were also quarrelsome and violent, driven by a desperate desire for gold and power. Many died in remote jungles, still vainly searching for the riches of El Dorado.

ENGLISH CIVIL WAR: WHO WAS “OLD IRONSIDES”? WHO WERE ROUNDHEADS AND CAVALIERS? WHO WERE THE DIGGERS AND LEVELERS? WHAT WAS THE COMMONWEALTH? From 1642 to 1648 people in the British Isles were split by a war between King Charles I and Parliament. The king was said to be influenced by his wife, a French Catholic. He brought in unpopular taxes and tried to force his will on Parliament. This led to civil war. WHO WAS “OLD IRONSIDES”? Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658) was a farmer and Member of Parliament. In the English Civil War he proved himself to be a brilliant soldier. He and his armored troopers became known as Ironsides. He led a savage invasion of Catholic Ireland in 1649. WHO WERE ROUNDHEADS AND CAVALIERS? The forces of Parliament included many of the more extreme Protestants, called Puritans (also known as Roundheads, because of their short haircuts). The royalists were called Cavaliers (meaning “knights”). Their war ended with the capture of Charles I. WHO WERE THE DIGGERS AND LEVELERS? The leaders of the Parliamentary forces were mostly country landowners, squires, and merchants. Many of the poor people who fought for them wanted the land to be shared and equal rights for all. Cromwell crushed these Diggers and Levelers in 1649. WHAT WAS THE COMMONWEALTH? In 1649 a republic, or Commonwealth, was declared. There was now a Council of State instead of a king. However, the army was impatient for greater change, so in 1653 power was handed over to Oliver Cromwell, who was given the title “Lord Protector”. Cromwell died and under his son the Commonwealth soon collapsed. In 1660 the monarchy was restored, but with limited powers.

TUDOR AGE: HOW DID TUDOR MERCHANTS BECOME WEALTHY? WHO WAS THE GREATEST TUDOR MONARCH? WHY DID HENRY VIII QUARREL WITH THE POPE? CHURCH OF ENGLAND The Tudors were a family of Welsh, French, and English descent. From 1485 to 1603 they ruled England, Wales, and rebellious Ireland. The Tudor kingdom became a powerful force in Europe and the New World. HOW DID TUDOR MERCHANTS BECOME WEALTHY? The Tudor economy depended on wool and the cloth trade, which was centered in the English region of East Anglia. To expand their trade, merchants and ships’ captains began to seek new business in distant lands. WHO WAS THE GREATEST TUDOR MONARCH? Henry VIII was followed as ruler by his three children, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. Elizabeth was a strong and popular ruler, and a shrewd politician. She never married. Her reign saw battles with Spain, exploration of the New World, and a flowering of poetry and theater. Table 47. TUDOR MONARCHS TUDOR MONARCHS 1485Henry VII wins throne from Richard III 1509Henry VIII is crowned king 1547Rule of the boy king Edward VI 1553Reign of Mary I 1558Elizabeth I becomes queen 1603Death of Elizabeth I BIOGRAPHY: HENRY VIII 1491–1547 As a young man, Henry was handsome and intelligent. He loved hunting and dancing, and also composed music. As king, he became increasingly arrogant, selfish, and overweight. He married six times and had two of his wives executed. His reign was marked by political plotting, religious strife, and rebellion. WHY DID HENRY VIII QUARREL WITH THE POPE? King Henry VIII married his elder brother’s widow, a Spanish princess called Catherine of Aragon. Although she had a daughter, Mary, she did not produce the male heir Henry wanted. The king fell in love with a beautiful courtier named Anne Boleyn. When the Pope refused to give him a divorce, Henry VIII made himself head of a CHURCH OF ENGLAND. CHURCH OF ENGLAND Henry VIII finally broke with the Roman Catholic Church in 1534. However, he also rejected the Protestant teachings of Martin Luther. In 1559, after years of religious conflict, Elizabeth I created a reformed Church of England that contained both Catholic and Protestant elements. It was, and still is, headed by the monarch. WHY DID RELIGION TROUBLE THE TUDORS? Henry VIII’s political quarrel with the Pope coincided with the bitter religious quarrels of the Reformation in Europe. Edward VI and Elizabeth I were both Protestant, while Mary I was an ardent Catholic. Many ordinary people were tortured and executed for having a different faith than the reigning monarch.

