VIKINGS WHERE DID THE VIKINGS TRAVEL? HOW DID THE VIKINGS GET THEIR FIERCE REPUTATION? HOW DID THE VIKINGS WORSHIP THEIR GODS? LONGSHIPS Late in the 8th century, Viking raiders from Norway, Denmark, and Sweden began to sweep across Europe. In their versatile LONGSHIPS, the Vikings sailed vast distances. Their golden age of trade, exploration, and colonization lasted until AD 1100. WHERE DID THE VIKINGS TRAVEL? The Vikings raided and settled along the coasts of Britain, Ireland, and continental Europe. They crossed the Atlantic to reach Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland. Viking merchants traveled through Russia to Constantinople, exchanging the amber, furs, and whale oil of the north for wine, silks, spices, and silver coins from the Middle East. HOW DID THE VIKINGS GET THEIR FIERCE REPUTATION? The Vikings were not Christian, and they saw isolated monasteries and churches as easy targets for hit-and-run raids. But the first people to write about the Vikings were monks who had suffered in these raids. As a result, Viking atrocities were better recorded than Viking achievements. HOW DID THE VIKINGS WORSHIP THEIR GODS? The Vikings worshiped their gods in the open air, choosing natural landmarks such as big rocks, unusual trees, and waterfalls. Their most important gods were Odin, the god of knowledge, Thor, the god of metalwork and thunder, and Frey, the goddess of fertility. After around 1000, Viking peoples became Christian. LONGSHIPS Viking ships were the best in Europe. Besides the longships used for raiding and war, they had special fishing boats. For long-distance voyages, they built deeper, broader ships called knorrs. HOW WERE VIKING SHIPS BUILT? Viking ships were made of planks of oak or pine wood, nailed to a heavy central keel (supporting timber). This made them strong but flexible. The mast was made from a tall tree trunk and supported a huge square sail. There were oars for each crewman, to row the ship when there was no wind. The shallow hull of a longship made it less likely to capsize. It could be sailed in shallow water close to land, to make a surprise attack. Its planks overlapped for extra strength. Tarred wool was crammed between the planks to keep water out.

ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION: WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE IN MUSLIM LANDS? HOW DID ISLAM SPREAD SO QUICKLY? WHERE DID MUSLIMS TRAVEL TO? WHY WERE TEXTILES SO IMPORTANT? CALIPHS AL ANDALUS In AD 610, an Arab merchant called Muhammad founded a new religion called Islam. His teachings inspired the Arab peoples, and by 750 Muslims (followers of Islam) had conquered an area stretching from Afghanistan to AL ANDALUSin southern Spain. Trade, science, and culture thrived in this Islamic empire. WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE IN MUSLIM LANDS? Newly conquered lands were united by Islam, and by common tax systems, coinage, and laws. Jews and Christians sometimes paid higher taxes, but they were free to run their own religious affairs so long as they did not insult the Prophet Muhammad. HOW DID ISLAM SPREAD SO QUICKLY? Islam brought a new sense of unity and purpose to the traders and tribespeople of the Arabian Peninsula. Led by the CALIPH, Arab armies spread Islam in the Middle East and beyond. It helped that their main enemies, the Sassanids in Iran and the Byzantines in eastern Europe, were weakened by fighting each other. Islam was also spread by Muslim traders. This minaret, a slender tower used to call Muslims to prayer, was built in 1199 by a new ruling dynasty as a symbol of their victory. It is part of the Quwwat al-Islam (Might of Islam) Mosque, in Delhi, India. WHERE DID MUSLIMS TRAVEL TO? Muslim pilgrims, traders, soldiers, scholars, and government officials made long journeys across the Islamic empire and beyond. One of the most famous explorers, Ibn Battuta, set out on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325. He spent the next 25 years traveling, crossing the Sahara and even reaching China before returning to Morocco to write his story. WHY WERE TEXTILES SO IMPORTANT? Many of the first Muslims were nomads, who needed to be able to pack up and move all their belongings quickly. Traditionally, woven cloth was used for tents, bags, clothes, cushions, bedding, and carpets. The art and craft of making textiles continued to be important in the Muslim world, which gave us the words for damask (from Damascus), muslin (from Mosul), and cashmere (from Kashmir). CALIPHS After the death of Muhammad in 632, Muslims were ruled by caliphs. As Islam spread, the caliphs had great political as well as spiritual authority. In the reign of the fourth caliph, from 656 to 661, two rival traditions of Islam emerged: the Sunni and the Shi’a. This division meant it was no longer possible for the whole Islamic world to be ruled by a single caliph. WHO WERE THE UMAYYADS AND THE ABBASIDS? The Umayyads and Abbasids were dynasties of caliphs. From 661, Islam was ruled by the Umayyads, based in Damascus (in Syria). In 750, a new dynasty, the Abbasid, seized power, although a branch of the Umayyad continued to rule Muslim Spain. The Abbasid caliphs were based at Baghdad, which became the prosperous center of a huge trading empire and the artistic capital of the Muslim world. AL ANDALUS Muslim armies conquered southern Spain in 711. They called it Al Andalus, and it became the richest country in Europe. The Muslims, or Moors as they are sometimes called, brought new crops, such as oranges, almonds, and cotton, and new technology, such as water wheels. In 1492, Granada, which was the last surviving Islamic kingdom in Spain, fell to Christian rulers. HOW DID AL ANDALUS LINK EAST AND WEST? During the 10th century reign of Abd al-Rahman, Cordoba was the capital of Al Andalus. With its lavishly endowed libraries, it was a magnet for scholars and acted as the door through which the science of the East reached Christian scholars in western Europe. After 1031, when the ruling dynasty changed, Cordoba’s golden age ended. In 1236 it was reconquered by Christian Spanish forces.

BYZANTINE EMPIRE WHO RULED THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE? CONSTANTINOPLE In AD 324 the emperor Constantine reunited the Roman Empire. By then Rome was too difficult to defend against barbarian attacks, so he moved his capital east to Byzantium, renaming it CONSTANTINOPLE. WHO RULED THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE? From Constantinople (now Istanbul), Constantine ruled over the entire Roman world, but eventually the empire split again. In 476, the western Roman empire was swept away. However, the eastern empire, which is called the Byzantine Empire, endured until 1453, when it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. CONSTANTINOPLE In 330, Constantinople was proclaimed capital of the Roman Empire. The new city’s splendid public buildings, which included a forum, were adorned with treasures from all over the empire. WHY WAS CONSTANTINOPLE SO PROSPEROUS? Constantinople was a meeting point for long-distance trade routes linking Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Merchants brought silks from China, pearls and perfumes from Arabia, spices from southeast Asia, and fine wool and furs from Europe to sell in its markets.

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE WHY WAS THE EMPIRE FOUNDED? HOW DID CHARLEMAGNE WORK WITH SCHOLARS? WHAT HAPPENED TO THE TITLE? On Christmas Day, 800, Charlemagne, the King of the Franks, was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope. Under Charlemagne, much of western Europe was ruled as one vast country, but within 40 years of his death, in 814, the Holy Roman Empire had fragmented. WHY WAS THE EMPIRE FOUNDED? Charlemagne was a brilliant leader, and his kingdom stretched from the North Sea to Italy. As Holy Roman Emperor, he was expected to rule Europe like a Roman emperor, but with a new responsibility for the safety and prosperity of the Church and the Pope. HOW DID CHARLEMAGNE WORK WITH SCHOLARS? Charlemagne was a great patron of learning, inviting the most famous scholars of the day to his main court at Aachen. His advisers and friends included Peter of Pisa, Agobard of Lyons, and Alcuin of York. Under Charlemagne, rare manuscripts were collected, the text of the Bible was revised, and grammars, history books, and ballads were published. WHAT HAPPENED TO THE TITLE? By 843 Charlemagne’s empire had split into three kingdoms, each of which was ruled by a member of his family. Following Charlemagne, there was no Holy Roman Emperor until Otto I was crowned in 962. After 1438, all but one of the holders of the prestigious title were Habsburg monarchs. In 1806 Napoleon abolished the title.

CELTS: WHAT WERE CELTIC WARRIORS FAMOUS FOR? WHO WERE THE DRUIDS? The tribespeople who lived in western Europe before the Roman conquest were called Celts. Each tribe was made up of three main classes—druids, warriors, and farmers—and the largest settlements were hilltop forts. WHAT WERE CELTIC WARRIORS FAMOUS FOR? Celtic warriors were famous for their love of feasting, fighting, and jewelry. They daubed their faces with a blue war paint made from woad (plant that produces a blue dye) and yelled at the tops of their voices as they rode into battle. But the terrible look and sound of a Celtic army was no match for the discipline of highly trained Roman legions. WHO WERE THE DRUIDS? After studying everything from herbalism to astronomy for up to 20 years, druids served Celtic society as priests and judges. At sacred pools, or groves of oak trees, they led religious rites that sometimes involved human sacrifice. Unlike most Celts, many druids could read and write.

AGE OF MIGRATIONS: WHO WERE THE BARBARIANS? WHO WERE THE HUNS? In AD 285 the Roman Empire divided into eastern and western parts, each with its own emperor. Despite this reorganization, by around 400 the western empire could no longer hold out against waves of invading barbarian tribes from northeastern Europe. In 410, Rome itself was attacked. WHO WERE THE BARBARIANS? For the Romans, the Germanic tribes moving across the empire were destructive, disorderly “barbarians.” Over time, these migrant peoples did settle down, eventually giving their names to their new homelands: the Franks in France, the ANGLES AND SAXONSin England, the Lombards in northern Italy, and so on. Table 43. BARBARIAN ATTACKS AD 235Germanic tribes start to invade 410Visigoths capture Rome 435Vandals take Roman North Africa 451Hun invasions 455Vandals destroy Rome 476Last western emperor deposed WHO WERE THE HUNS? The Huns were a nomadic people from today’s Turkestan. Mounted on swift ponies, and armed with bows and arrows, Hun armies rode deep into the Roman Empire in search of plunder. They were not interested in conquering land. ANGLES AND SAXONS Angles and Saxons, who were later known as Anglo-Saxons, lived along the North Sea coast. They began to raid Britain while it was under Roman rule. After 410, when the Roman army left, they arrived in larger numbers to settle, and gradually took over much of eastern Britain. WHO WAS BURIED IN SHIPS? The Angles and Saxons were pagan, seafaring people, and ships played an important part in their culture. They believed that boats could ferry a dead person’s spirit to the next world. People who had been wealthy when they were alive were buried in ships, together with the comforts and treasures they were expected to enjoy in the next world. Poorer Anglo-Saxons were sometimes buried with a few ship’s planks. WHY DID ANGLES AND SAXONS MOVE TO BRITAIN? Around 200, the climate became warmer and sea levels rose, which made life more difficult for the Angles and Saxons living on the North Sea coast. At the same time, they were being squeezed by other westward-moving Germanic peoples. Some of the first Anglo-Saxons in Britain may have been soldiers, hired to protect villages against other raiders.

MAYA: WHO RULED MAYAN KINGDOMS? WHY DID THE MAYA BUILD PYRAMIDS? The Maya lived in Central America and were powerful from around AD 250 to 900. Farmers and traders, they built spectacular cities and developed a system of writing that used picture symbols called GLYPHS. WHO RULED MAYAN KINGDOMS? The Maya were divided into kingdoms, each of which had a city and a ruler, who acted as war leader, lawmaker, and chief priest. After 900 Mayan civilization declined, possibly because their farming methods led to exhausted fields and failing crops. WHY DID THE MAYA BUILD PYRAMIDS? Pyramids were the largest buildings in Mayan cities and were built as temples and royal tombs. Shrines where sacrifices were made to the gods were at the top, while burial chambers were hidden deep inside. The pyramids were built of stone, and covered with red-painted plaster, but this plaster has not survived. MAYAN GLYPHS Mayan glyphs were painted on walls and pots, and carved into pieces of jade and monuments of stone. They were also written into books called codices, which were made out of long strips of bark paper that folded up like screens. This complex writing system was controlled by scribes of very high rank. WHEN WAS THE RIDDLE OF THE GLYPHS SOLVED? The study of Mayan hieroglyphs began 200 years ago. By the 1950s, scholars had worked out the glyphs for the names of rulers and animals. Then, in 1960, it became clear that most Mayan inscriptions are historical. They record important events, such as the births, marriages and deaths, and the victories in battle, of the godlike Mayan kings.

ANCIENT ROM: HOW DID ROME EXPAND? WHAT WAS THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT ROME? HOW WERE ROMAN SOLDIERS RECRUITED? Rome began, around 1000 BC, as a settlement of farmers and shepherds in central Italy. Over the course of the next thousand years, it developed into a powerful city-state, and became the capital of an empire that stretched from Britain in the north to Arabia in the southwest. Opened by Emperor Titus in AD 80, the Colosseum was the largest amphitheater in Rome. For the blood-thirsty “games” staged here, gladiators and animals were imported from every corner of the empire. HOW DID ROME EXPAND? Gradually, the Roman Republic conquered its neighbors, until, by 260 BC, it controlled all of Italy. Next, the Romans defeated the Carthaginians, which by 100 BC gave Rome control of the Mediterranean. At the heart of the government of this expanding Roman Republic were the politicians called SENATORS. WHAT WAS THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT ROME? Jupiter, Minerva, Vesta, and Mars were among the chief gods and goddesses of Ancient Rome. On special occasions, animals were sacrificed to them in temples. Before going into battle, for example, a public sacrifice would be made to Mars, the god of war. Throughout the empire a wide range of non-Roman religions were tolerated, so long as they did not disrespect official Roman gods and the EMPERORS. HOW WERE ROMAN SOLDIERS RECRUITED? In the early days of Rome, every citizen had to be prepared to fight, but soldiers of the Roman imperial army were paid, highly trained professionals who signed on for 20-25 years of service. The ordinary foot soldier was equipped with a short sword, two javelins, and a heavy shield of leather and wood. When he was not at war, he was building forts and roads. SENATORS The Roman Republic was ruled by the Senate, the council of noblemen that controlled all the top jobs in the government and army. After 27 BC, when the Roman Republic was replaced by the Roman Empire, the Senate continued to play an important part in politics. WHY WAS JULIUS CAESAR MURDERED? In 44 BC, five years after he had become the sole ruler of Rome, Julius Caesar was murdered in the Senate building. His assassins were a group of senators who thought he had become too powerful. They also resented the fact that Julius Caesar had rewarded hundreds of his supporters by making them senators. As a result, the Senate, which for most of its history had between 300 and 600 members, was packed with 900 senators. EMPERORS After Julius Caesar’s death, Rome was divided by civil wars. By 27 BC, his adopted son Octavian was master of the Roman world. Under the title Augustus, which means “revered” in Latin, he became the first Roman emperor. His reign brought peace and prosperity to a war-weary world. WHY DID ROMANS GET BREAD AND CIRCUSES? Rome was the largest city in the world. By AD 300, it had a million inhabitants, many of whom were hungry and unemployed. To stop them from rioting, they were given “bread and circuses.” The “bread” was the regular ration of grain issued to Roman citizens, and the “circuses” were the free entertainments and chariot races provided by politicians and emperors. FIRST EMPEROR Augustus reigned for nearly 50 years. He reorganized coins, laws, and taxation.

MAURYAN INDIA: WHAT WERE THE CITIES OF MAURYAN INDIA LIKE? HOW DID ASHOKA SPREAD BUDDHISM? The Maurya dynasty ruled India from 322 BC to 185 BC. Its greatest king was Ashoka (273–232 BC). He began his reign as a warrior, but after becoming a Buddhist, he tried to pursue peaceful policies. WHAT WERE THE CITIES OF MAURYAN INDIA LIKE? Mauryan cities were defended by steep banks of earth and timber walls. At Ashoka’s capital, Pataliputra (near modern Patna), they stretched for 9 miles (14 km). Inside were temples, reservoirs, palaces, storehouses, and workers’ houses. HOW DID ASHOKA SPREAD BUDDHISM? Ashoka set up tall stone pillars in important places, carved with Buddhist teachings and his own promises to rule well. He tried to make peace between different peoples in his empire, but after he died, the empire split into smaller states, until a new empire emerged under the Guptas.

EARLY AMERICANS: HOW DID EARLY AMERICANS LIVE? HOW DID EARLY AMERICANS HONOR THEIR GODS? The first Americans crossed the land bridge that linked Siberia with Alaska during the last Ice Age. Gradually, they spread through the continent. By around 8000 BC there were people in almost every part of the Americas. HOW DID EARLY AMERICANS LIVE? The first Americans were hunters, gatherers, and fishermen, and this way of life continued in tropical rainforests and cold northern woods. Other peoples became farmers. In the Andes of South America they grew potatoes and herded llama. In fertile river valleys, MOUND BUILDERSgrew corn, beans, and squash. In semideserts, the PUEBLOpeople farmed irrigated fields. HOW DID EARLY AMERICANS HONOR THEIR GODS? The rituals of early Americans were closely connected with persuading the gods, or spirits, to continue to provide sunshine and rain. With gifts of blood and food, and sacrifices of animals and young people, they honored the gods on whom life depended. WHICH METALS DID EARLY AMERICANS TREASURE? Around 1500 BC, craftworkers in South America discovered how to shape nuggets of gold, silver, and copper by hammering them, stretching them into wire, or melting them and casting them in molds. They crafted jewelry, ritual objects, and images of gods. PUEBLOS From around AD 800, in parts of southwest North America, rooms were stacked on top of each other to make villages called pueblos. People living in these apartments also became known as Pueblos. HOW MANY PEOPLE LIVED IN A PUEBLO? Some pueblos, like that at Pueblo Bonito, in New Mexico, may have had as many as 650 rooms, and more than 30 ceremonial chambers (kivas). Each room could house a whole family, so the population of a pueblo could have been well over 3,000. MOUND BUILDERS Between 700 BC and AD 550, Adena and Hopewell peoples in the Ohio Valley built huge earth mounds. Some were meeting places for long-distance traders. Others were holy monuments or tombs. WHERE WERE AMERICA’S FIRST CITIES? Around AD 800, mound builders by the Mississippi River also began to build cities. The largest was Cahokia, near St. Louis. It covered almost 6 sq miles (16 sq km) and had over 120 earth mounds. About 10,000 people lived there by 1200.