INCAS: GOLD MASK WHO RULED THE INCA EMPIRE? HOW DID INCA SOCIETY FUNCTION? WHO WAS DESCENDED FROM THE SUN AND MOON? The Inca people lived in the Andes mountains of Peru. Between the 12th century and 1532, they conquered an empire that was only 200 miles (320 km) wide, but that stretched for 2,240 miles (3,600 km), from Colombia to Chile. GOLD MASK Craftsmen had privileged status in Inca society. Metalworkers from various parts of the empire made masks of shining gold. It was greed for such gold and treasure that lured Spanish invaders to Peru in 1532. WHO RULED THE INCA EMPIRE? The Incas formed a ruling elite. They were a small highland tribe who came to govern 12 million people, speakers of 20 different languages. Conquered chiefs were allowed to keep some local power, provided they adopted the Inca way of life. HOW DID INCA SOCIETY FUNCTION? Nobles who were loyal to the emperor were made governors, generals, or priests. They wore golden earplugs as a badge of rank. Most citizens were poor farmers, but they also had to serve the state as soldiers, builders, or laborers. WHO WAS DESCENDED FROM THE SUN AND MOON? The Inca emperor claimed descent from Inti, the Sun god, and the empress from Mamakilya, the Moon goddess. Other gods and goddesses represented the sea, thunder, and the goodness of the Earth. The Incas also revered the holy places used by earlier Andean peoples.

AZTECS: WHERE WAS THE CITY IN THE LAKE? HOW DO WE KNOW ABOUT AZTEC LIFE? HUMAN SACRIFICE The Aztec, or Mexica, people founded the last of the great civilizations that existed in Mexico before the Spanish invasion. Their powerful empire lasted from around 1325 to 1521. The Aztecs were farmers, warriors, and builders of great cities. WHERE WAS THE CITY IN THE LAKE? In 1325, a band of migrating Aztecs came to a large island in Lake Texcoco. When their priests saw an eagle land on a cactus there, they declared that this was the place to build a splendid new city, Tenochtitlán. This is now the site of Mexico City. HOW DO WE KNOW ABOUT AZTEC LIFE? After the Spanish invaded Tenochtitlán, they described many aspects of Aztec life, such as law, schooling, farming, and HUMAN SACRIFICE. Many artifacts from the Aztec Empire have also survived, including feather cloaks, jewelry, pottery, and knives. HUMAN SACRIFICE Human sacrifice is the killing of people for religious reasons. The Aztecs believed that the gods had sacrificed themselves for their people. They wished to repay that debt. WHY DID BLOOD FLOW SO FREELY? Being sacrificed was believed to be a great honor for the victims. Even so, the victims were often captured enemy troops who were taken to the capital to be killed on the pyramid of the Great Temple. At a four-day ceremony in 1487, tens of thousands of captives were sacrificed.

REFORMATION: WHO LED THE REFORMATION? WHAT WERE THE RESULTS OF THE REFORMATION? The Reformation was a Christian movement of the 1500s. Its followers criticized the Catholic Church for corruption and called for radical reform. These protesters became known as Protestants. Table 45. RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, EUROPE 1517–1568 1517German monk Martin Luther demands reform 1518Swiss preacher Ulrich Zwingli calls for change 1541John Calvin founds a Protestant Church, Geneva 1545Catholics launch a Counter-Reformation 1560John Knox founds Protestant Church of Scotland 1562Wars between Catholics and Protestants in France 1568Dutch Protestants begin revolt against Catholic Spain WHO LED THE REFORMATION? The Reformation began in 1517 when a German monk, Martin Luther, nailed a list of complaints to the church door in Wittenberg. Other preachers spread the Protestant message across northern Europe. They called for simpler forms of worship and personal faith. WHAT WERE THE RESULTS OF THE REFORMATION? The success of the Protestants aroused fear and anger among Catholics in Rome. A period of religious strife began that tore Europe apart for hundreds of years. Each side murdered its opponents. Churches and monasteries were destroyed. Civil and national wars caused devastation and streams of refugees.

EXPLORATION: WHY DID PEOPLE EXPLORE THE WORLD? HOW DID EXPLORATION AFFECT THE WORLD? OLD WORLD NAVIGATION NEW WORLD People have always set out to discover new lands and oceans. The greatest age of world exploration began in the 15th century and lasted over four centuries. The Arabs and Chinese had already made improvements in ship design and NAVIGATION. These were now developed further by European seafarers. Table 46. EXPLORATION 1405–1433Chinese fleets explore the Indian Ocean 1486Diaz rounds southern Africa 1492Columbus reaches the Caribbean 1497John Cabot reaches Canada 1498Columbus reaches South America 1498Vasco da Gama sails to India 1500Pedro Cabral reaches Brazil 1522Magellan’s crew sails around the whole world 1606Willem Jansz reaches Australia This type of mariners’ compass first came into use in about 1250. This one dates from the 16th century. WHY DID PEOPLE EXPLORE THE WORLD? The most common reason was trade. The OLD WORLDwanted Asian spices, African ivory, and gold. European traders were soon also seizing lands and trying to convert the local populations to the Christian faith. Many explorers, though, were driven by a sense of adventure or scientific inquiry. HOW DID EXPLORATION AFFECT THE WORLD? European countries brought many lands under their control. The world was opened up and new crops were introduced from one land to another. However, there were some disastrous effects. In the NEW WORLD, many native peoples died because they had no resistance to the European diseases that explorers and crews brought with them. OLD WORLD Europe, Asia, and Africa had been known to geographers since ancient times. They became known as the Old World after the European discovery of the Americas. WHO EXPLORED THE OLD WORLD? In the Middle Ages, the Venetian Marco Polo and the Moroccan Ibn Battutah traveled east to China. The Chinese admiral Zheng He sailed west to Africa in the 15th century. By the 16th century, Portuguese and Dutch ships were trading in southeast Asia. NAVIGATION Navigation is any method used to find one’s way or hold a ship on course. Sailors of the 16th century had various kinds of instruments to help them cross the oceans. WHAT INSTRUMENTS WERE USED? Sailors used a compass to see which direction they were traveling. They could also work out a ship’s position by measuring the angle of the Sun or stars above the horizon. They did this with a metal plate called a quadrant, a disk called an astrolabe, or a simple stick called a cross-staff. HOW WAS DISTANCE MEASURED? Distances traveled at sea were calculated from speed and time. To measure these, a wooden log was thrown overboard. The crew called out the time it took for the log to pass between two measuring points on the ship. The ship’s course and progress were measured on a pegboard. BIOGRAPHY: HENRY THE NAVIGATOR 1394–1460 This Portuguese prince founded an observatory and a school of navigation on Cape St. Vincent, Portugal. Here, a new type of ship, called a caravel, was designed. Henry also sponsored voyages along the coast of West Africa. NEW WORLD “New World” was one of the terms that came to be used by Europeans to describe the newly discovered lands of North and South America. WHY DID COLUMBUS SAIL WEST? In 1492, Christopher Columbus persuaded King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to sponsor a voyage westward. The goal was to find a new trading route to Asia. Columbus landed in the Bahamas, starting a new age of exploration and invasion.

RENAISSANCE: WHERE DID THE RENAISSANCE TAKE PLACE? WHAT WAS THE RENAISSANCE VIEW OF THE WORLD? BIOGRAPHY: LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452–1519 WHAT CAN WE SEE OF THE RENAISSANCE TODAY? PATRONAGE One of the most creative periods in history occurred in Europe around 1350–1550. This cultural revival is known as the Renaissance (meaning “rebirth”). It was inspired by the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome. WHERE DID THE RENAISSANCE TAKE PLACE? Italy was the powerhouse of the Renaissance. At that time it was divided into independent states, where wealthy rulers offered PATRONAGEto great artists. The Renaissance also spread through southern France and Spain, and influenced northern Europe. WHAT WAS THE RENAISSANCE VIEW OF THE WORLD? There was a passion for knowledge. Scholars had mostly studied the teachings of the Church, but they now rediscovered ancient philosophers. Artists became fascinated by the human body. To celebrate its beauty, they turned away from the formal drawing style of the Middle Ages and adopted a more realistic, natural style. Leonardo da Vinci was a brilliant inventor. This reconstruction shows a flying machine that first appeared in his sketchbooks, alongside futuristic plans for a helicopter, tank, and diving suit. BIOGRAPHY: LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452–1519 Leonardo was a genius. Writer, painter, sculptor, engineer, and architect, he left behind a wealth of sketches and what has become the world’s best-known painting—the portrait of a mysterious, smiling woman known as Mona Lisa. WHAT CAN WE SEE OF THE RENAISSANCE TODAY? Many Italian cities still have splendid palaces, churches, libraries, and public squares built during the Renaissance. Visitors to Rome can wonder at the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, created by Michelangelo, or the masterpieces painted by Raphael. PATRONAGE Patronage is the support given by the wealthy to artists, writers, and musicians. Renaissance patrons included the French royal family and powerful Italian nobles such as the Sforzas, the Medicis, and the Borgias. WHY DID FLORENCE FLOURISH? The Renaissance was a period of great social change, when more and more political power came from money and trade. The Italian city of Florence was a European center of banking. Its leading family, the Medici, loaned money to popes and kings. It was the Medici fortune that paid the wages of artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.