GUPTA INDIA: WHY IS GUPTA INDIA CALLED A GOLDEN AGE? WHAT IS THE MAHABHARATA? The Gupta dynasty was founded by the Hindu king Chandragupta I in AD 320. From their home in northeast India, the Gupta kings won control of a large empire, which lasted for more than 200 years. WHY IS GUPTA INDIA CALLED A GOLDEN AGE? The art, architecture, science, music, literature, and dance of northern India flourished under the generous and tolerant Gupta kings. Gupta mathematicians developed the number system used all over the world today, and invented the concept of zero. WHAT IS THE MAHABHARATA? TheMahabharata, or “Great Epic of India,” is the world’s longest poem. It tells the story of five Hindu princes who lose their kingdom and struggle to win it back. Written in Sanskrit, it is one of the most important works of Hindu literature.

ANCIENT GREECE: WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT MYCENAEAN KINGS? WHO DID THE ANCIENT GREEKS WORSHIP? WHAT WERE ANCIENT GREEK PLAYS ABOUT? WHY DID THE GREEKS VALUE SPORTS? Greece was home to a rich civilization that reached its peak between 500 BC and 300 BC. Its people lived by farming, fishing, crafts, and trading. They built 300 CITY-STATESand settled in colonies. In 146 BC, Greece was conquered by Rome, but many aspects of Greek culture still shape our world. WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT MYCENAEAN KINGS? Mycenaean kings were powerful from 1600 BC to 1200 BC. They were warrior chieftains who lived in fortresslike cities and ruled small kingdoms. Their name comes from the richest of these—Mycenae, in southern Greece. They employed skilled artists and craftworkers to make fine pottery and magnificent gold jewelry. They owned fleets of trading ships that sailed to many ports. WHO DID THE ANCIENT GREEKS WORSHIP? The Ancient Greeks worshiped many different gods and goddesses. They believed that these gods had magic powers and that they were human in form, but bigger and more beautiful. Each god or goddess controlled a different aspect of life. The supreme god Zeus led all other gods. His brother Poseidon ruled the sea, and another brother, Hades, ruled the underworld. Temples were homes for the gods and goddesses, and status symbols for cities. The Parthenon, Athens, was built in c. 480 BC, when Greek architecture was at its peak. It is one of the world’s most famous buildings and was made from more than 24,000 tons (21,800 metric tons) of marble. This temple was dedicated to the goddess Athena. Inside stood a 40-ft- (12-m-) tall carved statue of Athena, with solid gold armor. WHAT WERE ANCIENT GREEK PLAYS ABOUT? Greek tragedies and comedies told stories about gods and goddesses, or made fun of people such as politicians. Only men watched the plays. They thought women would find them too rude or upsetting. The plays of Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides are still performed today. WHY DID THE GREEKS VALUE SPORTS? Sports were good training for war, but city-states also organized sports competitions to form part of their religious festivals. The most famous was the Olympic Games, held every four years to honor the god Zeus. Competitors came from all over Greece. Victorious athletes won praise for themselves, and prestige for their families and towns. BIOGRAPHY: ALEXANDER THE GREAT 356–323 BC Alexander was ruler of Macedon, north of Greece. As a young man he conquered many lands, including some of the Greek city-states. When he died, his vast empire stretched from Egypt to Pakistan. CITY-STATES A city-state was made up of a town and all the land near it. Each one had its own government, laws, and way of life. City-states often fought each other, using troops of HOPLITESand huge warships. HOW DID ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY WORK? In Athens, all adult male citizens could listen to debates in the Assembly, which met on most days. Here, they could elect and expel city leaders, and vote to decide on government policies. Women, slaves, and foreigners were not able to vote. Three of the world’s most famous philosophers—Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle—lived and taught in Athens. HOPLITES Hoplites were trained foot soldiers who fought for their city-states using swords and spears. Their name came from the round hoplon (shield) that they carried for protection in battle. They also wore helmets, body armor, and plated greaves (shin guards). HOW DID THE ANCIENT GREEKS FIGHT? The Greeks used a battle formation called the phalanx. Soldiers stood side by side in rows, overlapping their shields to make a solid wall of defense as they advanced toward the enemy. Their commanders rode in horse-drawn chariots to overlook the battlefield. City-states also hired foreign experts, such as archers from Scythia, and used warships called triremes.

MEDITERRANEAN SEAFARERS: WHAT MADE THE TRADERS SO PROSPEROUS? From around 2000 BC, people living close to the Mediterranean Sea, such as the MINOANS, Mycenaeans, and PHOENICIANS, built strong wooden ships powered by sails and oars. They established long-distance sea routes linking Europe, Africa, and Asia, and became wealthy sea traders. Later, they sailed to explore and set up colonies. WHAT MADE THE TRADERS SO PROSPEROUS? Traders braved the stormy Mediterranean waters to earn as much as possible through overseas business. The most profitable cargoes included silver from Spain (used to make coins), tin from Britain, and copper from Cyprus. The tin and copper metals were smelted to make bronze. Phoenician cloth, colored purple with a dye made from shellfish, was so expensive that only kings and queens could afford to buy it. MINOANS From 3000 BC to 1450 BC, Minoan kings ruled the eastern Mediterranean area from the island of Crete. The kings grew rich by trading with other islands and demanding offerings from less powerful peoples. They lived in vast, elegantly decorated palaces. WHY DID MINOAN POWER COLLAPSE? Inc.1450 BC, the Mediterranean island of Thera (now Santorini) was destroyed by a volcanic eruption. At nearby Crete, sea levels rose, dust blotted out the Sun, and the Minoans’ crops died out. Then the palace at Knossos, Crete, was attacked by the Mycenaeans. Byc.1100 BC, the Minoan civilization had disappeared. PHOENICIANS The Phoenicians lived on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and were powerful from around 1000 BC to 500 BC. They lived as farmers, foresters, and craftworkers who were highly skilled in woodworking, glass-making, and textile production. WHERE DID THE PHOENICIANS TRAVEL TO TRADE? The Phoenicians sailed all over the Mediterranean Sea. A few ventured farther—to western Spain, southeast Britain, and western Africa—and built new cities in the regions where they traded. Their most famous city was at Carthage, in North Africa, which remained powerful until the Romans destroyed it in 146 BC.

PERSIAN EMPIRE HOW WAS THE PERSIAN EMPIRE GOVERNED? WHAT WAS THE ROYAL ROAD? ROYAL PALACE BIOGRAPHY: KING DARIUS I r. 522–486 BC SATRAPS From 539 BC to 331 BC, the Persian Empire was the most powerful state in the world. Ruled from Persia (now Iran), it stretched from Egypt to India. It had rich resources of water, fertile farmland, and gold. The Persians worshiped a fire god, Zoroaster. HOW WAS THE PERSIAN EMPIRE GOVERNED? Persian rulers claimed the proud title of “King of Kings” and demanded total obedience from their subjects. Under King Darius, the empire was divided into 20 provinces to try to stop any single region from becoming too powerful. Each province was ruled by a governor, called a SATRAP. WHAT WAS THE ROYAL ROAD? This was the longest highway in the Persian Empire. It ran for more than 1,550 miles (2,500 km) from Sardis, in western Turkey, to the empire’s capital, Susa, near the Persian Gulf. A giant network of roads linked the empire’s provinces. Messengers traveled on horseback to deliver urgent royal commands or news, while merchants used camel trains to transport goods. ROYAL PALACE In 520 BC, King Darius gave orders for a magnificent new palace to be built at Persepolis, in Persia. He commanded leaders from all over the empire to bring tributes (forced gifts) to him there. BIOGRAPHY: KING DARIUS I r. 522–486 BC Known as Darius the Great, Darius I reorganized the Persian government, won great victories in Turkey, and led an invasion of Greece. But his army was defeated by Greek soldiers at the famous battle of Marathon in 490 BC. This started a long-lasting war with the Greeks that eventually brought down the Persian Empire. SATRAPS Satraps were local rulers appointed by the king to govern individual provinces. Their job was to enforce law and order, and to collect taxes and tributes. They worked with Persia’s army commanders to defend the empire’s frontiers from enemy attack. COULD THE SATRAPS BE TRUSTED? Persian kings did not trust the satraps. They employed special spies, known as “the king’s ears,” to make sure that the satraps were not stealing taxes and tributes. But some satraps did become powerful, and plotted against the king. Some joined with enemies of the empire, such as Alexander the Great, the Greek leader who conquered the Persian Empire in 331 BC.

MIDDLE EASTERN EMPIRES: WHY WAS THE MIDDLE EAST SUCH A RICH PRIZE? BABYLONIANS HITTITES HEBREWS ASSYRIANS From around 2000 BC, rival peoples in the Middle East fought to either conquer or defend land. Some, like the BABYLONIANSand ASSYRIANS, were based in magnificent cities. Others, like the HITTITESand HEBREWS, arrived to settle and found new kingdoms. WHY WAS THE MIDDLE EAST SUCH A RICH PRIZE? Kings and peoples wanted to live in the Middle East because of its fertile farmland. The best land lay beside the Euphrates and Tigris rivers of Mesopotamia, but there were also fields, forests, and orchards in mountain valleys to the north and south. People also competed to control the long-distance trading routes that passed through the Middle East, linking Europe with Asia. BABYLONIANS Babylon became powerful around 1792 BC, under King Hammurabi. From 1595 BC, its people came under the rule of invaders. In 625 BC, a general called Nabopolassar drove out the foreigners and became king. Under his son, King Nebuchadnezzar (r. 605–562 BC), a great new empire emerged. HOW DID THE BABYLONIANS MEASURE TIME? Babylonians built mud-brick monuments and used them as sundials. They observed stars and planets, predicted their movements, and compiled calendars. They based their calculations on units of 60—which we still use today to measure minutes and seconds—and recorded all their findings in cuneiform writing. BIOGRAPHY: KING HAMMURABI r. 1792–1750 BC King Hammurabi conquered all of Mesopotamia to create a new kingdom, which was named after its chief city—Babylon. He introduced a strict code of law, and many crimes were punished by death. After he died, the empire weakened. HITTITES The Hittites were people who settled in Anatolia (now Turkey), in around 1700 BC. They could smelt iron, so they were able to make stronger weapons than their enemies. Around 1400 BC, Hittite city-states joined forces to create a powerful kingdom. HOW DID THE HITTITES FIGHT THEIR WARS? Fast, two-wheeled war chariots—pulled by horses—were first used by Hittite warriors around 1800 BC. Armed with bows and arrows, the charioteers would charge at ranks of enemy soldiers to scatter them. The Hittites also attacked enemy cities with the help of siege engines such as tall towers. The Hittites had two great enemies: the Ancient Egyptians and a war-like people from the state of Mitanni, in Mesopotamia. WHY DID HITTITE POWER COLLAPSE? The Hittites and their enemies fought to win the eastern Mediterranean region, with its forests, farms, and rich trading ports. In around 1200 BC, the Hittites were also attacked by invaders from Mediterranean islands, known as Sea Peoples, and by nomad tribes from the east. These wars, plus famine, destroyed Hittite power. HEBREWS The Hebrews were shepherds and farmers in Canaan, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Sea Peoples also settled there. Around 1020 BC, the Hebrews conquered these peoples and founded a powerful new kingdom, led by great kings. Saul was the first king. He was succeeded by David, and then Solomon. WHERE WAS THE PROMISED LAND? The Hebrews believed that God had promised them a home in Canaan. According to the Bible, the prophet Moses led them to this land in around 1200 BC. Later, in 922 BC, the Hebrew kingdom of Canaan divided into two separate nations—Israel in the north and Judah in the south. The people of Judah became known as Jews. ASSYRIANS The Assyrians lived in northern Mesopotamia. They grew crops in irrigated fields and built fine cities. From around 900 BC, they conquered an empire stretching from Egypt to the Persian Gulf. It collapsed when the Babylonians and Medes attacked in 612 BC. HOW DID THE ASSYRIANS FIGHT THEIR BATTLES? The first Assyrian soldiers were farmers, who left their fields when called up to fight. But by around 740 BC, the Assyrian kings had developed fierce new armies made up of captured foreigners. They fought with swords, spears, bows and arrows, and battering rams. They demanded tributes of lumber, metal, and horses from weaker peoples.

ANCIENT EGYPT: WHY WERE NILE FLOODS IMPORTANT? WHO DID THE EGYPTIANS WORSHIP? WHY DID EGYPTIAN CIVILZATION LAST SO LONG? PHARAOHS PYRAMIDS MUMMIFICATION From around 3100 BC to 30 BC, the dry desert land of Egypt was home to an advanced civilization. The Ancient Egyptians produced massive PYRAMIDS, fabulous golden treasures, and wonderful works of art. They invented hieroglyphs, and were expert engineers. WHY WERE NILE FLOODS IMPORTANT? The Nile River flows through Egypt on its way to the sea. Every year, between June and October, it flooded the surrounding desert and covered the land with fertile silt (fine mud). Ancient Egyptian farmers were able to grow excellent crops on this land, including wheat, barley, grapes, figs, and many different types of vegetables. WHO DID THE EGYPTIANS WORSHIP? The Egyptians worshiped hundreds of gods and goddesses. Gods like Osiris, ruler of the underworld, looked human. Others were shown as animals, such as the cat-goddess Bastet, who brought fertility. The most important was ram-headed Amun, king of the gods. WHY DID EGYPTIAN CIVILZATION LAST SO LONG? Egypt became wealthy through farming and trade. Its power was built up by strong governments, led by PHARAOHSand staffed by well-trained scribes (officials). The nation was defended by huge armies. Table 42. EGYPT’S HISTORY 5500–3100 BCPre-Dynastic Period: before the time of the Pharaohs 3100 –2686 BCEarly Dynastic Period: Upper and Lower Egypt are united—Menes becomes first pharaoh 2686–2181 BCOld Kingdom: age of the pyramids 2181–2055 BCFirst Intermediate Period: breakdown of centralized government 2055–1650 BCMiddle Kingdom: Egypt reunited 1650–1550 BCSecond Intermediate Period: invasion of Hyksos people, who are then defeated 1550–1069 BCNew Kingdom: Egypt at its greatest 1069–747 BCThird Intermediate Period: breaks into small states 747–332 BCLater Period: invaded by Assyrians, then Persians 332–30 BCPtolemaic Period: conquered by Alexander the Great and ruled by his general’s family 30 BC–AD 395Roman Period: Egypt part of Roman Empire PHARAOHS Ancient Egypt was ruled by powerful kings called pharaohs, who took the roles of chief priest, war leader, and head of government. Egyptians believed that the pharaohs were living links between people and gods, and that they actually became gods after death. WHAT DOES “PHARAOH” MEAN? The name pharaoh came from two Egyptian words,per-aa, meaning “great house” or “palace.” Later, the name for such a building was also used to refer to the king living there. It was used to show great respect. PYRAMIDS Massive stone tombs protected the bodies of dead pharaohs. These pyramids represented stairways leading to the sky. They took great skill to plan and build, and were designed to keep out robbers—but no pharaoh’s MUMMYhas ever been found inside one. WHO BUILT THE PYRAMIDS? The pyramids were constructed by teams of skilled professional builders, such as stone masons, who were paid very well for their work. During the flood season, when the Nile River washed over the farmlands, royal officials commanded peasant farmers to assist the professional workers in building the pyramids. These pyramids were built in around 2500 BC for the pharaohs Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura. They were originally covered in limestone and topped with gold. The tallest, the Great Pyramid, is 482 ft (147 m) high. MUMMIFICATION A mummy is a dead body that has been carefully preserved, or mummified. Workers removed organs that might rot, then dried the body with natron (salty crystals) and wrapped it in resin-soaked bandages. WHY WERE PEOPLE MUMMIFIED AFTER DEATH? Ancient Egyptians thought that people were made up of five elements. These elements were the body, its ka (spirit), ba (personality), name, and shadow. By preserving the body, the Egyptians believed that they could keep the other four elements alive. If the body decayed, to them the person would stay dead forever.

MESOPOTAMIA: HOW WERE THE SUMERIAN CITIES RULED? HOW WERE THE ZIGGURATS BUILT? Mesopotamia is the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Farmers used the river water to irrigate fields and grow plentiful crops. Around 3500 BC, the Sumerians in southern Mesopotamia built the world’s first cities, including Ur, Uruk, and Eridu. HOW WERE THE SUMERIAN CITIES RULED? Mighty kings, who commanded large armies, had strong cities, great palaces, and magnificent royal tombs made. The kings were assisted by priests and well-trained scribes, who collected taxes, controlled irrigation projects, and took charge of laws governing city crafts and trade. Priests also served the gods in ziggurats (temples). HOW WERE THE ZIGGURATS BUILT? Mesopotamian builders built ziggurats and houses from bricks made of mud mixed with chopped straw (left to dry and harden in the sun). Teams of workmen moved huge loads of bricks using sleds on wooden rollers, or carried smaller quantities in baskets on their backs. Mud was used as a mortar to bind the bricks. ZIGGURAT AT UR Ziggurats were holy “mountains,” where people could get closer to the gods. The ziggurat at Ur (in modern Iraq) was built in around 2100 BC. Originally, it had three tall terraces (raised levels), one on top of the other, which were planted with trees and flowers. A shrine to Nanna, the Moon god, stood at the top. Today, only the temple’s lower section survives.