RENAISSANCE: WHERE DID THE RENAISSANCE TAKE PLACE? WHAT WAS THE RENAISSANCE VIEW OF THE WORLD? BIOGRAPHY: LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452–1519 WHAT CAN WE SEE OF THE RENAISSANCE TODAY? PATRONAGE One of the most creative periods in history occurred in Europe around 1350–1550. This cultural revival is known as the Renaissance (meaning “rebirth”). It was inspired by the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome. WHERE DID THE RENAISSANCE TAKE PLACE? Italy was the powerhouse of the Renaissance. At that time it was divided into independent states, where wealthy rulers offered PATRONAGEto great artists. The Renaissance also spread through southern France and Spain, and influenced northern Europe. WHAT WAS THE RENAISSANCE VIEW OF THE WORLD? There was a passion for knowledge. Scholars had mostly studied the teachings of the Church, but they now rediscovered ancient philosophers. Artists became fascinated by the human body. To celebrate its beauty, they turned away from the formal drawing style of the Middle Ages and adopted a more realistic, natural style. Leonardo da Vinci was a brilliant inventor. This reconstruction shows a flying machine that first appeared in his sketchbooks, alongside futuristic plans for a helicopter, tank, and diving suit. BIOGRAPHY: LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452–1519 Leonardo was a genius. Writer, painter, sculptor, engineer, and architect, he left behind a wealth of sketches and what has become the world’s best-known painting—the portrait of a mysterious, smiling woman known as Mona Lisa. WHAT CAN WE SEE OF THE RENAISSANCE TODAY? Many Italian cities still have splendid palaces, churches, libraries, and public squares built during the Renaissance. Visitors to Rome can wonder at the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, created by Michelangelo, or the masterpieces painted by Raphael. PATRONAGE Patronage is the support given by the wealthy to artists, writers, and musicians. Renaissance patrons included the French royal family and powerful Italian nobles such as the Sforzas, the Medicis, and the Borgias. WHY DID FLORENCE FLOURISH? The Renaissance was a period of great social change, when more and more political power came from money and trade. The Italian city of Florence was a European center of banking. Its leading family, the Medici, loaned money to popes and kings. It was the Medici fortune that paid the wages of artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE: WHY WAS SULEIMAN I MAGNIFICENT? HOW DID CONSTANTINOPLE BECOME ISTANBUL? WHERE DID JANISSARIES COME FROM? Around AD 1300, a new Muslim empire ruled by Turkish leaders called sultans was founded. At its largest extent, in 1700, it covered vast areas of Europe, Africa, and Asia. It lasted until the end of World War I (1918). Today’s republic of Turkey was founded in 1923. WHY WAS SULEIMAN I MAGNIFICENT? The greatest of the Ottoman sultans was Suleiman the Magnificent. During his reign (1520–1566), the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest extent. He was also a poet and a patron of the arts, adorning Istanbul and other Ottoman cities with glittering mosques. HOW DID CONSTANTINOPLE BECOME ISTANBUL? In 1453, after a siege during which its walls were pounded by a battery of cannons, Constantinople was captured by Sultan Muhammad II. Renamed Istanbul, the old capital of the Byzantine Empire then became the new capital of the expanding Ottoman Empire. WHERE DID JANISSARIES COME FROM? Janissaries were elite soldiers who started as non-Turkish Christian boys from the Balkans. They were trained in Istanbul, where they converted to Islam.