FIRST SCRIPTS: WHAT WERE EARLY FORMS OF WRITING LIKE? WHERE ELSE DID PEOPLE USE PICTOGRAMS? Writing was invented in Mesopotamia, around 3200 BC. Cities had grown so big that people could no longer do business by keeping every detail in their heads. Rulers needed to keep track of who had paid their taxes, which craftworkers had been given rations, and how many goods they had made. WHAT WERE EARLY FORMS OF WRITING LIKE? The first writing was made up of pictograms—small pictures representing objects or expressing actions or ideas. These writing systems, which included CUNEIFORM, were complicated, and few people managed to learn them. WHERE ELSE DID PEOPLE USE PICTOGRAMS? Different forms of picture-writing developed in Egypt, China, and Meso- (Middle) America. In the Indus Valley, scribes used pictures combined with symbols—a system that today’s experts have still not explained. CUNEIFORM Cuneiform is the name given to the wedge-shaped script, written using trimmed reeds, developed by scribes in Sumer around 2900 BC. It was borrowed by other Middle Eastern peoples to write and develop their own languages, before the ALPHABETwas developed. HOW WAS THE FIRST SCRIPT WRITTEN? The first pictograms were scratched on to tablets of wet clay, using stalks from reeds that grew beside Mesopotamian rivers. The tablets were then dried in the sun to preserve the written text. Scribes (people trained to copy manuscripts) soon began to trim the reeds to make a triangular tip, which created clear, wedge-shaped marks. ALPHABET The world’s first alphabet was invented in around 1000 BC by the Phoenicians, who lived in the eastern Mediterranean region. Unlike pictogram scripts, the alphabet used letters that stood for individual sounds. WHY WAS THE FIRST ALPHABET SO IMPORTANT? The Phoenicians discovered that letters could be put together in different combinations to spell almost all known words. Alphabetic writing needed fewer than 30 letters, compared with the 600 cuneiform symbols used by Sumerian scribes, or the 5,000 characters used by Chinese scholars. This made it much easier to learn, so literacy (reading and writing) became much more widespread in societies using alphabetic scripts. ROSETTA STONE In 196 BC, Egyptian scribes carved the same text in three different scripts on this stone. It was discovered in Rosetta, Egypt, in 1799, and provided the key to translating Egyptian hieroglyphs.

INDUS VALLEY: HOW DID THE PEOPLE OF THE INDUS VALLEY LIVE? WHY DID INDUS VALLEY CITIES DISAPPEAR? FIND OUT MORE Between around 3500 BC and 2000 BC, people in the Indus Valley built more than 100 towns. The largest were Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, with populations of 40,000. These towns had large temples, granaries, brick houses, and streets laid out in neat grid patterns. HOW DID THE PEOPLE OF THE INDUS VALLEY LIVE? Farmers grew wheat, barley, cotton, and rice on land fertilized by yearly Indus River floods. They also raised animals. In towns, people made cloth, pottery, metalwork, and jewelry. On the coast, they went abroad to trade. WHY DID INDUS VALLEY CITIES DISAPPEAR? At Mohenjo-Daro, the Indus River changed its course, causing a water shortage. Other towns may have been destroyed by floods, disease, or invaders. But nobody knows for sure why the Indus Valley civilization collapsed.

PREHISTORIC POTTERY: WHY WERE THE FIRST POTS SO IMPORTANT? FIND OUT MORE Pottery-making was invented in Japanese fishing communities, inc.10,500 BC. When they cooked, people noticed that the clay soil underneath their fires baked and became hard. They soon began to shape clay into pots, cook them on bonfires, and leave them to cool. WHY WERE THE FIRST POTS SO IMPORTANT? Unlike earlier containers—made from leather, woven twigs, bark, and string—clay pots were heatproof and waterproof. They made it possible to cook soups and stews, brew drinks such as wine and beer, and store grain and oil for long periods. The remains of pots help archaeologists to identify different peoples.

FIRST METALWORKERS: WHAT WAS BRONZE USED FOR? HOW WAS BRONZE FIRST MADE? WHO MADE THE FIRST BRONZE OBJECTS? FIND OUT MORE From around 9000 BC, people in different lands began to work with nuggets of soft metals, such as copper. Later, they discovered how to extract metals, such as tin, from rocks by smelting (heating). Finally, they discovered how to melt metals together to make new materials called alloys, such as bronze. Table 41. SOME OF THE FIRST METALWORKERS 9000 BCHammered copper, Central Asia 5000 BCGold/copper, Europe 4000 BCBronze, Middle East 2300 BCBronze, Europe 1500 BCIron, western Asia 1000 BCIron, Europe WHAT WAS BRONZE USED FOR? Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin. It is much harder than either metal, and can be sharpened to make a cutting edge. It was used to create more powerful and long-lasting weapons, tools, and farm implements. Craftworkers also used it to make intricate castings—objects made by pouring melted bronze into a mold. HOW WAS BRONZE FIRST MADE? Bronze-workers heated copper and tin in a furnace fueled by charcoal. When the two metals melted, they combined to form liquid-hot bronze, which ran down a clay pipe into containers made of clay or sand. When cold, these ingots (solid blocks of metal) were remelted and poured into different-shaped molds. WHO MADE THE FIRST BRONZE OBJECTS? The technique of making bronze objects—by pouring molten (melted) metal into molds—was invented in western Asia in around 3000 BC. It was also discovered separately in China in around 2000 BC. The Chinese bronze-makers developed their skills to create much more elaborate patterns and designs.

MEGALITHIC EUROPE: WHO BUILT MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS? WHAT WERE STONE CIRCLES USED FOR? CHAMBER TOMBS FIND OUT MORE Betweenc.3200 BC and 1500 BC, peoples in northwest Europe began to build monuments from massive stones known as megaliths. Some were arranged in circles or lines, pointing to the sky. Others, called CHAMBER TOMBS, were buried under the earth. WHO BUILT MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS? Megalithic monuments came in many different shapes and sizes. Most were fairly small, and could easily have been assembled by a family over a few seasons. Large monuments, like Stonehenge and Carnac, were probably built by powerful chiefs who could command their subjects to work on the monuments. WHAT WERE STONE CIRCLES USED FOR? Stone circles were probably used for religious ceremonies or for astronomy. Most of them line up with the Sun, Moon, and stars on special days. For example, the rising Sun shines through the center of Stonehenge, England, at midsummer, and lights up a chamber tomb in Newgrange, Ireland, at midwinter. These rows of standing stones in Carnac, France, are arranged in parallel lines that run for about two-thirds of a mile (1 km) and link two stone circles. Carnac also has many separate standing stones, chamber tombs, and barrows (earth mounds). CHAMBER TOMBS Megalithic tombs with several chambers (rooms) were built using massive stone slabs, then covered with an earth mound called a barrow. Each one could be used as a burial place for hundreds of years. WHO WAS BURIED IN THE CHAMBER TOMBS? Archaeologists are not certain for whom the chamber tombs were made, because they were robbed long ago. From their design, it seems likely that they were used to bury rich, powerful leaders, who controlled vast areas of farmland and the people living in the region.

EARLY FARMING: HOW DID FARMING CHANGE PEOPLE’S LIVES? WHICH PLANTS DID THE FIRST FARMERS GROW? HOW DID PEOPLE BECOME BETTER FARMERS? DOMESTICATION FERTILE CRESCENT FIND OUT MORE Farming beganc.10,000 BC on land that became known as the FERTILE CRESCENT. Hunter-gatherers, who had traveled to the area in search of food, began to harvest (gather) wild grains they found growing there. They scattered spare grains on the ground to grow more food. Table 40. TIMELINE OF EARLY FARMING 9000 BCWheat/barley, Fertile Crescent 8000 BCPotatoes, South America 7500 BCGoats/sheep, Middle East 7000 BCRye, Europe 6000 BCChickens, South Asia 3500 BCHorse, West Asia 3000 BCCotton, South America 2700 BCCorn, North America HOW DID FARMING CHANGE PEOPLE’S LIVES? Before farming, people lived by hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants. When supplies ran out, these hunter-gatherers moved on. Farming meant that people did not need to travel to find food. Instead, they began to live in settled communities, and grew crops or raised animals on nearby land. They built stronger, more permanent homes and surrounded their settlements with walls to protect themselves. WHICH PLANTS DID THE FIRST FARMERS GROW? In the Fertile Crescent, farmers grew tall, wild grasses, including an early type of barley, and primitive varieties of wheat called emmer and einkorn. These naturally produced large grains (seeds) that were tasty and nourishing. In other parts of the world, between 8000 BC and 3000 BC, farmers discovered how to DOMESTICATEtheir own local plants and animals. HOW DID PEOPLE BECOME BETTER FARMERS? By around 9000 BC, people were storing grains during the winter, then sowing them in specially cleared plots. By 8000 BC, the farmers had discovered which grains gave the best yields and selected these for planting. They produced more food than they needed and were able to feed non-farmers such as craftworkers and traders. The farmers exchanged their food for various kinds of useful or decorative goods. DOMESTICATION Domestication is the process of making wild plants and animals more useful to humans, through selective breeding. Farmers select and plant only the best seeds from their last crop. Wild cattle are selectively bred to make a herd docile (easy to control). WHAT WERE THE FIRST DOMESTICATED ANIMALS? Dogs were the first animals to be domesticated, c. 12,500 BC. They were descended from wild wolf cubs that had learned to live with human families, who fed and petted them. By 10,000 BC, hunters were managing wild herds of gazelle, sheep, and goats, watching over them and killing the weakest for food. Around 7500 BC, farmers were taking the best animals from their herds to breed them for meat and milk. FERTILE CRESCENT Archaeologists use the name Fertile Crescent to describe an area to the east of the Mediterranean Sea, where farming first developed. It was a crescent-shaped strip of land that stretched across the Levant region (now known as Israel, Lebanon, and Syria), and around the edges of the Tarus and Zagros mountains. WHY DID FARMING BEGIN HERE? The Fertile Crescent had regular rainfall, making it ideal for growing grains such as emmer and einkorn, and for raising herds of grass-eating animals such as sheep and goats. In nearby Mesopotamia, where the soil was more fertile, farming was only possible once irrigation methods had developed to supply the land with water. HOME OF THE FIRST FARMERS The Fertile Crescent stretched in a crescent-shaped curve from the northern tip of the Red Sea around to the Persian Gulf. Some of the world’s first settlements, including Jericho, were built in this region. Important trading centers, such as Çatal Hüyük, also developed nearby. WHY WAS ÇATAL HÜYÜK SO PROSPEROUS? Çatal Hüyük was founded in around 7000 BC, and grew to be the largest settlement in the Middle East. Its wealth came from farming and trade. The farmers kept cattle and grew wheat, barley, and peas. Çatal Hüyük made itself especially prosperous by controlling the trade in obsidian (a coarse, glassy rock), which came from a nearby volcano. Craftworkers used this volcanic glass to make high-quality tools. ÇATAL HUYUK HOMES Excavation of the Çatal Hüyük site found mud-brick houses closely packed together, without any streets. Access to each home was by ladders leading up to doorways on a flat roof. Rooms had hearths for heating, benches for sitting and sleeping on, and ovens for baking bread. When family members died, they were buried under the floor.

FIRST MODERN HUMANS: WHERE DID THE FIRST MODERN HUMANS LIVE? WHO WERE NEANDERTHALS AND WHY DID THEY DISAPPEAR? HOW DID MODERN HUMANS REACH OTHER AREAS? FLINT-KNAPPING ABORIGINALS FIND OUT MORE Homo sapiens sapiens(modern humans) first evolved between 200,000 BC and 100,000 BC. They were like us, physically, and had the same brain power. They developed many skills of survival, and advanced FLINT- KNAPPINGtechniques for making better tools. WHERE DID THE FIRST MODERN HUMANS LIVE? Most archaeologists think thatHomo sapiens sapiensfirst lived in Africa, and that our direct ancestor wasHomo habilis(“handy man”), who evolved about 2.5 million years ago. But some believe our ancestor wasHomo ergaster(“work man”), who developed around 1.9 million years ago and settled in different parts of the world. WHO WERE NEANDERTHALS AND WHY DID THEY DISAPPEAR? Like us, Neanderthals are a subspecies ofHomo sapiens(“wise man”). They lived in Europe and Asia from c. 130,000 BC to c. 28,000 BC. The spread of modern humans may have been the cause of their extinction. Neanderthals had larger brains than modern humans. Their short, stocky build and broad nose helped them to conserve body heat in Europe’s chilly Ice Age climate. They relied more on strength than brain power. The first modern humans were tall, and had slender bones, high-domed foreheads, smooth brows, and small jaws. Their muscles were not as well developed as those of the Neanderthals, and their eyesight was weaker. HOW DID MODERN HUMANS REACH OTHER AREAS? Wandering groups of modern humans moved out of Africa, in search of food, around 125,000 BC. They reached other continents via land bridges—areas of seabed left uncovered as the Earth’s water froze during the last Ice Age (c. 70,000 BC to c. 10,000 BC). By c. 28,000 BC, they had replaced all earlier humans—including their close relatives, the Neanderthals. FLINT-KNAPPING Early and modern humans used a technique called flint-knapping to make stone tools. They chipped flakes off one piece of flint (a hard, glassy stone) by striking it with another piece. This required great patience and skill. ABORIGINALSstill practice flint-knapping today. WHAT KINDS OF TOOLS DID EARLY HUMANS USE? Early humans used five main kinds of flint tools—knives for cutting, scrapers for removing flesh from hides, burins (small, pointed tools) for carving, awls for piercing holes, and points or tips for attaching to spears. They also used flint hand-axes for chopping wood and butchering animal carcasses. In late summer and fall, women and children gathered large quantities of nuts, fruits, and berries, then dried them over fires to preserve them for the winter. Archaeologists have found remains of food preserved 12,000 years ago. ABORIGINALS Aboriginals, also known as indigenous Australians, were the earliest inhabitants of Australia. Until the 20th century, they followed a lifestyle similar to that of earlier humans. Their skills helped archaeologists understand evidence about the distant past. HOW DID ABORIGINALS SURVIVE? In 10,000 BC, sea levels around Australia rose and Aboriginal people were forced to move farther inland, where conditions were harsh. To survive, they used fire to clear bushland so that wild food plants could grow, hunted kangaroos with boomerangs, wove traps for fish, and dug grubs from deep underground.

13 ‘hackers’ of hacker group Anonymous indicted: The United States brought criminal charges against 13 suspected members of the hacking group Anonymous on Thursday for allegedly attacking government, credit card and lobbying websites in a campaign in support of internet file-sharing. A grand jury indictment of the 13 people was filed in US District Court in Alexandria, Virginia, charging them with conspiracy to intentionally cause damage to protected computers as part of Anonymous' "Operation Payback." The loose-knit international group known as Anonymous has been in frequent battle with US authorities, not only over file-sharing but also other ideological causes such as the willingness of financial institutions to process donations for the anti-secrecy group WikiLeaks. In March 2012, US prosecutors in New York charged six suspected leaders of Anonymous for wreaking havoc on government and corporate websites. The hackers launched "Operation Payback" in retaliation for the 2010 shutdown of Pirate Bay, a Swedish internet service that allowed users to share files such as films and music, according to Thursday's indictment. They used what are known as denial-of-service attacks to overwhelm websites and make them inaccessible, starting with the website of the US film industry lobbying group, the Motion Picture Association of America, the indictment said. "This will be a calm, coordinated display of blood. We will not be merciful," said one set of instructions for the attacks quoted in the indictment. Other websites targeted were those of the Library of Congress, Bank of America Corp, Visa Inc and MasterCard Inc, the Justice Department said. Those charged ranged in age from 21 to 65 and lived in 13 different US states.

US ban on some Samsung products to go into effect: The US Trade Representative's office said on Tuesday it would allow a US ban to go into effect at midnight on importing or selling mobile devices made by Samsung Electronics Co Ltd that infringe on Apple Inc patents. The decision is the latest step in a patent battle between the two companies that has spread across several countries as Apple and Samsung vie for market share in the lucrative mobile industry. Samsung and Apple are the No. 1 and No. 2 smartphone makers globally, respectively. The US International Trade Commission said on August 9 that some older smartphones and tablets made by South Korea's Samsung infringed on Apple patents. It banned the importation or sale of the devices. US Trade Representative Michael Froman could have overturned the ban - as he did on August 3 in a case where Apple was found to have infringed on a Samsung patent - but did not. "After carefully weighing policy considerations, including the impact on consumers and competition, advice from agencies, and information from interested parties, I have decided to allow the commission's determination," Froman said in a statement. Apple had filed a complaint in mid-2011, accusing Samsung of infringing its patents in making a wide range of smartphones and tablets. The ITC ruled that the Samsung devices infringed on portions of two Apple patents on digital mobile devices, related to the detection of headphone jacks and the operation of touchscreens. Samsung has said its newer models incorporate features that work around disputed technology, and that those changes have been approved by the ITC. In the August case, when the USTR overturned a proposed ban on some older-model Apple iPhones and iPads, the patents covered were standard essential patents, while the patents covered by Tuesday's decision were not. Standard essential patents are central to the products at issue and are supposed to be licensed broadly and inexpensively. US antitrust authorities have argued that infringing on them should trigger requirements for license payments but not import or sales bans.

Google ads to include user names, photos: Google Inc plans to launch new product-endorsement ads incorporating photos, comments and names of its users, in a move to match the "social" ads pioneered by rival Facebook Inc that is raising some privacy concerns. The changes, which Google announced in a revised terms of service policy on Friday, set the stage for Google to introduce "shared endorsements" ads on its sites as well as millions of other websites that are part of Google's display advertising network. The new types of ads would use personal information of the members of Google+, the social network launched by the company in 2011. If a Google+ user has publicly endorsed a particular brand or product by clicking on the +1 button, that person's image might appear in an ad. Reviews and ratings of restaurants or music that Google+ users share on other Google services, such as in the Google Play online store, would also become fair game for advertisers. The ads are similar to the social ads on Facebook, the world's No. 1 social network, which has 1.15 billion users. Those ads are attractive to marketers, but they unfairly commercialize Internet users' images, said Marc Rotenberg, the director of online privacy group EPIC. "It's a huge privacy problem," said Rotenberg. He said the US Federal Trade Commission should review the policy change to determine whether it violates a 2011 consent order Google entered into which prohibits the company from retroactively changing users' privacy settings. Users under 18 will be exempt from the ads and Google+ users will have the ability to opt out. But Rotenberg said users "shouldn't have to go back and restore their privacy defaults every time Google makes a change." Information Google+ users have previously shared with a limited "circle" of friends will remain viewable only to that group, as will any shared endorsement ads that incorporate the information, Google said in a posting on its website explaining the new terms of service. Google, which makes the vast majority of its revenue from advertising, operates the world's most popular Web search engine as well as other online services such as maps, email and video website YouTube. The revised terms of service are the latest policy change by Google to raise privacy concerns. Last month, French regulators said they would begin a process to sanction Google for a 2012 change to its policy that allowed the company to combine data collected on individual users across its services, including YouTube, Gmail and social network Google+. Google has said its privacy policy respects European law and is intended to create better services for its users. Google's latest terms of service change will go live on November 11.

Cook poaches Burberry boss for Apple gloss: Now Apple Inc is hoping she can do the same at the world's most valuable technology company. In poaching Ahrendts to direct strategy, expansion and operation of its retail and online stores, Apple CEO Tim Cook has set her the task of bolstering global iPad and iPhone sales and returning some lustre to the Steve Jobs-created brand which has not launched a major new device in almost four years. Apple's profit fell 22 percent in the June quarter as gross margins slid below 37 percent from 42 percent a year earlier and its shares, down more than 30 percent since September 2012, are being pummelled by fears of slowing growth, and competition from Samsung Electronics. "The point of Apple retail is to sell Apple, not to sell Apple products," said Benedict Evans, who covers mobile and digital media at Enders Analysis, a research consultancy. "What they've got is somebody who can take 400 stores with really great premium positioning and turn that into 800 stores and do that in China, and do that in India and do that in Europe and in Russia and in South America and everywhere else which at the moment they don't really have." Jumping to Apple - whose $157 billion net sales are nearly 50 times those of Burberry - is a challenge of a different proportion for Ahrendts. The pressure is made all the more intense by Cook's previous stumble hiring a retail star from the UK market. John Browett, chief executive of consumer electronics retailer Dixons, was appointed by Cook in 2012 to lead the iPad and iPhone maker's global retail expansion. But Browett left after just six months and later said he had not fitted in with the business culture at Cupertino, California-based Apple. Ahrendts' digital experience means she is likely to have an easier time adapting. While at Burberry she launched a website dedicated to the firm's traditional trenchcoats and introduced webcast catwalks, using the new iPhone5S to shoot the entire spring/summer 2014 show. She also collaborated with Google for a brand campaign named Burberry Kisses. Strategic Vision "Clearly she has good strategic vision; she understands and talks digital," said John Guy, an analyst at Berenberg in London. "Under her stewardship Burberry has done well, there has been a lot of organisation in terms of the backend in sourcing supply and replenishment." One of Ahrendts' main challenges will be to boost Apple's sales in China, its second-largest market. Here, analysts say, she will be able to draw on her Burberry experience of introducing less expensive goods without damaging the value of the brand. Apple launched a cheaper plastic iPhone last month to help make up ground in emerging markets to rivals like Samsung Electronics and Huawei Technologies. Analysts said the phone - still more expensive than many of its rivals' models - was not cheap enough. "Part of her role from a retail point of view will be to ensure that that kind of premium or added value level that Apple is seen to represent remains intact," said Neil Saunders, managing director of retail consultancy Conlumino. "The trick is to allow people to buy into the product and make it as mass market as possible, because you want the volume and the sales, but you don't want that to come at the expense of the cachet of the brand."

Top 6 Best Places to visit in Dubai6 months agoby Sam 2 Whenever a tourist think of vacation or a place where he/she can have fun and at the same time enjoy good shopping and all the world class facilities the place that comes in mind instantly is ” Dubai” . Dubai is the part of U.A.E and has immense potential for tourism and economic activity, it is one of the largest duty free port and most of the south east Asian occurs through Dubai’s ports . Dubai is a tourist heaven and as well as economic hub , so Dubai has something to offer to everyone . we have compiled a list of top ten places to visit in Dubai depending on diversifying culture , peoples’ choice , so here it goes . 6. Ibn Battuta Mall Ibn Battuta Mall ,the world’s largest themed shopping mall revolutionizing the retail and entertainment experience in Dubai . Uniquely designed to celebrate the travels of the famous Arabic explorer Ibn Battuta, the exciting mix of over 275 retailers, 50 restaurants and food outlets, 21 cinema screens including the UAE’s only IMAX theatre and a continual array of events and promotions have helped evolve and develop one of the city’s fastest growing areas. 5. BURJ AL ARAB Since the development of this amazing hotel , Burj Al Arab became the symbol of the country, you could see it on taxi’s number plates and so on as Sheik Muhammad took special interest in the project and monitored its development in every phase himself and he made his billion dollar dream into reality . The best hotel in the world is situated in Dubai. Experience Dubai as you stroll around the city while taking a glimpse to the most popular hotel in the world will surely satisfy your ego. The hotel shapes like a sail which they locally termed as the dhow (a vessel in the sea of the emirates). 4. The Palm Islands Dubai Another significant iconic spot in Dubai is the palm Islands. This man-made island resembles the shape of the palm. It is so huge that you can even see it by your naked eye once you’re in the air. It was realized through the effort of their leader Sheikh Muhammad to take their economy move forward. The Island has various houses which are ready for occupancy. Palm Jumeirah has everything you need to enjoy a wonderful holiday break. World famous hotel names, amazing tourist attractions, luxury fashion and shopping malls are starting to open up. Whether you just want to relax or immerse yourself in an exciting world of leisure and entertainment, this is a truly inspirational holiday destination. Visitors will come to enjoy the magnificent sunsets, unwind in the spas, pools and gardens and eat out at the fine selection of restaurants. There’s a wide range of daytime activities, including water sports, aquariums, theme parks and of course miles of beautiful beaches. And at night the bars, clubs and shows will offer plenty of fun and amusement. 3. Ski Dubai Ski Dubai is the first indoor ski resort in the Middle East and offers an amazing snow setting to enjoy skiing, snowboarding and tobogganing, or just playing in the snow. Young or old, there is something for everyone, from the beginner to the snow sport enthusiast. Ski Dubai is a unique mountain-themed attraction that offers you the opportunity to enjoy real snow in Dubai all year round. You don’t have to worry about ski clothing or equipment either. Ski Dubai has thought of it all and offers guests the use of winter clothing, ski and snowboard equipment. Your skis will carry you down the slope, and our quad-chairlift and tow lift will promptly carry you back to the top for another run. The facility is famous that it became the first-ever recorded indoor black run that extends for about 400 meters that can surely add up to your skiing experience. It is ideal for ski lovers and snowboarding enthusiast. The Ski Dubai lies beside the largest mall in the world. 2. Burj Khalifa The Burj Khalifa is the world’s tallest tower and is an amazing feat of engineering- the story of which you can see if you take a trip to “At The Top”- the highest viewing platform in the world. The high point of any Burj Khalifa experience is the view from At The Top. Located on level 124 of the world’s tallest tower, this observatory is destined to be the highlight of any visit to the Middle East. The journey begins in the lower ground level of The Dubai Mall. Throughout the journey to the top, visitors are entertained by a multi-media presentation of the exotic history of Dubai and the marvel that is the Burj Khalifa. 1. The City of Dubai Mall It’s about time to show you guys the one of the biggest mall in the world. The City of Dubai Mall has an approximately 1200 boutiques. The mall lies beside the tallest infrastructure in the world which is Burj Khalifa. If you are in Dubai, you should not miss the chance to see the gold souk being the biggest in the world. There are so many things and information that we can get by just roaming around the world class mall. wing areas.

Top 5 Smart Phones of 2013: Smartphone is a mobile phone built on a specific operating system. You’re intelligent enough to know that carrying around a cell phone and a PDA is inefficient. Whether you use your Smartphone as an organizer, or to check e-mails or listening to music on the go. Getting a proper Smartphone according to your needs and specification is a hard move. To find and compare the best smartphones in the market.Our Smartphone list allows you to find and compare smartphones based on expert ratings. According to your needs. Here is a list of top five smartphones of 2013. 5.LG Nexus 4 It’s the next-generation of Nexus and this time it’s made by LG. The Nexus 4 aggressively undercuts it competitors’ by pricing as it sets out to wipe the floor with most of them in terms of speed and performance also. The Nexus 4 has a 4.7″ WXGA IPS display and the most powerful chipset in an. Android phone. It has of course the latest Android OS and will be the first in line to get the new upgrades as they come. Running stock Android OS v4.2 Jelly Bean, fast updates and Quad-core 1.5 GHz Krait CPU, 2 GB RAM, Adreno 320 GPU, Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 Pro chipset the 8 MP autofocus camera with LED flash and geotagging, face detection makes it a fun device there is somehow a disadvantage as it just comes in 8/16GB of built-in storage. But overall a great device for android lovers out there. 4.Sony Xperia Z Now with solid backup in the midrange, returning to the fiercest battle in the mobile market is Sony’s top priority. The Xperia Z, gives sony a edge. Sony is the first of the manufacturers to bring 5 inches of 1080p in the market. Running Android OS v4.1.1 Jelly Bean with Quad-core 1.5 GHz Krait CPU, 2 GB RAM, Adreno 320 GPU; Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 Pro chipset and 13 MP autofocus camera with LED flash , HDR.16GB of built-in storage; microSD card slot. The xperia Z is water proof and dust proof which gives it a unique feature. 3.Apple iPhone 5 The iPhone 5 has five million units sold in a week we can’t say no to that. The people couldn’t just wait ever when apples new phone is coming in the market. Now, what is it they couldn’t wait for?The Apple iPhone 5 brings the long anticipated larger screen .There’s also a slimmer body. If all of Apple’s claims that the iPhone 5 is a real a masterpiece. Apple say that they have double the performance in a more compact package. 2.HTC One At the speed smart phones are changing and the increase in competition htc has introduced it HTC ONE, The HTC One proves itself in the market .It’s so far the best Smartphone ever made by htc .The HTC ONE is the one of the most exciting pieces of smart phone ever designed in recent time, the. It has .4.7″ 16M-color 1080p Super LCD3 capacitive touch screen with 469ppi pixel density Android OS v4.1.2 Jelly Bean with Sense UI 5.0,Quad-core 1.7 GHz Krait 300 CPU, 2 GB RAM, Adreno 320 GPU; Qualcomm Snapdragon 600 chipset and 4 MP autofocus “Ultrapixel” camera with 1/3” sensor size, 2mega pixel size; LED flash ,1080p video recording @ 30fps with HDR mode, continuous autofocus and stereo sound ,2.1 MP front-facing camera, 1080p video recording and two storage to choose from 32/64GB of built-in storage. Aluminum unibody. Front-mounted stereo speakers with Boom Sound tech Class-leading audio output make the listening experience like never before 1.Samsung Galaxy S4 The Samsung Galaxy S4 is finally here leaving each and every competitor behind it is much faster quite comfortable Smartphone available on the planet . It’s the ultimate upgrade for all the Smartphone fans out there, Its dimensions are 136.6 x 69.8 x 7.9mm, 130 g havingDisplay size of4.99″ 16M-color Super AMOLED HD with a resolution of 1920 x 1080 pixels (441ppi)ChipsetExynos 5410 Octa / Snapdragon 600CPU:1.6 GHz Quad-core ARM Cortex-A15 and 1.2 GHz quad-core ARM Cortex-A7 / 1.9GHz Krait 300 and aGPU: PowerVR SGX 544MP3 / Adreno 320.Its running a Android 4.2.2 (Jelly Bean)and hasMemory options of16/32GB/64GB storage, and a microSD card slot for more extra storage Has aStill camera:13 megapixel auto-focus face detection, touch focus and image stabilization, Dual Shot, Cinema Photo; 2MP front facing camera for video-calling Full HD (1080p) video recording at 30fps.A massive upgrade over the Galaxy S III. Great improvement in the specifications and buy adding plenty of new software features. TheSamsung Galaxy S4 makes it place on 1stplace in the list of top 5 smart phones of 2013.

Top 10 Largest Meteor Craters in the World: Every day thousand of meteors (asteroids ) commonly known as shooting stars, can be seen blazing across the sky, When it enters Earth’s atmosphere the force of friction heats up cosmic debris, in a result streaks of light are visible to human naked eye. Most of the meteors or shooting stars burn up before they ever reach the surface. But if unfortunately one actually survives the long fall and strikes the earth, that particular meteor is a meteorite. We have made a list of top ten largest meteor craters all over the world for you based on the reported incidents and its tenacity. 10. Chesapeake Bay Crater Number ten on our list of largest meteor craters we have “Chesapeake Bay Crater”. This crater was discovered in Virginia United States, the impact date of the asteroid is estimated to be thirty five million years ago. The crater was first discovered in 1980, the estimated width of the crater is 53 miles that is about 85 kilometers. 9. Popigai Crater Meteor when crashes with the surface of the earth its impact is like of a nuclear bomb with radiation .Next on our list is another huge crater that shocked many ” Popigai Crater “. The crater was found in Siberia, Russia its impact date is estimated to be thirty five and half million years ago. Russians claim that crater site contains trillions of carats of diamonds, This site is amongst the world’s most biggest diamond site and the diamonds extracted from here are called” Impact diamonds “. 8. Chicxulub Crater This is known as the mother of craters. it exists in Yucatán, Mexico, the asteroid’s impact date is estimated to be 65 million years back .There is no concrete date being given by the scientists on its width but it is said to be 106 to 186 miles wide (170-300 kilometers) if these facts are true it is certainly the biggest crater ever existed, many scientists believe that this meteorite is the cause of dinosaur extinction on earth. 7. Kara Crater On seventh we have Kara Crater .It is situated in Nenetsia, Russia. The estimated impact date of this asteroid is 70.3 million years back. This crater is now greatly eroded. The Kara crater is a non-exposed impact structure in Russia, many have claimed that the impact structure basically consists of two adjacent craters: the Kara and the Ust-Kara crater little is known about its real specs up till now. 6. Morokweng Crater This crater was found in North West , South Africa . The asteroid’s impact date is estimated to be 145 million years ago. The crater side has debris of the meteor that created it .This humongous crater is on the sixth place in our list . 5. Manicouagan Crater On fifth place we have the Manicouagan Crater, It is located in Quebec, Canada. The asteroid’s impact date is estimated to be 215 million years ago. Lake Manicouagan is now the impact site of the crater. Even with erosion still it’s considered one of the largest and most-preserved craters on planet with an estimated diameter of 62 miles (100 kilometers). 4. Woodleigh Crater The fourth place goes to the Woodleigh Crater. The crater site is located in Western Australia, Australia, the asteroid impact date is estimated to be 364 million years ago. This crater is not exposed at the surface and has led to many discrepancies and irregularities regarding its actual size. There are many reports on its diameter that vary from 25 to 75 miles (40 to 120 kilometers). 3. Acraman Crater In the countdown on third place we have ” Acraman Crater”. This massive crater is located in South Australia, Australia. The asteroid’s impact date is estimated to be massive 580 million years ago. The crater is Located in what is now Lake Acraman, the crater measures about 56 miles (90 kilometers ) in diameter. 2. Sudbury Basin Second on our list is the crater called Sudbury Basin. It is located in Ontario Canada and is amongst the second oldest crater ever found on earth , the estimated asteroid impact date is about 1.8 billion years ago .It is deemed as the largest impact structure on planet earth .It measures about 81 miles in diameter that is about 130 kilometers. 1. Vredefort Crater On the top of our list we have ” Vredefort Crater “. It is the oldest crater on planet earth that ever got discovered .The crater site is located in Free State, South Africa , the impact date of the asteroid is estimated to be 2 billion years ago. This crater is also known as the Vredefort Dome, the Vredefort crater has an estimated diameter of 59miles (90 kilometers) making it the world’s largest known impact structure on planet earth. Vredefort Crater was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005.

Top 10 9mm pistols of 2013: Hand guns are mostly used for self-protection as well as by security agencies for close range combat situations. The 9×19mm Parabellum (abbreviated 9mm, 9mmP, 9×19mm or 9×19) cartridge was designed by Georg Luger and introduced in 1902 by the German weapons manufacturer Deutsche Waffen- und Munitionsfabriken . So 9mm is currently the most used and reliable hand gun, it has been used by Police of many countries also is considered the best for self-protection at home. We have compiled a top ten list of the best 9mm pistols in 2013. This list is based on the reviews of the user and quality of the products. 10. Walther PPQ On the tenth place we have a German creation “Walther PPQ”. This is a semi automatic pistol specially designed for law enforcement agencies and police, the Walther is pure combination of power and reliability. It is the replacement of its predecessor Walther P99 , this new engineering marvel is short coil semi automatic pistol .The pistol incorporates three different safeties (trigger safety, firing pin safety and disconnector safety) .The price tag on this gem is around 510-540$ dollars. 9. Glock 17 Gen 4 Glock pistol is an examplary creation of Austrian engineering .The Glock is the “safe action” semi automatic fire arm designed for law enforcement agencies and security forces .It was designed and produced by an inexperience Gatson Glock . Well it is a amongst most famous hand guns now a days and many of its variants have been introduced in the market and recent of it is Glock 17 Gen4 (generation four) is a compact and reliably single barrel pistol today, per unit cost is around 520-550$ dollars. 8. Springfield XD The eight place goes to ” Springfield XD”. The HS2000 or XD (X-treme Duty) is a series of semi-automatic pistol that are based on polymer-framed and striker-fired. XD is Manufactured in the city of Karlovac, Croatia ,which is licensed and sold in the United States by Springfield Armory, Inc.It is a single barrel light weight pistol and quite popular in weapon junkies . The per unit cost of XD is around 600-630 $ dollars. 7. Taurus PT92 Taurus PT92 is on seventh place in our list of top ten 9mm pistol .Its origin is Brazil and is double action/ single action single barrel 9mm caliber pistol. Taurus is very reliable pistol also comes in stainless steel model .It is awesome looking and is designed for personal security and law enforcement agencies. Its cost is around 430-460 $ dollars. 6. Beretta 92FS (M9) It is a marvel of Italian engineering comes up with a manly pistol ” Beretta 92FS (M9)” is an eye magnet. This 9mm single action semi automatic pistol was designed and produced by Italy in 1972 and comes in many variants .The per unit cost of it is around 570-600$ dollars . 5. CZ SP-01 Phantom Its first variant was introduced in 1975 and later the technology was evolved and integrated , the latest product is CZ SP-01 Phantom .It s from Czech Republic origin and is a single action ,single barrel semi automatic pistol with high performance and reliability used by many around the world. The cost of each phantom is around 530-560 dollars. 4. Baby Eagle II BE9915R The list is reaching its climax and as on the fourth place we have the ever reliable and unmatchable engineering of the US , Baby Eagle II is an excellent hand gun with amazing fire power . Baby is double/single action single barrel pistol that comes in different calibers ( 9mm , 40. S&W , 45 ACP ).The cost of single unit is around 510-540$ dollars. 3. Kahr P9 On the third place we have another American master piece ” Kahr P9 ” . It was designed by Justin Moon and produced by an American company Kahr Arms .It is only double-action semi automatic comes in various calibers .Its target market is civilians who likes to carry fire arms or need it for self protection. It costs around 500-540$ dollars . 2. Tanfoglio T95/ EAA Witness Elite Match On the second palce we have yet another sensation for Italian weapon lovers . Tanfogilo is double/single action ,semi automatic 9mm caliber pistol that is famous among many forces in the world . It was basically designed for the combat forces but is also used by many civilians. It is a high performance pistol, per unit cost of each is around 53-560$ dollars. 1. CZ 75 SP-01 It is one of the most high performance weapons at the moment , users say more than 10,000 rounds fired and still its good as new that shows the potential of the weapon .It is the creation of Czech Republic , its a double/single action semi automatic pistol used by the law enforcement agencies and is a primary weapon of NY( New York ) police . It costs around 590-620$ dollars each and thus makes its 1st place in our top ten 9mm pistols list .