ASIAN TEMPLE KINGDOMS: WHY DID ASIAN RULERS BUILD TEMPLES? WHO INFLUENCED THE TEMPLE KINGDOMS? Between AD 700 and 1300, powerful kingdoms, including the Khmer, Pagan, and Sukhothai, emerged in different parts of southeast Asia. They grew rich from growing rice, selling valuable spices, and controlling merchants’ sea routes. Their rulers built great temples. WHY DID ASIAN RULERS BUILD TEMPLES? Rulers organized thousands of workers to build Hindu and Buddhist temples for worship. The Buddhist religion became much more popular, so many more Buddhist temples were built. The temples brought religious merit to rulers, prestige to their kingdoms, and displayed each ruler’s wealth and power. WHO INFLUENCED THE TEMPLE KINGDOMS? Buddhist monks and Hindu holy men traveled from India to southeast Asia. They offered advice to kings and led religious rituals. Prayers, offerings, and festivals became an important part of people’s lives.

POLYNESIA- WHERE WERE POLYNESIANS FROM? WHY DID PEOPLE SET SAIL FOR POLYNESIA? HOW DID THE SETTLERS NAVIGATE? MAORIS Polynesia is a group of scattered islands in the vast Pacific Ocean. Around 2000 BC, families made long, dangerous journeys to settle there. The settlers arrived with pigs, dogs, and hens. They built thatched wooden houses, gathered bananas, coconuts, and breadfruit, and fished. WHERE WERE POLYNESIANS FROM? The settlers’ ancestors came from southeast Asia, and had lived there for at least 30,000 years. Slowly, they moved to islands in the Pacific. By 1200 BC, they reached Tonga and Samoa, on the western edge of Polynesia. Around 300 BC, they began to sail farther across the ocean. Easter Island (also called Rapa Nui) was the farthest east that the settlers reached. They arrived in AD 500. Using simple tools of stone and wood, they built many moai (stone statues). Some were 33 ft (10 m) high. WHY DID PEOPLE SET SAIL FOR POLYNESIA? The islands in southeast Asia, where settlers traveled from, were probably overpopulated. This would have meant the farmland was exhausted, forests had been cut down, and the soil had eroded away. There may also have been wars between rival islanders, competing for food and land. But some sailors may have been adventurous, eager to explore new lands. HOW DID THE SETTLERS NAVIGATE? Settlers traveled in double-hulled canoes, which had sails made of matting. They observed stars, clouds, ocean swells, migrating birds, and te lapa (rays of light reflected underwater from land), and made maps from sticks, pebbles, and shells. Using these techniques, they reached distant islands like Hawaii, and also New Zealand, where settlers called themselves MAORIS. THE POLYNESIAN TRIANGLE The islands of Polynesia cover an area of over 800,000 sq miles (2 million sq km). Roughly triangular in shape, New Zealand, Hawaii, and Easter Island are at its points. It took many days to sail between groups of islands. Settlers carried farm tools and food plants, to help them survive when they landed. MAORIS Settlers first reached New Zealand around AD 800. At first they lived in small, peaceful groups, but, as the population grew, they became more warlike. Around 1500, they began to build fortified hilltop settlements, called pa. They decorated buildings with woodcarvings, and tattooed their skins with swirling designs. WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE FOR MAORIS? The climate of New Zealand was colder and wetter than the settlers’ home islands, so they had to adapt to their new environment. They hunted giant flightless birds, called moa, in the forests. They killed seals and gathered shellfish around the coast.