Top 7 Fighter Jets in the World: In twenty first century the art of war is well evolved then previous centuries , the Air force has become the backbone of any country’s defense line and is integral part of any countries security .It’s been said that if you have air dominance no one can dare to strike at you and gives you an overall strategic advantage .In previous two decades there has been significant and ground breaking advancements in flying sciences as well as in fighter jets , now jets have more advance radars , communication , electronic warfare (EW) , better thrust , BVR (beyond visual range) missiles and much more . This evolution in fighter jets is an ongoing process and scientists are now a days working on jets that are soundless and not just stealthy but invisible. We have compiled a list of top ten fighter jets serving the armies around the globe. 7. F/A-18 Super Hornet It is the pride of the most advanced air force in the world (USAF). It is the greatest of all the fourth and 4.5 generation super jets of the world. The Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet is basically a twin-engine aircraft carrier-based multirole fighter aircraft that numerous has other variants as well. It has advance weapon systems , it operates with an internal 20 mm gun and is fully capable of carrying air-to-air missiles and air-to-surface weapons also , operates in all weather conditions both at day and night. The jet has high angle of attack capability and can be refueled in midair. Per unit of it costs $66.9 million. 6. JAS 39 Gripen NG On sixth place we have a Swedish creation” The Saab JAS 39 Gripen “. Gripen is basically a lightweight single-engine multirole fighter aircraft with all-weather combat capability both at day and night. It is primarily used by the Swedish Air Force and incorporates fly by wire capability for stability and is a delta wind jet. Swedish government have been successful to promote their aircraft and to get export orders from Central Europe, South African and Southeast Asia, per unit cost of the aircraft is between $40 million to $60 million. 5. Rafale On fifth place we have the revolution of French avionics and probably one of the most attractive fighter of them all “Dassault Rafael” .Rafael is 4++ generation fighter with a twin engines and is equipped with the most advance radars, tracking systems and as well as EW suites. It has been sold to Indian air force only export order so far for this machines , the estimated cost of per unit is 124 million$ depending on the variant. 4. SU-30 MKI: Super Sukhoi SU-30 MKI was not initially designed to carry nuclear or strategic weapons but later in 2012 the developed IAF received 40 upgraded SU-30 MKI’s that were capable of carrying the BrahMos cruise missile. In 2010 Russia had won the large contract of upgrading the Jet aircraft with new radars, electronic warfare systems, computers and the ability to carry BrahMos missile. And they have been successful as it stands as the fourth top Jet fighter on the list. 3. Euro fighter Typhoon We have ” Eurofighter Typhoon” on third place on this list , it is one of the most advance 4.5 generation fighter jet operational at the moment .Eurofighter is assembled, designed and built by a syndicate of four different companies from UK, Italy, Spain and Germany. It’s a multirole fighter and is powered by twin engines and operates with NATO and Saudi Arabia at the moment. It’s designed for complete air superiority and can act as an air aggressor. 2. SU-35 The second on our list is the great SU-35. The twin engine, single seat jet is a super maneuverability multi role fighter. It is the derived version of Su-27 ‘Flanker’ and was known as SU-27 at its early stage. Dozens of these were built from which most of the jets were used by the Russian knight’s aerobatic demonstration team. The Su-35 framework has been protected because of the increased takeoff and landing weight of the jet. For the similar reason, the front bearing has two wheels. The improved radar stealth decreases the reflectance of the Su-35 in the X radio waveband and in the angle range of ±60°. 1. F-22 On the top we have the most advanced and sophisticated aircraft ever known to man so far “Boeing F-22 Raptor”. American company Lockheed Martin is known to produce weapons of the future as it proudly produced F-16 some decades ago, F-22 is nightmare of any army it’s the only air craft with the radar cross section of 0.01 which makes it invisible to the most advanced X-band radars in service today. The air craft’s radar is the longest range radar ever to be used in a fighter jet; it is powered by two engines that produce the maximum thrust so far recorded by an engine. It is completely computerized and has 2 super computers to perform all necessary functions. This super stealth jet deserves to be on the top of our list as its currently the only fighter stealth jet in service of any air force.

Top 10 Best Smart Phones to Buy in 2013: The trend of gadgets and smart phones is extremely high from few years. If you have a smart looking sleek phone in your hand you are thought to be a smart person yourself! C’mon you are holding the world in your hand is that a joke? With such competition in the market and top technologies it is hard to say which one is better than the other. We have note down the top ten best smart phones of 2013 which if you buy will not ever disappoint you in any sense. 10. Nokia Lumia 920 : The first Australian device, Nokia Lumia 920 is in the market with the software of Windows 8 installed in it. Windows 8 comes up to give a little competition to the Apple and android companies. Being larger than iPhone 5 screen the nokia screen is 4.5 inches diagonal, the display resolution is 1280×768. Although it’s smart and sleek but weighs a little more than the other phones. All in all it’s a great phone and holds its position at the number 10. 9. Samsung Galaxy S3 At number 9 is the Samsung Galaxy S3, an Android phone. It has an 8 megapixel camera with absolutely no shutter lag. One can enjoy movies, videos, songs and whatsoever on the HD screen that gives you a wide space of 4.8 inches. Having either 32GB or 16GB of storage however the customers like to buy it. Overall it is an amazing phone to have. 8. Samsung Galaxy Note II Having a screen of 5.5 inches this Samsung device is called a Tablet. It has an 8MP camera, 16, 32 or 64GB of storage and runs on the latest Android system. Standing at number 8 with its extraordinary features it has much to offer when you buy it. 7. Sony Experia T : Operating at the Android system this smart phone is a better attempt of the Sony Company compared to that of the previous one. It has a camera of 13MP, has 16GB storage and a screen of 4.55 inches. Many other interesting recording features and uploading systems are also introduced by this phone. 6. Google Nexus 4 A thrilling brand Google Nexus introduces its new phone with Android latest installed. It has an 8MP camera, 8 or 16GB storage and has 1.5GHz quad-core Krait CPU. A new and different smart phone has made its way through to number 6 on the list means it’s actually good enough. 5. BlackBerry Z10 Blackberry is not new to the people but its Z10 surely has some attractive features such as its look that does not make it look like those old blackberry it looks more smart and sleek. It has a removable storage of 16GB and a camera of 8MP. Other blackberry features will look more attractive in this screen. The smarter blackberry is on number 5. 4. iPhone 5 Who does not know about Apple? iPhone2, 3, 4, 4s and now it is time for iPhone5. It has a 4 inches retina display and an 8MP camera. The phone can be bought with 8, 32 or 64GB storage. Although the brand is one of the strongest in the competition but has been lacking extraordinary stuff in its quality but still making mark all over it is number 4 on the list. 3. Sony Experia Z How about a dustproof and Waterproof handset in your pocket? Yes Sony Experia at its best has the Z model which has these features. It has a 13MP camera, runs on the latest Android software and has a 2GB of RAM and a removable storage up to 64GB. Having 550 hours of standby in one charge the phone stands as number 3 on the list. 2. Samsung Galaxy S4 Here comes another wonder of Samsung, S4 is an amazing phone that came in after S3 and has an HD screen of 5 inches. The phone has some different features like tracking eye contact when making video or pictures so that it can pause automatically, and the screen touch is softer too. S4 with many other features like these has grabbed the 2 number of the list. 1. HTC one HTC has always come up with some best phones and now its HTC one. The smart phone uses the latest Android software and 4MP camera with aluminium casing. Although it does not have any removable storage but gives 32 or 64GB in built storage system. This is the best smart phone to buy in 2013 which makes it mark as the number 1.

Top 10 Best Laptops to Buy in 2013: Laptops have gained a huge need and reputation in everyday life but the criteria to entitle any specific model good or bad varies from person to person; some pupil are fond of those with big colourful screens, some like those with hard metal casings, some love ones which are extraordinarily small and very convenient to carry. Nevertheless, we have come up with those you’ll find simply awesome; read the article and select the one which suits you best. 10. Acer Aspire S7 Ultrabook This time what Acer has brought is some durable quality in a really compact form with a gorgeous 1080p screen with touch which is perfectly suitable for the new Microsoft Windows 8. It is a bit expensive but, inside it, the intel core 3rdgeneration processor and intel HD 4000 graphic card are worth that price. 9. HP Envy X2 The HP is an interesting proposal; it has an Atom processor which uses much less power than most Intel Core processors which is a good thing for people on travel; it is tiny and light-weight with a 720p responsive screen. It is so far the best option if you need maximum battery life in a tiny machine. 8. Lenovo ThinkPad X1 Carbon Among business laptops, Lenovo’s ThinkPad X1 Carbon is at the top of the list because of its best-in-class keyboard, accurate pointing stick, solid security and durable design in a frame of just 3 pounds and 0.74-inches thickness. It has a brilliant 1600 x 900 display, a comfortable palm-rest, optional touch support and nearly 8 hours of battery-life. 7. ASUS Zenbook Prime UX31A With one of the best screens available on any laptop, the super-bright colorful 1920 x 1080 display of 1080p IPS screen with wide viewing angles alone could justify the purchase of ASUS Zenbook Prime UX31A. This 3-pound Ultrabook also provides fast Core i7 performance, comfortable keyboard with backlight, clear audio, and appealing design with 6.5 hours of battery life. 6. Lenovo IdeaPad Yoga 13 Lenovo IdeaPad Yoga 13 is the ultrabook which has a screen that can be folded all the way back. Its Core i5 processor and 8GB of RAM make it pretty speedy. It’s also got an impressive battery life of over 7 and half hours. If you ask for the most flexible laptop which can also be used as tablet, Lenovo IdeaPad Yoga 13 is the perfect answer! 5. MSI CX61 It is an excellent gaming laptop! Its quad-core 2.4GHz Intel Core i7-3630QM processor offers near-desktop level performance and its 2GB Nvidia GeForce GT 645M graphics chipset and 8GB RAM gives a competent gaming experience. It is a complete package as well to run new windows 8 64-bit. 4. Apple MacBook Pro 15-inch Apple MacBook Pro 15-inch is the best mobile workstation you can buy. While its quad-core Core i7 power, Nvidia GT650M graphics and speedy SSD provide plenty of charm, the laptop’s greatest strength is its eye-popping 2880 x 1800 Retina display. With this laptop, your high resolution videos and photos will look fantastic; technically it is the best a graphic professional can get. 3. Toshiba Satellite If you want a lightweight and a “handsome” laptop with long battery life and strong performance, you should get 14-inch Toshiba Satellite U845T-S4165, which weighs just 3.6 pounds, lasts 7.5 hours on a charge and comes with a Core i5 processor and a speedy SSD. If you don’t know, it has a complete touch screen! 2. MacBook Air 13-inch The 2013 edition of the Apple MacBook Air 13-inch is the best overall laptop; it is simply super-light and thin. It stands out because of its sharp screen, responsive keyboard, superior touchpad, iconic design, very long battery life, faster flash memory, improved graphics performance, relatively loud speakers, and great webcam. Best of all, the MacBook Air 13-inch lasts 9.5 hours on a charge. It comprises of 1.3GHz dual-core Intel Core i5 (Turbo Boost up to 2.6GHz) with 3MB shared L3 cache, and 4GB of 1600MHz LPDDR3 onboard memory. 1. Sony Vaio Pro 13-inch Now here we present the most compatible and best ever laptop for, particularly, the new windows 8 experience. It looks amazing and its light weight design will simply impress you. There’s also an SD card slot which is a fantastic characteristic of this laptop; we shoot all our photos on SD card, and this will save us from messing around with the card reader. Its worth is further enhanced by the slim keyboard, responsive touchpad, and an enchanted touch screen.

Top 10 Gadgets to Buy in 2013: Who’s in for some real technology? Gadgets are the things that fascinate us with their specifications and uniqueness. Everything that comes out new is definitely to be tested or at least known. 2013 had some amazing number of gadgets that people loved and bought but which of them are on top of the year’s list which are a must to buy. So we are here with the list of top ten Gadgets to buy in 2013 that will fascinate you before they help you out! 10. Basis Band How about a band on your wrist telling you how well you are doing all day? Sounds awesome!! Basis Band is a wrist watch that not only shows time but lets you know your heart rate. With a Galvanic Skin reaction indicator in the band it tells you about your sweat rate change in your pulse rate according to your activities. From counting daily steps, your sleep hours to your workout timing, the Basis Band is a gadget that can help you in being a fit and healthy person who has all the daily records up on his wrist. 9. X-Box 720 So the X-Box 720 is already on hype before its release. The next generation of the 360 will have a 3D game playing, recorder that will be able to record from live TV and a restored Xbox xbox 360 that will work with improved reality cups. The X-Box 720 will have an 8GB RAM and a quad-core processor that will make it different and unique than any other before. 8. Nokia Augmented Reality Glasses Another 3-D glasses wear by Nokia stays on the eighth number. These Nokia improved veracity glasses allows you to have an improved navigation experience and reality immersion with the help of your smartphone. The glasses have amazing features of near to eye displays, 3D Audio, 3D Video and signals. 7. Motorola Atrix 4G with Lap Dock Here is the debut of the Lap dock after the release of the Motorola Atrix 4G. The unique Lap dock will eventually change your smart phone into a fully-featured Laptop. Motorola items are always attractive and so is the Lap dock, it is so slim and smart that there is no place for a USB port and who want one when it’s replacing your phone into a desktop Computer itself. Grab the dock and have your personal smart phone computer. 6. Looxcie LX2 Wearable Video Cam Want to make a movie of whatever you are watching yourself? A game, a trip or a place where you won’t be able to handle the camera? Looxcie LX2 Wearable Video Cam is the best choice. Wear it around your ear and it will record everything that you see around, all you need to do is connect the camera with your smartphone via Bluetooth and it will start to work. It will also allow you to go on a live video chat with your friends and family. 5. Apple iPhone 5 Apple stands as number five on the list with its iPhone 5. The smart phone is just 7.7mm thin for which the engineers of the magnificent apple company had to think tiny too. They made a Nano sim for the phone and also have double chip setup too. The slim design and a larger displays than the previous Apple smart phones, Apple iPhone 5 is a (must to buy gadget) for 2013. 4. Samsung Galaxy Camera At number four is the Samsun Galaxy Camera. It gives you the experience of professional photography along with apps with the help of Android Jelly Bean OS. It has many editing features, shooting modes and an exceptional large LCD. You will definitely love this new camera for sure. 3. Lenovo Idea Pad Yoga Lenovo Idea Pad Yoga 13 stands as the third gadget that is on top in 2013. Like no other Lenovo Idea Pad Yoga 13 has a 360-Degree flip that allows easy and comfortable change of modes. It has a touch, keypad and fast mouse that make a PC experience to be more fun. 2. Microsoft Surface Pro So the second top gadget is Microsoft Surface Pro. The Windows’ company has come up with the combination of complete new Windows 8. It has so much to offer that the business men now are supposed to have this single gadget for what they used two. 1. Samsung Galaxy S4 Samsung Galaxy S4 takes the lead in the year 2013 till now. After Samsung S3 which had a lot of unique functions, Samsung now comes up with the S4 model that is even more fascinating! In 130g of weight this gadget holds the whole new world in it. With image stabilization, camera, touch and other feature this S4 has smile detection and face detection too. This beautiful gadget is a must if you are a fan of smart phones.

Top 10 Best Apps For IPHONE 5S: The world has become global village due to the advancements in the field of technology. People want to keep aware and updated about what’s going on around the world. And mobile phones have made this task even easier. Apple has launched their new model iphone 5s which has revolutionized the world of cell phones. The ones who got hand on it must consider themselves the new lucky owners of iphone 5s. Stuffed with some brilliant features, iphone 5s stuns the world not only just the looks but its remarkable features as well. Here are top 10 best apps for iphone 5s you’ll need that takes great advantage of the new IOS7 processor and work with ease. 10.Infinity Blade 3 With the new iphone 5s you and the best IOS7 processor you can now get world’s best gaming experience ever. Iphone 5s has revolutionized the quality and speed of the gaming zone. With infinity blade 3 you can enjoy speed up to 2 x faster and an amazing picture quality that makes you feel like being with the real fighters. 9.Angry Birds Star Wars 2 The fan of angry birds can now have the benefit of switching characters as well. You can now join the “pork side” and play as pigs also. The game now feels more realistic with amazing colors and best picture quality of iphone 5s. Isn’t it a treat for all the angry birds’ fans yeah? 8.Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas Iphone 5s provides you with the best new features of grand theft auto: san Andreas. It is a perfect match of the IOS7 and A7 processor of the iphone. Grand theft auto: San Andreas has brought the world of gaming to a new era. The amazing and breath taking features and picture quality makes you feel like you are playing the game in your real life. Grand theft auto: San Andreas can be downloaded easily for app store of iphone 5s. 7. Nike + Running Are you concerned about your fitness and never compromise on it? Iphone 5s gives you the advantage to track your physical activity with the app known as Nike + running. It tracks the activity without A7 processor with the help of the coprocessor M7. The coprocessor helps standby the new pattern power of iphone 5s. 6.Hulu Plus Don’t want to miss your favorite program? Hulu has added two new features in the support of IOS7. With the features AirDrop and AirPlay you can now enjoy instant live streaming of your favorite TV shows. Download hulu plus from app store of iphone 5s. 5.Yahoo! Iphone 5s is now featured with the new version of yahoo. It provides new interface that is easier and user friendly with new interesting features. Yahoo refurbishes its IOS to experience better use and clean look. You can now save your documents on ‘my save’ and use them instantly whenever you want. Another new feature is the breaking news alert. You get notifications of the new important stuff on this section of yahoo. 4. Simplenote IOS7 offers you with the simplnote now stuffed with new features and a simple clean look which is easy to understand and use. You can now store your important notes and reminders on simplenote app and retrieve them any time you want. It has come up with a new feature called Simperium. With the help of this feature, note syncing has become even faster. Get this app from iphone 5s app store for free. 3. Foursquare Looking for one of the best known restaurant finding apps? Foursquare is the best answer. With the IOS 7 operating system, using foursquare has become even easier and more fun. Foursquare has come up with a brand new icon and UI for IOS 7 that is well suited with the look and feel of the phone. Download foursquare from app store of the iphone 5s and enjoy looking for the restaurants 2.Facebook One of the most famous forms of social media, facebook has now come up with a totally new design for IOS 7 that will help people stay in touch with your friends and family effortlessly. It has designed the app that fits with IOS 7 completely. User can now easily switch between messages, news feed, notifications and friend request. It is much easier to upload your photos and view others in order to keep updated. Users can also find a new toolbar at the bottom of the screen in facebook app of IOS7. 1.Chrome Easiest way to browse and use internet is with not doubt Google chrome. It has not changed much for iphone 5s but it allows user to browse much faster. Users can enjoy fast web browsing experience. It also permits user to browse privately in incognito and sign in to chrome to see bookmarks. Google chrome can be downloaded from app store of iphone 5s.

Top 10 Reasons Why You Should Not Buy an iPhone 5s/5c: Many Apple lovers have been lined up to seek the pleasure of the new iPhone 5s and iPhone 5c as per the Apple tradition. But there are many other people who will still wait and watch if the two models are worth their amount of money. The fuss of the iOS may lead some to go buy the so called ‘cheaper’ 5c so that they can also get to know how it feels to have an apple product but they might not end being those very happy customers! For all those who are still not sure if they should buy the new 5s or 5c the top tens have listed up the top ten reasons why they should not let their money go into something worthless. 10. It is slow Innovation wise Since its very beginning Apple has always taken a closed method to its software and hardware. To be fair, this does have some advantages. For example, the closed nature of Apple’s iOS ecosystem – which inspects any app before letting it onto its App Store and blocks developers setting up third-party marketplaces – is a key reason the iOS has remained wonderful for so long. But a drawback of this closed method is that it enormously slows down the innovation system. While the Apple development is safe on one hand, on the other hand it will never be able to enjoy different and unexpected changes that will be brought in other open systems. 9. No Micro SD card slot Unlike many other amazing smartphones, iPhone 5s or 5c still do not offer any SD card slot through which the customers can easily save and retrieve their data. All they ever did and will probably keep on doing is attach their cable wire to the internal system and sync things and do stuff. 8. Camera updates still much behind competitors With HTC, Nokia Lumia 1020, Samsung S4 and other recently launched smartphones in market having some amazing pixel quality and camera updates Apple iPhone 5c have nothing too exciting to offer. Although the 5s model have updated the camera quality a little but that also did not bring it to the mark of its competitors quality. 7. Apple copying Android? Apple lists iOS 7 as having over 200 new features, which on paper makes the software, look fairly advanced. But people who have been using Android will not be impressed by the work as they have seen much in their very own world. Example of this is the new quick settings bar. The quick settings menu is an attractive addition that offers a quick and easy way to access certain options. However it’s a feature that has been on Android for years now and the only real difference is that you access it by swiping up from the bottom of the screen whereas it’s the other way around in Android. 6. The next year’s iPhone wait is worth This year the Apple iPhone 5s and 5c have nothing new to offer the customers, through which they will be fascinated, so it’s better for the Apple Company to come up with something worth the wait next year. That might be a wider screen, much improved and redesigned set that will make the people see the worth for which they are going to spend a heavy amount. 5. O2 customers face a long wait, with no 4G in sight For those who have O2 and are anxious to get on 4G with an iPhone, the wait is still going on and will go on longer. Apple will have to release a software upgrade to run on the network owned by O2, and for users this is nevertheless more annoying. 4. New iOS 7 operating system is more of a confusion platform One of the main reasons of not buying the iPhone 5s or 5c is that both the models come up with iOS 7 already installed in them and there is no such option that will allow the customer to go back to iOS 6. This can make the customer confused as the previous iOS used by the customer had been easier to use for them and the new features can complicate the customers. 3. Shady chip specifications Apple has always rejected to detail the full technical specifications of chips used in its iOS tablets and smartphones. This is because, according to Apple, the information is an incorrect representation of how fast the device actually is. In the past there has been some truth to this claim, with Apple’s previous dual-core iPhone 4S easily excelling all similar Android phones. 2.Outdated design The design of the phone has not been updated since years now, but the 5s and 5c resemble the iPhone 5 a lot, other than 5c’s plastic back and 5’s body comes in gold, silver and space grey. The company needs to do a lot with its design, leaving behind its very typical single button at the bottom of the screen and leaving big spaces on the top and bottom of the screen. 1.Cost could put off the customers With all these negative points in iPhone 5s and 5c the price of the phone is touching skies as usual. The backdrop of the company is that there are many other smartphone companies in the market which are offering much more than iPhone and has its price reasonable too.

Top 10 Brightest Stars in the Universe: Watching various bright stars up ahead on the sky at night is the most profound and beautiful sight. Ever thought which one of those is the brightest of all, the one which you probably see every night? We have summed up the ten brightest stars, except the Sun, which is the Earth’s own star. The brightness of a star is calculated through its apparent visual magnitude, the lower the magnitude the brighter is the star. Lets have a look at the least and the highest magnitude holding stars, which means the Top ten brightest stars. 10. Beta Centauri The tenth brightest star in the night sky is the Beta Centauri, whereas the traditional names given to the star are ‘Agena’ and ‘Hadar’. ‘Hadar’ is an Arabic word which means ‘Soil or Earth’ and ‘Agena’ is a latin word meaning ‘The knee’. The apparent visual magnitude of this star is approximately 0.61, which makes it the tenth brightest star in the sky at night. The star is located in the constellation Centaurus. 9. Achernar The bright star Achernar is located in the constellation Eridanus, the ninth star on our list has an apparent visual magnitude of 0.50. Achernar is known to be blue, bright and has a mass as seven times the mass of the sun itself. The star is 139 light years away. 8. Betelgeuse Betelgeuse is the reddish star in the sky which is 640 light years away. At number eighth the star has an apparent magnitude of 0.42 but apart from that it can get brighter or lighter according to the future. It would be known as the second sun, classified as type 2 Supernova if it exploded due to its Red giant structure. 7. Procyon The star is not at a very long distance away, which is 11.4 light years from the earth. The seventh star Procyon is located in constellation to Canis Minor with the apparent visual magnitude of 0.34. The star is not bright because of its own distinctive feature but because it is quite close to the sun. The closest star to the Procyon is Luyten’s Star which is about 0.34 pc away from it. 6. Rigel The sixth brightest star on the list is the Rigel which has the apparent visual magnitude of 0.12. Despite of being at a large distance of 772.9 light years away from the earth, the Rigel star shines really bright. At the origin of the Orion collection, the star is seen as a triple star system back from the earth. 5. Vega With the apparent visual magnitude of 0.03, Vega is the bright star which is at a distance of 25.3 light years from the earth. The fifth star on the list is in the area of Lyra. Along with Sirius and Arcturus the star Vega too is the gleaming star from the Sun’s closest area. After the Sun, Vega was the first ever star that was photographed and to get its spectrum recorded. 4. Rigil Kentaurus The apparent visual magnitude of the star Rigil Kentaurus is known to be -0.01. The fourth on the list stands in constellation of Centaurus and is 4.4 light years away from the earth, which not a very long distance. This star is also known to be as Alpha Centauri. 3. Arcturus The third brightest star is the Arcturus, found in the constellation of Bootes. The apparent visual magnitude of the star is known to be -0.04. The Orange star is reported to have bushed its hydrogen and is fusing the oxygen and carbon to its core helium. The small star might lose its life due that. Apart from that it is 36.3 light years away from the earth. 2. Canopus The Second brightest star on the list is the brightest in the area of Southern Carina. Canopus has an apparent magnitude of -0.72 and is at a long distance from the earth, which is 312.7 light years. It is a super giant of Spectral type F, which is why it is given a ‘Yellow white’ colour although when someone sees the star with an uncovered eye it will appear as bright white colour. It was not famous enough in the previous years because it was not seen by the Romans and Greek, it was not until the Ancient Egyptians started recognizing it and also gave it an Arabic name which was ‘Suhayl’. 1. Sirius Twice as bright as the second brightest star, Sirius is the brightest star in the sky. It has an apparent visual magnitude of -1.46 which makes it the brightest star in the night sky. In the area of Canis Major Sirius is the brightest except the sun, moon and some planets. The star is 8.6 light years away from the earth. The star has some instinct luminosity and its nearness to the earth makes it brighter.

Top 10 Style Essentials For Men 2013: We are always wondering what to wear, whatever the occasion is. Looking perfect in the right matching or contrasting colors is an art in itself .Some of us have it, while others let’s admit it, need a little help in this regard. There are people who believe that fashion is just a ladies department, but take note, a little dress sense tells a lot about our character. Men’s fashion essentials will definitely vary according to age,environment,income bracket and personal taste. Here you will find tips for a variety of accessories and essential staples that every man should have in his wardrobe this year. 10. THE SUIT Every man should have at least one well-tailored formal ‘suit’, even if it’s only going to be worn a few times during the year. Always ask the sales person to show you a classic cut which does not go out of style. Single breasted in black or gray would be ideal. Seasonal changes can then be made to change the overall look with addition of latest styles in shirts and ties. 9. SHOES No man can deny the need for a decent pair of shoes. This essential item should be top notch and trendy .Never compromise on comfort, pay extra for quality. Black is always a fashion favorite, but brown is also a firm favorite with some designers these days. It must be stressed that your belt should be the same color as your shoes. Pair of semi-formals and some colorful sneakers should cater for most of your day to day needs 8. JEANS Colored jeans are in, remember the sixties? Be daring and go for the brighter colors otherwise play it safe in pastels. But they are a staple for this year’s fashion conscious. 7. SHIRTS A dressy shirt or two is a must to wear with your suit or dress pants. No one should be without a choice of white; blue and grey to cater for your formal events. On the casual front opt for bold prints and classic checks. 6. SHORTS Shorts have got shorter this year, but if you’re not so daring play it safe with the military combat- style with useful extra pockets. Teamed up with a fresh white T-shirt you can’t go wrong. Alternatively go for checked or pastels for a sporty look teamed with matching or contrasting footwear! 5. THE BLAZER A Blazer is an indispensable item for the summer wardrobe, giving a sense of a jet –set style. White looks great over printed shirts and dark T-shirts that are worn with stone colored canvas trousers. 4. SUNGLASSES You’re spoilt for choice when buying this accessory; top designer items are also top in prices! You must protect yourself from the glaring sun when driving or just out in the sun. Raf Simons or Gucci’s aviators are a classic .But remember to choose a pair that suits your face shape. 3. THE WALLET Y our wallet reveals a lot about you (here we’re talking of quality, not its thickness) designer wallets are a great choice Louis Vuitton’s wallets are iconic and durable. This essential item one does not buy every day so you can afford to spend a little extra. Other top favorites include PRADA who also do credit card holders and zipped pencil bags which are a sensible buys. 2. HEAD GEAR Another item which is fundamental for the summer is some choice of head covering. Depending on personal choice from baseball caps to trilby’s. Stand out in a crowd and protect your head as well! 1. BELTS From, black and brown leather one’s to cater for your formal needs, you should also own some webbing one’s to add style to your casual look .A quality belt can jazz up the simplest of outfits . Leather belts also come in colored varieties now-a-days. A quality belt can last a lifetime so invest in quality and style.

Top 10 Most Googled Personalities: Millions of people are using the internet daily , for entertainment, information or just for seeing beautiful famous people . We all want to know of the lives of the rich and famous , catch up on the latest gossip and see the latest pictures . For some this may be an idle pastime.Here you will find which personalities have been googled the most over the past year. Rankings may vary somewhat as in some cases facebook and twitter followings may be reflected . Here goes, see if you can guess the most googled personality on our rankings list 10. Kate Middleton Last but not least on our list is the Duchess of Cambridge . Wife of Prince William who is second in line to the British throne after his father Prince Charles . Married Prince William in April l2011, She is now expecting the next in line to the throne, Famous for her smile and her thrifty fashion sense of mixing ‘High street ‘ retail fashion with couture pieces. 9. Kate Perry Singer who married Russell Brand, now divorced . Famous albums ‘Teenage dream ‘ a 3D concert film/biopic Kate Perry, part of me . Also known for her eye-popping outfits. 8. Miley Cyrus Famous as a child star, has since posed topless for Vanity Fair . Engaged to actor Liam Hensworth . 7. Kristen Stewart Last year (2012) she was named as the highest paid actress in Hollywood by Forbes magazine . Has appeared in the ‘Twilight’ film franchise . Snow white and the huntsman, and Breaking dawn. 6. Nicki Minaj Hip-Hop artist Nicki Minaj is controversial in her performances and choice of costumes , from techni – color petticoats to leopard print getups. 5. Kim Kardashian An American celebrity, actress , reality star and business woman . Basically rich ,famous and beautiful! 4. Whitney Houston Full name Whitney Elizabeth Houston,a top American recording artist and producer. Also known for her acting and modeling . She was one of the worlds best selling music artists , having sold 170 million albums ,videos and singles worldwide . She was the most awarded female act of all time according to the Guiness book of world records . She died tragically in 2012 . 3. Selena Gomez A famous singer and actress from America . Also famous as Justin Biebers girlfriend, until recently when they broke up. 2. Justin Bieber Young pop – star and songwriter from Canada . He has a twitter following of 33 million known as Beliebers . 1. One Direction This group of five young lads are an English/Irish pop boy band based in London . The members consist of Niall Horan , Zayn Malik , Liam Payne , Harry Styles and Louis Tomlinson .Their band came third in the ‘X’ factor in 2012.Having sold 15 million records worldwide . Voted ‘Top New Artist” by billboard in 2012 .These lads are definitely heading in the right direction!

Top 10 Self-Made Billionaire Women of 2013: We are quite familiar with the saying that some people are born with silver spoon in their mouths, but not all are born with those luxuries, supremacy, effortlessness and coinage they are at the moment enjoying. Here are a small number of super rich women whose not so sudden triumph coerces us to look into their lives beforehand they were billionaires. These are the top 10 self-made billionaire women who were born underprivileged. 10. Giuliana Benetton ($2 Billion) Giuliana Benetton is an Italian working women. She is working with Benetton Group a fashion company with her family members. Giuliana is 75 of age a married women with 4 children. Benetton in beginning used to knit sweaters that her brother would hawk by bicycle, and sold under numerous labels before the foundation of Benetton Group. She is presently in board of director of Benetton Group and in additional family business. 9. Lynda Resnick ($2.2 Billion) Lynda Resnick belongs to California, United States. She is an Entrepreneur/Business women/Writer/Columnist .She is 69 years old wedded women having 5 kids. The couple is holder of corporations which are named as Teleflora, Franklin Mint, POM Wonderful & Fiji Water. Lynda is a Vice Chairman of Los Angeles Country Museum of Art’s Board of Trustees, Trustee of Philadelphia museum of Art, Board of Trustees and Chairperson of Marketing and communications Committee at Aspen Institute. 8. Marion Ilitch ($2.7 Billion) The lady is an American entrepreneur, works with her spouse Michael, an owner of international fast food franchise “Little Caesars Pizza”. The couple also owns the Detroit Red Wings of National Hockey League and Detroit Tigers of Major League and FOX Theatre. Marion is 83 years old, having seven children. 7. Oprah Winfrey ($2.7 Billion) Oprah is recognized for her multi-award-winning dialogue show “The Oprah Winfrey Show”. The talk show was the highest rated program of its kind. She is an American media proprietor, talk show host, actress, producer and philanthropist. She is also CEO of Harpo Productions and Oprah Winfrey Network. Her marital status is single. 6. Doris Fisher ($2.8 Billion) Doris is an 81 years old American business woman who cooperatively runs business with her spouse Donald Fisher. They have apparel business known as “The GAP” and known as prolific art collector and philanthropist. She was one of the “100 Most Powerful Women” on Forbes Magazine. She belongs to Judaism religion and has 3 children. 5. Zhang Xin ($3.6 Billion) Zhang is a Chinese business woman, she established Soho China in Beijing with her other half and working as the CEO of the business. It is the leading money-making real estate contractor of the capital. She is also the chairwomen of Teach for China Board of Directors. . She was in “Top 50 Women in World Business”, Among “China top 10 Career Women Role Models” in 2009, and one of Forbes’s “World’s Most Powerful Women”. 4. Diane Hendricks ($3.8 Billion) Diane Hendricks is an American businesswoman, Film Producer and Humanitarian. She holds the company named Hendricks Holding and working as a C.E.O. of ABC Supply Co. Inc. She is the richest female in Wisconsin. As a film producer she worked for movies like “The Stoning of Soraya” and “An American Carol”. In political world she is famous as the leading donor of Scott Walker to whom she donated $500,000. Diane is a 66 years old widow having 7 children 3. Chan Laiwa ($4.1 Billion) Chan is 72 years old married women, the founder and chairwomen of Beijing’s largest commercial property developers Fu wah International Group. Fu Wah donated 130 million Yuan for disaster relief in 2005 and 265 million Yuan in 200.She is the founder of China Red Sandalwood Museum, also the curator. Chan is also known as one of China’s cultural diplomats. The lady is listed in only 19 self-made billionaire women in the world. 2. Wu Yajun ($4.3 Billion) Wu Yajun is a 49 years old former journalist, and general director of Longfor Properties, hand over her circlet as China’s richest women. Yajun founded the company Longfor Properties with her former husband in Chongqing. The enterprise grew rapidly and was expanded in other major cities like Chengdu, Beijing, Shanghai, Changzhou, and Dalian. 1.Rosalia Mera Rosalia is a Spanish businessperson, entrepreneur specifically known as Inditex’s co-founder. Rosalia is the 2ndprosperous person of Spain after her ex-husband. She was dropped out from school due to dressmaking work at the age of 11.She started multi-billion-dollar corporation “Inditex” and “Zara”. The lady also holds interests in a company which makes fingerprinting identification sets for new-borns and an additional company. She is the president of a charitable organization entitled Paideia Foundation.