MEDIEVAL AFRICA: HOW DID TRADERS CROSS THE SAHARA DESERT? WHICH AFRICAN GOODS WERE HIGHLY PRIZED? TIMBUKTU SWAHILI OBAS From around AD 750 to 1500, lands to the south of Africa’s Sahara Desert were home to many thriving civilizations. Muslim kings ruled in cities like TIMBUKTU, and chiefs called OBASwere powerful in rainforest kingdoms. SWAHILIpeoples became rich through trade. HOW DID TRADERS CROSS THE SAHARA DESERT? Traders from North Africa crossed the Sahara together in a group called a caravan. They led as many as 10,000 camels, heavily laden with goods, in a long line known as a camel train. At the southern edge of the Sahara, the goods were transferred to donkeys or human porters, to be carried farther south. WHICH AFRICAN GOODS WERE HIGHLY PRIZED? Gold, ivory, ebony, and slaves from West African kingdoms such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai were sold in North Africa and the Middle East. They were traded for salt and copper, mined in the Sahara. Later, European traders came for gold, ebony, and slaves. TIMBUKTU Timbuktu (in central Mali) was one of the most important cities on the edge of the Sahara. After Muslim scholars brought the religion of Islam to the region, around 900, it became a great center of Muslim learning, with schools, a university, and a special market where valuable, handwritten books were sold. HOW DID TIMBUKTU BECOME WEALTHY? Like a number of other cities on the edge of the Sahara, such as Gao and Jenne, Timbuktu was also on the banks of the Niger River. These cities were inland ports. Merchants from the south sent boatloads of gold, ivory, cotton, dried fish, and kola nuts upriver to them, to be sold to people living there, or to be carried to lands farther north. Timbuktu became a terminus (end point) for one of the main trading routes crossing the Sahara. WHY DID MUSLIM PILGRIMS GO TO TIMBUKTU? Many Muslim pilgrims traveled to Timbuktu to honor the city’s 333 resident saints. These were celebrated Muslim scholars and teachers who taught their faith to people in the surrounding lands. Many beautiful mosques were built in Timbuktu. SWAHILI Swahili became the main language used by different peoples on the coast and islands of East Africa. Many of its words were taken from Arabic—the language of traders who sailed across the Indian Ocean, linking India and Arabia with East African ports such as Mogadishu, Gedi, and Kilwa. WHO DID THE SWAHILI PEOPLES TRADE WITH? East Africans produced valuable goods, such as leather, frankincense, leopard skins, ivory, iron, copper, and gold. They sold these to Indian Ocean traders. From around 1071, they sent ambassadors to trade with China, and, from 1418, welcomed Chinese merchant ships to East Africa’s ports. ZANZIBAR The island of Zanzibar, off the coast of East Africa, is where Swahili was first spoken. It became a major trading center for slaves, ivory, and cloves. OBAS From around 1250 to 1800, a number of different kingdoms made up what is now southwest Nigeria, in West Africa. Each of these was ruled by an oba. The obas were both religious and political leaders. Their subjects, the Yoruba people, lived as farmers, and built city-states surrounded by massive walls of earth. WHERE WERE MANY STATUES OF OBAS MADE? People living in the rainforest kingdom of Benin, now in south Nigeria, were expert metalworkers and cast elaborate portrait heads of their obas, as well as decorative plaques and ceremonial objects. These were made from brass or bronze and were used for ancestor worship, or to decorate the rulers’ palaces. WHAT HAPPENED TO THE KINGDOMS OF THE OBAS? The power of the obas and other African rulers was weakened by the arrival of Europeans. Portuguese, Dutch, and British traders took back news to their countries of the riches of Africa. Explorers were encouraged to travel there and, by 1900, almost all of Africa was ruled by European powers.

MONGOLS: WHAT WAS SPECIAL ABOUT MONGOL ARMIES? WHO WANTED TO RULE THE WORLD? BIOGRAPHY: GENGHIS KHAN r. 1206–1227 The Mongols were nomadic tribes from the steppes, or grasslands, of central Asia. In AD 1206 they declared Genghis Khan their supreme ruler. He led their conquest of an empire that, by 1279, included all of China and nearly all of Russia, as well as central Asia, Iran, and Iraq. WHAT WAS SPECIAL ABOUT MONGOL ARMIES? Mongol military might was based on the speed and ferocity of mounted archers. From galloping horses, Mongol archers let loose arrows that could pierce armor. The riders and the horses were tough, capable of covering more than 100 miles (160 km) a day. WHO WANTED TO RULE THE WORLD? Genghis Khan wanted to live up to his title, which means “prince of all that lies between the oceans.” He aimed to conquer the world and was proud of the fact that, eventually, it took almost a year to ride from one end of his realm to the other. BIOGRAPHY: GENGHIS KHAN r. 1206–1227 Genghis Khan began his career as Temujin, the brilliant, ambitious chieftain of one Mongol tribe. He was chosen as supreme ruler, and given the title Genghis Khan, by a gathering of all the Mongol tribes. After his death, in 1227, his empire was divided among his sons.