Top 5 Most Powerful Politicians of 2013: In all that political blather around the world we see almost all the politicians as ‘not capable’ of being politicians or any kind of leader. But do we not see those faces in this field too which somehow make their name a little secure than the others. They keep up the spirit and make their mark on the book of good names. Some of the powerful politicians of 2013 who have kept working hard and made most of their country population proud of them will be on our list today. Although being hard enough, we came up with the ten most powerful Politicians of 2013, and here it goes. 5. Kim Jong Un Son of Kim Jong il, Kim Jong Un is the Supreme leader of North Korea. He has taken many titles until now on which he had been working and primarily serving his country after his ancestors, the titles are, First secretary of the Worker’s Party of Korea, Chairman of the Central Military Commission, First Chairman of the National Defense Commission of Korea and Supreme commander of the Korean’s People army. He came up to the leadership seat after his father’s death in 2009, He was announced to be ‘A Great Successor’ by the state television after his services and work for his country after his father and is known to be the youngest head of state at the age of 30 now. 4. Hillary Clinton Wife of Bill Clinton as we all know! Hillary Clinton is an American Politician and diplomat serving since 1978 when she first found herself in a chair of the first female of the Legal Services Corporation. She is the 67thUnited states Secretary of State from 2009-2013, Hillary Clinton has been awarded with number of Awards for her continuous work and services for Health, Women and specially children. To pull the U.S message out in the world she traveled in around 111 countries and used social media to spread her word of conduct. 3. Imran Khan A former cricketer turned Politician; Imran Khan is a philanthropist, cricket commentator, Chancellor at the University of Bradford, founding chairman of the Board of Governors of the Shaukat Khanam Memorial hospital and Research Center and the founder of Namal College (Mianwali). Khan became the Chairman of the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaaf, a political party that emerged in 1996, whereas Khan served to be the representative of Mianwali from 2002-2007 but it was not until 2013 elections when he found a suitable position of his party in the country. A large number of supporters, especially youngsters in the country polled for their new heartthrob leader. Khan was voted as the Asia’s Person of the year by the Asia Society in 2012, in the same year he was put as third in the list of ‘9 World Leaders’ on the Global Post and Jinnah Award was also presented to him. Not only these but many number of awards from different countries was awarded to him for his skills and services. 2. Barack Obama The 44thand the first ever African American President Barack Obama is yet again elected by the public of America in 2013 after he took place in 2009. He is a graduate of Colombia University and Harvard Law School; he worked as the Civil rights Attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of the Chicago School. Obama have served the best he can for the country and have had passed foreign policies alike to that, ending U.S military involvements in Iraq War, signed New Start arms control treaty with Russia and ordered U.S military involvement in Libya. Obama also came with the great improvement in Economic policies, Health care reforms and Domestic Policy. He was also ranked as second in the ‘9 World Leaders’ on the Global Post. 1. Xi Jinping Holding three positions in China, Xi Jinping is the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, President of the People Republic of China and Chairman of the central Military Commission is on the top of the list. He had also been the Governor of Fujian between 1992 to 2002. Xi is the fifth continuous leader from the family and has not been given up on his responsibilities, thus has started campaigns against corruption, continued with the economic policies, has an open view towards leadership and is still working on ‘Chinese Dream’. Standing firm and strong on his first position Xi is no less than his ancestors.

Top 10 Youngest Billionaires of 2013: Talking about money, it really does not take a lifetime for some people to be a billionaire. We in our list are going to discuss some youngest billionaires of the year 2013. Some of these top ten billionaires have transferred their money banks from their parents where as some of them have worked hard on themselves to reach this level and be a billionaire. 10. Fahd Hariri Youngest son of the assassinated Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, Fahd Hariri is the tenth on the list. He graduated in the year 2004 from an interior designing school of Paris known as Ecole Speciale d’Architecture de Paris. While he was still studying in Paris he has put up his own interior designing studio in the suburbs of the city and made furniture there to sell it to the people in Saudi Arabia. It was not until 2005 when he came back to Beirut and now develops residential buildings there. At the age of 31 he has almost an amount of $1.2 billion which makes him stand ten on the list. 9. Li Zhaouhui With the net worth $1.3 billion son of Li Haicang, Li Zhaouhui is the ninth youngest billionaire. He graduated from the Wuhan University of Science and Technology business management professional in the year 2005. He took over as the chairman of his father’s Haixin iron and steel Group and since then he is working hard to keep the reputation and investment of the business at its best and somehow have achieved some outstanding results as well. In a young age of 32 he has done a lot good to the industrious group of his father. 8. Albert Von The 12thPrince of Thurn and Taxis is actually a German aristocrat and has been listed in many lists of young billionaires; the 30 year old has been appearing on the lists since he was eight years old. He completed his high school education from Rome and studied economics and theology from University of Edinburgh after his military service. He is an amazing racing driver and has a net worth of $2 billion. 7. Eduardo Saverin One of the five co-founders of Facebook is Eduardo Saverin. Sharing almost 5% of the Facebook shares Eduardo has a net worth of $2.2 billion and he have also invested in Jumio and Qwiki. He did his B.S Economics in 2006 from the Harvard University and is an actual citizen of Brazil. 6. Sean Parker Sean Parker was the first president of the social networking site ‘Facebook’. He also co-founded Plaxo, Airtime and Causes. With the net worth of $2.3 billion Sean stands as sixth on the list of young billionaires. Parker attended Oakton High School and then was transferred to the Chantilly High School in 1996 where he persuaded his teachers to count his time on computer coding which result him in starting companies and coding them computer at the end of his finishing year. Korea’s Kim Jung-Ju is a founder of the online gaming company, Nixon. Although he lost billions lately, but still stands as the fifth youngest on our list. The 32 year old has a net worth $2.7 billion. 4. Scott Duncan Scott Duncan is the youngest son of Dan Duncan who found the Enterprise Products Partners. The 30 year old Scott inherited the energy pipeline company that owns more than 50,000 miles of Natural Gas, oil and petro chemical pipelines. The net worth of Scott Duncan is almost $4.1 billion which makes him the fourth youngest billionaire. 3. Dustin Moskovitz One of the five co-founders of ‘Facebook’ another is 29 year old Dustin Moskovitz who is an American internet entrepreneur. With a net worth $4.2 billion Dustin is the third on the list. He was having 7.8% share in the Facebook until he left it in the year 2008 and started working to co-find Asana. 2. Yang Huiyan The only girl on the list is Yang Huiyan. The daughter of a wealthy Chinese Yang Guoqiang who started his company Biguiyuan in 1997 is the majority shareholder of The Country Garden Holdings. The 30 year old graduated from the Ohio State University and has a net worth $6.9 billion. 1. Mark Zuckerberg So the youngest who tops the list is the one who is known by the world, Mark Zuckerberg. He is an American internet entrepreneur and computer programmer. Though one of the five co-founders of Facebook he is usually known as the only ‘founder’ because he is the chairman and the chief executive of the Facebook Inc. The 29 year old Mark has a net worth $17 billion. Starting the site from his very own University which was Harvard University from where he was dropped out. Mark was always an extra ordinary student who excelled in computing and technology.

Top 10 French Politicians Of All Times: There are several French rulers that have left a mark in the history of the European region and have proved themselves that no matter if they were monarchs, kings or even diplomats they were some great Politicians too. Keeping in regard we’re talking about French politicians which will include all the great leaders and politicians who are French. Here is the list of Top 10 Best French Politicians. 10. Victor Schoelcher Victor Schoelcher on number ten was actually an abolitionist writer of the 19th Century born in 1804. He was a main spokesman from a group of Paris that represented the abolishment of slavery and eventually found an abolition society in 1834. He worked specially on the Caribbean Islands and French West Indies for the abolition of slavery. 9. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord The French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord is on number nine was usually known as Talleyrand and was born into an Aristocratic family in Paris. He was born in the year 1754 till 1838; he worked successfully under Napoleon I, Louis XVIII, Charles X and Louis Philippe. Most of the people regard him as the most versatile, skilled and influential diplomat in the complete European history. 8. Jean Monnet On number eight we have Jean Monnet, the French political economist and diplomat. He stayed in the office from 1952 till 1955. He is highly known as the main figure in finding the European Union and an architect of European Unity. He normally worked behind the scenes which made him help the American and European governments and was also given the name of Patron of the year 1980-1981 academic year at the College of Europe. 7. Philip Augustus The seventh French politician on the list is Philip II Augustus. He was born from 1165 till 1223 during which he was one of the most successful feudal French monarchs. He expanded the Royal demesne and impact of the empire on the people at that time. There are number of things that he did while he was the ruler, one of which is defeating the Angevin Empire and breaking the alliance of the Flemish, English and German in the battle of Bouvines in 1214. He amazingly organized the government in his reign and brought about prosperity in country. He at his time checked the finances of the nobles and passed the extra to the middle class, this was the main reason he and his reign of ruler ship was popular among the ordinary people of the country. 6.Charles de Gaulle Charles de Gaulle on number sixth was a French General and statesman who led the French forces in World War II. He founded the French Republic in 1958 and served as the first president in from 1958 till 1969. He is considered as one of the most influential and patriotic leaders. 5.Georges Clemenceau On number 5 is Georges Clemenceau who was a French Statesman who led the nation in the First World War and he was an important political person in the third Republic. The Prime Minister of France from 1906 till 1909 and from 1917 till 1920 had been an important person in some difficult time of France. 4. Louis IX On number fourth is Louis IX, the son of Louis VIII. He was the eight-generation descendant of Hug Capet and thus was the king after his father and the part of the House of Capet. He worked really hard with the Parliament of Paris in order to improve the professionalism in his legal administration. He had many places named after him, for example; St. Louis, Missouri, ille Saint Louis in Paris, Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin and Mission San Luis Rey de Francia in the United States; São Luís do Maranhão, Brazil; and both the state and city of San Luis Potosí in Mexico. He worked extremely well in the field of art. 3. Henry IV The King of France from 1589 till 1610, Henry IV is the third politician on the list. He was one of the popular French kings and worked extremely well for the welfare of his subjects and showed an unusual religious tolerance and gave religious liberties to all the Protestants which ended the Wars of Religion in the country region. 2. Louis XIV The longest ruling monarch, Louis XIV is the second politician on our list. Louis was the monarch of the House of Bourbon and ruled from 1643 till 1715, this reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest time in the history of European country. During his reign France was the leading European Power and fought three main Wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the War of the Spanish Succession. He omitted the feudalistic system and centralized the state. 1. Napoleon I Napoleon I tops the list of the French politicians. Napoleon Bonaparte was an Emperor of the French from 1804 till 1815. He is remembered the best for his Wars that he led against the coalitions against France, these Wars were also known as the Napoleon Wars. All these Wars were won by him, which is the reason he’s known as the best military commanders of all times.

Top 10 Things Women do Better than Men: Enough of proving and fighting of the genders, on who is better than whom and in what! Women without any doubt have been able to touch the skies during the 21stCentury. But what can be better than knowing those top ten things which with statistics prove that women do better than men in any concern. So if you’re a guy and going to read this then make sure that you will help yourself and your friends do a better job in future, because women have clean swiped all these top tens! 10. Women learn better No wonder they attempt multitasks most of the times and prove that they are remarkably good. A study done at the University of Georgia and Columbia University proved it that Women are better learners than men. They have a capability to expand their mind and tend to be more focused, flexible and organized. This makes most of the women understand the task better and quicker than their male fellows. 9. Women are cleaner We have definitely seen more clean girls than clean boys! Not only they themselves but they have a habit of to keep their environment clean for themselves too, their room, workspace, washrooms and cars. A study at the San Diego State University of offices across the United States discovered that men had 10%-20% more bacteria on their workspaces compared to women, who have a cleaner and more hygienic space. 8. Women Interview better No matter how confused and chaotic a woman seems during a test or an interview, they end it up quite perfectly. A Study at the University of Western Ontario resulted in proving that women are better in handling a stress of a job interview. The researchers said that even though they freak out before the actual exam day but they prepare for it better than men that make them interview better. 7. Women evolve prettier Looking through the advancement and evolution a study revealed that women are getting beautiful day by day whereas men in one way or another are the same. Attractive women giving births to more children resulting in more baby girls means another pretty girl in the world. So if you recently had or are going to have a baby girl then she’s going to be one of those pretty ones too. 6. Women survive car accidents more often Many point women for having bad driving skills! But here we are with another study at the Carnegie Mellon University that proved that 77% men are more likely to die in a car accident than women. So try keeping you seatbelts tight when you sit in a car without a girl! 5. Women are better at pursuing comfort A mind survey of about 2000 people revealed that Women are better at seeking comfort from. Women are chosen to be a better option by many to talk out their problems to. So when your girl-friend asks you what is stressing you out you may tell her, she might have an option to solve your stress. Mothers in that account can be put as the best comfort providers. 4. Women graduate more often How many of you boys have taken more than five years to complete their bachelor’s degree? Well women don’t really appreciate that; they like to do the work right on time. The department of Education’s Statistics discloses that men are less likely than women to get their bachelor’s degree. The enrolment of girls is also higher than boys in most of the Universities. 3. Women have a stronger immune system Women fight through the sniffles and fevers better than the baby boys out there! A study done by McGill University discovered women’s secret weapon that keeps them strong against all the odds and bacteria, which is Estrogen. Estrogen according to the study gives a woman a strong edge when it comes to infections and medical problems; estrogen confronts a certain enzyme that often stays the body’s first line of protection against the virus. 2. Women invest better Having an amazing preplanned system and thinking of far-headed women are the ones who invest better than men. A study of 100,000 portfolios resulted in showing that women’s investment outperformed compared to many men’s. Being more concern and practical women are the ones who can deal well with the money too, so do not underestimate the girl power with the money. 1. Women live longer With these top ten qualities and many more not mentioned, Women tend to live longer than men. According to a new England Centenarian study, among the population of the world above hundred 85% are women. It is also proved in general that women live 5-10 years longer than men do. Take them seriously; they might live after you die!

Top 10 Most Dangerous Diseases: 10. MRSA Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus is resistant to antibiotics like penicillin and cephalosporin. MRSA infects the weakened immune system of people, whose immune system cannot afford to fight against bacteria, like Diabetic and Venous drug abusers. There is a lot of care to be done in hospitals to prevent this infection from occurring and spreading. 9. Gonorrhea Gonorrhea was named after Neisseria Gonorrhoea, who researched the infection.. It’s an infection which is transmitted by sexual contact. The infection can be transmitted from man to woman or vice versa too. Women usually have a vaginal discharge and genital pain as a symptom, whereas men have burning urination. Gonorrhoea causes Pelvic Inflammatory disease in women which can be treated as well. 8. Cholera and Typhoid The ‘food and water’ related diseases are Cholera and Typhoid,which enter the body through the things we eat and eventually enter our gastrointestinal tract and resulting in vomiting and diarrhoea. The specific bacterium that causes Cholera is bacterium vibrio cholerae which leads to electrolyte imbalance and if left untreated it becomes lethal. On the other hand Typhoid is caused by bacterium Salmonella Typhi, this causes an upset stomach and fever. If yphoid is not treated it leads to many complications. 7. African trypanosomiasis Caused by Tsetse fly, African trypanosomiasis is normally known as the ‘sleeping sickness’. As the name implies it is found in African countries and attacks in two stages these include, neurological stage and hemolytic stage. During the Neurological stage the person undergoes a sleep disorder which is due to the organism’s entrance in the brain, whereas in Hemolytic stage the person suffers from joint pains, fever and itching. 6. Pneumonia The swelling of the lungs is known as Pneumonia which can be caused by many reasons, infection being one of those. Some of the common viruses that cause pneumonia are rhizo virus, corona virus, Respiratory syncytial virus etc. Pneumonia can be treated through antibiotics and vaccines. 5. Tuberculosis Tuberculosis is transmitted through air diffusion to the other person by a person’s cough, who is suffering from Tuberculosis. The reasons of the infection are Mycobacterium species and mostly M.tuberculosis. The disease infects when the bacterial infection is high or when the immune system of the prey is weak. As for the symptoms the patient suffers from body aches, coughs, fever, loss of weight and weakness. 4. Hepatitis Hepatitis is basically the swelling of the liver, which can be caused by virus and or toxins as well. The patient in this kind of disease becomes weak, loses weight and becomes pale. There are five types of Hepatitis which are; A, B, C, D, E from which the most common are A, B and C. A is spread through the oral route (eating and drinking), B is through blood or sexual act and C when persistently present can result to carcinoma liver. Hepatitis at all stages has vaccines as a treatment. 3. Malaria A common virus among the people today is Malaria which is caused by a female anopheles mosquito. The symptoms of Malaria are fever, back ache and weakness. The reason due to which Malaria spreads through is Plasmodium genus and its species are P.ovale, P.malariae, P. vivax etc. a course is provided to the person who has the disease but if left untreated it can cause some serious problems and complications in the body, whereas now a pre-course is also available to prevent Malaria. 2. Influenza What we commonly call ‘Flu’ is actually known as ‘Influenza’ which is caused by influenza virus. The patients suffer from chills, fever, body aches and cough. Flu is transmitted by nasal secretions, cough or bird droppings. The two types Influenza are Influenza A and Influenza B, Trivalent vaccine is given to the patient in disease. 1. HIV-Aids The most dangerous and appalling infection in the world is HIV/Aids. The cause of the disease is Immunodeficiency virus, which enters the human body to weaken the immune system and give ways to other infections to enter the body and affect it. It can be transmitted through, sexual intercourse, from mother while birth, breast feeding, unsterilized injections and blood transferring. The most frightening thing is that the disease does not have a complete medication course, leaving the patient to die at any stage.