SAMURAI: WHAT WAS THE WAY OF THE WARRIOR? SHOGUNS Samurai were warriors from Japanese noble families, who served in private armies recruited by daimyo (local lords). They fought in civil wars that raged in Japan from around 1159. In 1603, the Tokugawa SHOGUNSrestored peace. Samurai then became local officials and administrators. WHAT WAS THE WAY OF THE WARRIOR? Samurai swore a solemn oath of loyalty to their comrades and their lord. They aimed to follow a code, called the bushido (the way of the warrior). This called for self-discipline, skill, bravery, honor, obedience, and self-sacrifice. Many samurai also followed the teachings of Zen Buddhism. SHOGUNS From 1192 to 1867, Japan was ruled by a series of powerful army commanders with the title of shogun. Japan’s emperors had great prestige but little real power. WHO WAS THE FIRST SHOGUN? In 1192, the warlord Yoritomo, who was the head of the mighty Minamoto clan, defeated rival nobles to become the most powerful man in Japan. The emperor gave him the title of shogun, which means “great general.” Yoritomo set up a new, military government, far away from the imperial court.

IMPERIAL CHINA: WHY WERE EXAMS IMPORTANT IN CHINA? HOW DID BEIJING BECOME CHINA’S CAPITAL? WHO LIVED IN THE FORBIDDEN CITY? PORCELAIN For more than 2,000 years, from 221 BC until AD 1912, China was ruled by emperors. In that time, the capital city and the imperial dynasty (ruling family) changed. There were periods of unrest and of invasion by fierce tribes, including the Mongols, but the same system of government continued. Imperial China was a remarkably stable civilization, which led the world in art and technology, with inventions including paper, PORCELAIN, and gunpowder. Table 44. CHINA’S RULERS 221 BCQin dynasty 206 BCHan dynasty AD 221Time of disunity 581Sui dynasty 618Tang dynasty 907China divided into five dynasties 960Song dynasty 1279Yuan dynasty (Mongol) 1368Ming dynasty (last Chinese dynasty) 1644–1912Qing dynasty (Manchu dynasty from Manchuria) WHY WERE EXAMS IMPORTANT IN CHINA? The first Han emperor set up a civil service to run China. Before getting a job in the civil service, officials had to pass a series of difficult exams. Those who passed the top exams could expect jobs as government ministers, and marriage to princesses. HOW DID BEIJING BECOME CHINA’S CAPITAL? After invading China in AD 1279, the Mongol (Yuan) emperors established their capital at Beijing, which was just inside the Great Wall, in what was then the far north of China. In 1368, a new dynasty, the Ming, came to power. They kept Beijing as the capital, rebuilding and expanding the city. The Great Wall snakes across the mountains north of Beijing. Defensive walls had been built since ancient times, but most of the Great Wall as it still stands was built under the Ming emperors. WHO LIVED IN THE FORBIDDEN CITY? The imperial palace at Beijing is called the Forbidden City. Enclosed by a moat and high brick walls, this complex of palaces, halls, gardens, offices, and storehouses was built under the Ming dynasty. The imperial family lived there, along with nobles, servants, and officials. PORCELAIN Porcelain is a translucent (semitransparent) ceramic material, made of fine white clay mixed with crushed stone. It can be shaped on a potter’s wheel, or molded by hand. When fired (baked) at extremely high temperatures, it becomes waterproof, and so hard that steel cannot scratch it. WHY WAS PORCELAIN SO PRECIOUS? Porcelain was first made by Chinese potters during the Tang dynasty. It was a luxury product, for the use of nobles and emperors, and for centuries no one but the Chinese knew how to make it.

MEDIEVAL EUROPE: WHO WAS POWERFUL IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE? WHAT DID MEDIEVAL PEOPLE BELIEVE? HOW DID MEDIEVAL TOWNS DEVELOP? WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE FOR PEASANT FAMILIES? BIOGRAPHY: ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE 1122–1204 CASTLES KNIGHTS Between AD 1000 and 1500, a lively society developed in Europe. Although most people still worked on the land, this was also the age of CASTLES, cathedrals, and growing towns. Gradually, the traders and craftsmen of the towns began to have more influence on government. WHO WAS POWERFUL IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE? Kings led armies of KNIGHTSand foot soldiers. They made laws, collected taxes, and encouraged trade. Nobles ran great estates, given to them on the condition that they would help the king rule. The Church was important in every area of life, providing medieval Europe with its schools, hospitals, and universities. WHAT DID MEDIEVAL PEOPLE BELIEVE? Medieval Europeans believed that God had made the world, and ruled it through his Church and the king. Few people, apart from priests and monks, could read and write. Ordinary people learned the stories of the Bible and the saints from preachers, and from the pictures painted in their churches. HOW DID MEDIEVAL TOWNS DEVELOP? Many towns grew up around markets, where farm produce was exchanged for the goods and services of specialized craftsmen, such as shoemakers and weavers. Through their guilds, traders and craftsmen regulated prices and organized the training of their apprentices. WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE FOR PEASANT FAMILIES? Most peasants worked on their local lord’s fields in return for their own plots of land. Some, called serfs, were not free, and could not travel, or marry, without their lord’s permission. Skilled men could be thatchers or carpenters. Women might weave cloth or brew ale. BIOGRAPHY: ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE 1122–1204 Eleanor of Aquitaine was the richest heiress in France. She married King Louis VII of France in 1137, but by 1154, she was married to King Henry II of England. In her old age she remained a powerful woman, ruling England during the absence of her son, King Richard. CASTLES A castle is a huge, fortified building, or set of buildings. The first castles, built around 900, were made up of a wooden fortress on top of an earth mound. Later, castles built of stone had towers, battlements, moats, and strong defensive walls. They also became prestigious homes. WERE CASTLES ONLY USED IN WARTIME? The first castles were built to shelter nobles, KNIGHTS, and soldiers in a war. After around 1200, in times of peace, each castle had its own nobleman and his family living in it. Comfortable private rooms were added for important guests. The main building of a castle was its keep (central tower). This one was built around 1130. Its stone walls would not burn, and were very hard to knock down. HOW DID GUNPOWDER AFFECT CASTLES? From around 1300, gunpowder for firing cannons began to affect warfare in Europe. Cannon balls could smash through stone walls, making castles less useful as safe strongholds. Castles continued to be built, but for show. They were intended as impressive residences rather than indestructible fortresses. KNIGHTS Knights were warriors on horseback. They came from noble families and were trained from boyhood to handle weapons, wear armor, and ride heavy war horses. Some knights owned castles and land, and kept local order. Others served in the private armies of great lords. Each knight had his own coat of arms, helping him to tell friend from foe in battle. HOW DID KNIGHTS FIGHT? Knights charged into battle on horseback, spearing enemy soldiers with their long lances, or slashing at them with heavy swords, maces, and battle-axes. On foot, they fought with daggers and short swords. This suit of armor, worn around 1380, gave good protection while the knight was on horseback, but was hot and heavy when fighting on foot. WHAT WAS THE CODE OF CHIVALRY? Knights were bound by a solemn promise to be loyal to their king. They were also supposed to respect women, protect the weak, and defend the Church. This code became known as chivalry.

CRUSADES: WHY WAS THE FIRST CRUSADE CALLED? WHAT DID THE CRUSADERS BRING BACK TO EUROPE? In 1095, Pope Urban II called for a war against the Muslim rulers of Jerusalem. This was the First Crusade. Over the next two centuries, Christian armies from Europe fought more crusades, but none was successful. WHY WAS THE FIRST CRUSADE CALLED? For centuries, Christian pilgrims had been visiting the Holy Land, where Jesus had lived and which had been ruled by Muslims since 637. The First Crusade happened because, by the 11th century, the region’s rulers were less sympathetic to Christian pilgrims. WHAT DID THE CRUSADERS BRING BACK TO EUROPE? Crusaders returned with apricots, lemons, rice, dyes, spices, perfume, soap, and glass mirrors. They also brought back a musical instrument, the ancestor of the modern guitar.

NORMANS: WHAT HAPPENED IN 1066? WHY WAS NORMAN SICILY SO REMARKABLE? The Normans were descended from Viking warriors who settled in Normandy, northwest France, in AD 912. They conquered large areas of Europe, from England to southern Italy. Norman kings were strong rulers. WHAT HAPPENED IN 1066? The Normans invaded England in 1066. They were led by the Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, who became king of England. He removed English nobles, and gave their land to Normans. Norman nobles ran the government, and Norman priests led the Church. Norman rulers spoke French, and built castles. They imposed heavy taxes and harsh laws. WHY WAS NORMAN SICILY SO REMARKABLE? In 1060–1091, Sicily was conquered by Normans. The island’s new rulers were tolerant of its Muslim inhabitants, and after the conquest it flourished as a multicultural center of art and learning. Norman Sicilian kings encouraged the work of Arab geographers and scientists, and sponsored the translation of Greek classic texts into Latin.