Top 8 Terrorist Countries of The World1 month agoby Sam 16 Top Tens’ World now compiles its most controversial list to date. The top ten countries which are sponsoring terrorism all around the world .This list is amassed on the basis of past international events and on people’s opinion through various polls. When we are talking about terrorism first we should differentiate between the real terrorism and freedom fighters .Freedom fighters can be considered to be heroes, unfortunately because of false media information portraying them as rebels, radicals or thugs they can be misconstrued as terrorists. It is the right of every living being that if anybody hit him/her without reason, he/she will hit back. As we have been taught that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Here’s the list we prepared for you of top ten terrorist countries: 8.SYRIA The Syrian government is also spreading terrorism .The Syrian government is using its armed forces against its own people. The Syrian government is also promoting terrorism in its neighbouring countries. The government has been bombing and firing and using various chemical weapons against own peoples. 7.AFGHANISTAN Afghanistan has become a most dangerous place after the American attack. It is becoming the center of attention for most intelligence agencies like RAW and CIA, after the Soviet Union war. These agencies are promoting various terrorist groups in South Asia, especially in Pakistan like Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan, Balochistan Liberation Army and various others. These militants are challenging the writ of the Pakistan government. Many militant groups are also interfering in Iran, China and other neighbouring countries. 6.INDIA When we talk about India, it is not less than any other country in spreading terrorism. India is aiding and supporting terrorist groups in Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Above all India has physically invaded and has been using military power against innocent people of occupied Jammu Kashmir for the past 66 years. 5.FRANCE The French were a colonizing nation in the 17th century well before the British Empire had evolved. There was rivalry between the British and French for colonising North America. Later they concentrated on North Africa and Asia. In 1985, France attacked New Zealand.. After this France always support America in every war and every terrorist activity. France sent its army to Iraq and Afghanistan like America. 4.RUSSIA Russia has a long history starting from the times of the Russian Empire. Terrorism, in the modern sense, means violence against civilians to achieve political or ideological objectives by creating fear, terrorism tactics, such as hostage-taking, were widely used by the Soviet secret agencies, most notably during the Red Terror campaigns, against the population of their own country. Russia also attacked Afghanistan in December 1979. 3.UNITED KINGDOM When we talk about United Kingdom, it has got a very strong history of terrorism .First,in the early eighteenth century, they penetrated Indian subcontinent and destroyed their government by acting on the policy of divide and rule. They took their historical artefacts, books and jewels. Even the large diamond the famous Koh-i-Noor in the queen’s crown is not their own and was instead attained by confiscation from the subcontinent. Then British attacked Ireland in 1955. British army was with America in Iraq war and in the occupation of Afghanistan. Now the United Kingdom is supporting terrorist activity in Karachi, Pakistan by giving protection to MQM leader Altaf Hussain. 2.ISRAEL Israel is a terrorist state too. Israel is spreading terrorism all over the world, especially in Muslim countries like Lebanon, Iran Syria, Jordan, Turkey Egypt, Pakistan and Palestine. Israel has engaged in many terrorist attacks and bombing against the civilians of Gaza; Palestine. They even attacked the Freedom-flotilla which was organized by 22 NGOs for the besieged people of Gaza; Palestine. Now Israel is again planning to attack Syria. 1.UNITED STATE OF AMERICA America is the biggest terrorist country in the world. America wages war just to run its own weapons industries. America has undertaken terrorist activity in the past. The major terrorist activity was atomic bombings of the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan during the Second World War. The Korean War of 1950-1953 and the Vietnam War of 1964-1975 are prime examples of terrorist atrocities. Recently, they attacked Iraq and Afghanistan. Now they are going to attack Syria. Oh sorry, will organize a ‘limited operation’ against Syria.

Top 10 Reasons to Say ‘NO WAR’ in Syria: 10.Diplomatic solution SHOULD BE GIVEN A CHANCE to solve the crisis in Syria. Over the past few days, there has been a tremendous wave of optimism that it may be possible for war with Syria to be averted.President Obama follows up on his speech to the nation and describes the possibility for a diplomatic solution in Syria, partially because of the credible threat of U.S. military force.Minimally, there has to be a cease-fire in Syria’s civil war. There can be no inspection regime until all parties involved in the fighting in Syria agree to stop fighting and to an intrusive cease-fire verification regime.its still debatable why Is diplomacy the harder solution in Syria than war. 9.Had already enough with the outrage over the use of weapons of mass destruction. The atomic bomb, which redefined warfare, chemical weapons have been categorized as “weapons of mass destruction,” even if they do not have the killing power of nuclear weapons.World War I led to the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which banned the use, though not the possession, of chemical and biological weapons. In effect from 1928, the protocol is one of the few treaties that have been almost universally accepted and become an international norm. 8.The United States is the leading international supplier of armaments. The United States is by far the world’s largest arms trader, accounting for around 30 per cent of conventional arms transfers in terms of value.The arms industry is a global business which manufactures weapons and military technology and equipment. The USA supplies arms to more than 170 countries. it has supplied arms to other countries, for example Sri Lanka, Bahrain, Egypt and Yemen, where there is a substantial risk that they could be used to commit of facilitate serious human rights violations. 7.Need to stop letting armament manufacturers dictate the foreign policies and life of all innocent humanity. Of course the people don’t want war. But after all, it’s the leaders of the country who determine the policy, and it’s always a simple matter to drag the people along whether it’s a democracy, a fascist dictatorship, or a parliament, or a communist dictatorship. Voice or no voice, the people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. 6.Economically a war with Syria will prolong the economic crisis in the world, With higher oil-prices, less growth and more despair worldwide War has influenced economic history profoundly across time and space .war generally impedes economic development and undermines prosperity. Several specific economic effects of war recur across historical eras and locales and Inflation. 5.Historic use of weapons widely condemned by the global community and all international polls results conducted regarding this issue. It makes absolutely no sense to use banned weapons to retaliate for the use of another banned weapon.Most of the world condemns cluster munition for its potential, like chemical weapons, to indiscriminately harm civilians. The bomb splits into dozens of dispersed explosives that, if they fail to explode, turn effectively into land mines long after the attack. 4.Nothing will end war unless the people themselves refuse to go to war.War can be devastating, And it can go on for years to come. And sometimes, no good even comes out of it. Many people oppose war, but don’t know how to take action to stop it. 3.Recent history of U.S. warfare shows a trail of weapons leaving long-lasting civilian harm. Will most certainly create huge outflows of refugees. . At the end of 2012 the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR) reported that there were 15.4 million refugees worldwide. In 2012 Afghanistan was the biggest source country of refugees (a position it has held for 32 years) with one out of every four refugees being an Afghan and with 95% living in Pakistan or Iran. food, medicine, and other aid to refugees and other civilian victims of the war is burden on country itself. 2.Its illegal and against basic human rights. The deadliest war in history, in terms of the cumulative number of deaths since its start, is the Second World War, with 60–85 million deaths. 1.War should never be a priority at all ,as solution of problem. In fact ,its itself is the biggest problem of all times. for example after world war 2 the combined damage consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages/hamlets, 2,508 church buildings, 31,850 industrial establishments, 40,000 mi (64,374 km) of railroad, 4100 railroad stations, 40,000 hospitals, 84,000 schools, and 43,000 public libraries.

Top 9 Largest Air Forces in the World: 9. Japan, Air Self Defense Force It wasn’t until World War II after which Japan started forming their very own Japanese Self-Defense Force. In 1954 Japan founded its Japan Air Self-Defense and performed the airborne duties that the navy and armed forces were taking care of. With General Haruhiko Kataoka as the Commander of the Army, 791 total Aircrafts and 45,000 personnel Japan stands as the number ninth Largest Air Force in the whole World. 8. United Kingdom, Royal Air Force Founded in 1918, Royal Air Force is the part of the British Armed Forces and is number eight on our list of Top Ten. It was the World’s first ever Air Force Army that became independent of the navy and armed forces, also it is the oldest. When it was founded it was the largest force in the World but during World War I it was drastically reduced. It wasn’t until World War II that they gained back the power of the force. Today they hold 827 Aircrafts, 40,000 personnel with Sir Andrew as the Chief of the Air Force. 7. Turkey, Turkish Air Force The Turkish Air force was founded along with the creation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. After the World War I some of the Turkish aviators tried to build new units in the main parts of Turkey and tried to bring back a flight personnel with the left overs of the war planes. This is how the beginning of the Turkish Air Force actually started. Today it holds total 60,000 personnel and 736 Aircrafts which makes it stand on number seven on our list. 6. Pakistan, Pakistani Air Force Part of the Pakistan Armed Forces, Pakistan Air Force is the sixth largest Air Force in the World. It basically came into being in 1947 with the independence of Pakistan from India and British, it was then called the Royal Pakistan Air Force. At the time of the independence the country was not provided with the total promised equipment and aircrafts and it was not until 1956 when the country became a Republic, which changed the name to Pakistan Air Force and started flourishing. It today has almost 65,000 full time personnel and 902 Aircrafts. The Chief of Air Staff is Mr. Tahir Rafique Butt. 5. North Korea, Korean People’s Air Force The Unified Aviation Forces of Korea, known as the Korean People’s Air Force is the strongest army force that defends its airspace. With the help of the Soviet, People’s Army was formed on the 20th of August 1947 and the day is still celebrated as the Air Force Foundation Day. The KPAF has 1,500 aircrafts and 110,000 personnel who make it stand as the fifth largest Air Force Army. 4. India, Indian Air Force Officially established in the year 1932 the Indian Air Force is the fourth on our list. After the partition of India and Pakistan, the Indian Air Force that was known as the Royal Indian Air Force had conflicts regarding operational squadrons and facilities that were settled during the following years. Today the Indian Air Force has a total number of 127,000 workers and approximately 1,370 Aircrafts. 3. China, People’s Liberation Army Air Force The People’s Liberation Army Air Force officially came into being in the year 1949 right after the foundation of People’s Republic of China. It now has total 330,000 active personnel and more than 2,500 aircrafts that make it stand as the third largest Air Force in the World. 2. Russia, Russian Air Force The Russian Air Force was established in the year 1992. The Air Force suffered a lot regarding the facilities and resources of the Air Force in its early years, but since Vladimir Putin became the President of Russia, he backed up the Air Force and put in a lot of money for the betterment of the Force. It has around 180,000 personnel and almost more than 4,274 Aircrafts. The Russian Air Force is the second largest Air Force in the world. 1. United States, United States Air force So the United States Air Force,without any doubt, tops the list of the largest Air Force in the World. It was founded back in 1947. It is known as the world’s most technologically advanced Air Forces. With 332,854 active personnel and 5,484 aircrafts, the vision of the United States Air Force is “The United States Air Force will be a trusted and reliable joint partner with our sister services known for integrity in all of our activities, including supporting the joint mission first and foremost. We will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and Power for the nation”.

Top 10 Countries With the Largest Road Networks: Roads are a fundamental component of the transport system in every country and they, undoubtedly, play a key role in connection and communication between cities of a country. A country’s road network should be efficient in order to maximize economic benefits; it is acknowledged that roads enhance mobility, taking people out of isolation and initiates the advancement in different sectors. Humans have always been dependent largely on land transport to travel from one place to another. Good road network also enhances tourism and hence, generates revenue. From the latest research, here is the information and introduction of those top ten countries with the largest road network: 10. Spain Spain is a sovereign state in southwestern Europe. It is the second largest country in Western Europe and the fifth largest country in Europe as a whole. The country’s road system is mainly centralized, covering a distance of 681,298 km. 9. Austria Austria is a landlocked country in East Central Europe. Though its landscape is highly mountainous, the country has proved its meticulous work by building a splendid road network which covers a distance of 823,217 km. 8. France France is the largest country in Western Europe and the third-largest in Europe as a whole; it is also a member of the European Union. It is a country with a very effective and vast road network having a distance of 951,200 covered by its road network. 7. Russia Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one-eighth of the Earth’s inhabited land area. The country is also the world’s ninth most populous nation with more than 143 million people; this population relies on one of the best road networks in the world, covering a distance of 982,000 km. 6. Canada Canada is a country located in North America, and consists of ten provinces and three territories. Canada’s advanced economy relies chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed trade networks which is a proof of its effective road network which covers a distance of 1,042,300 km. 5. Japan Japan, which is also referred to as “land of the rising sun” is an island nation in East Asia. Japan has the world’s tenth-largest population, with over 126 million people; This crowded country definitely need an effective and dense road network for transportation; the country has 1,210,251 km covered by its road network. 4. Brazil Brazil is the largest country in South America. The country’s road network wraps a distance of 1,751,868 km. It is also the world’s fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population; it borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile and occupies 47% of the continent of South America. 3. India India is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. This large country has 4,020,000 km covered by its dense road network. 2. China China is a sovereign state located in East Asia. It is the world’s most heavily populated country, with a population of over 1.35 billion. It has a very effective road network which covers a distance of 4,193,000 km. 1. United States of America United States of America is a federal republic consisting of 50 states. The country has five populated and nine unpopulated territories in the Pacific and the Caribbean. USA has the largest and most advanced road network in the world having a distance of 6,506,204 km covered by roads.

Top 10 Things Women do Better than Men: Enough of proving and fighting of the genders, on who is better than whom and in what! Women without any doubt have been able to touch the skies during the 21stCentury. But what can be better than knowing those top ten things which with statistics prove that women do better than men in any concern. So if you’re a guy and going to read this then make sure that you will help yourself and your friends do a better job in future, because women have clean swiped all these top tens! 10. Women learn better No wonder they attempt multitasks most of the times and prove that they are remarkably good. A study done at the University of Georgia and Columbia University proved it that Women are better learners than men. They have a capability to expand their mind and tend to be more focused, flexible and organized. This makes most of the women understand the task better and quicker than their male fellows. 9. Women are cleaner We have definitely seen more clean girls than clean boys! Not only they themselves but they have a habit of to keep their environment clean for themselves too, their room, workspace, washrooms and cars. A study at the San Diego State University of offices across the United States discovered that men had 10%-20% more bacteria on their workspaces compared to women, who have a cleaner and more hygienic space. 8. Women Interview better No matter how confused and chaotic a woman seems during a test or an interview, they end it up quite perfectly. A Study at the University of Western Ontario resulted in proving that women are better in handling a stress of a job interview. The researchers said that even though they freak out before the actual exam day but they prepare for it better than men that make them interview better. 7. Women evolve prettier Looking through the advancement and evolution a study revealed that women are getting beautiful day by day whereas men in one way or another are the same. Attractive women giving births to more children resulting in more baby girls means another pretty girl in the world. So if you recently had or are going to have a baby girl then she’s going to be one of those pretty ones too. 6. Women survive car accidents more often Many point women for having bad driving skills! But here we are with another study at the Carnegie Mellon University that proved that 77% men are more likely to die in a car accident than women. So try keeping you seatbelts tight when you sit in a car without a girl! 5. Women are better at pursuing comfort A mind survey of about 2000 people revealed that Women are better at seeking comfort from. Women are chosen to be a better option by many to talk out their problems to. So when your girl-friend asks you what is stressing you out you may tell her, she might have an option to solve your stress. Mothers in that account can be put as the best comfort providers. 4. Women graduate more often How many of you boys have taken more than five years to complete their bachelor’s degree? Well women don’t really appreciate that; they like to do the work right on time. The department of Education’s Statistics discloses that men are less likely than women to get their bachelor’s degree. The enrolment of girls is also higher than boys in most of the Universities. 3. Women have a stronger immune system Women fight through the sniffles and fevers better than the baby boys out there! A study done by McGill University discovered women’s secret weapon that keeps them strong against all the odds and bacteria, which is Estrogen. Estrogen according to the study gives a woman a strong edge when it comes to infections and medical problems; estrogen confronts a certain enzyme that often stays the body’s first line of protection against the virus. 2. Women invest better Having an amazing preplanned system and thinking of far-headed women are the ones who invest better than men. A study of 100,000 portfolios resulted in showing that women’s investment outperformed compared to many men’s. Being more concern and practical women are the ones who can deal well with the money too, so do not underestimate the girl power with the money. 1. Women live longer With these top ten qualities and many more not mentioned, Women tend to live longer than men. According to a new England Centenarian study, among the population of the world above hundred 85% are women. It is also proved in general that women live 5-10 years longer than men do. Take them seriously; they might live after you die!

Top 10 Armed Forces of the World: Armed forces are referred to as the land arm of any country that has a Military Force. Among many countries in the world that hold the strongest armies some of them out class the others in regard to their position, strength of force, equipment and most importantly their abilities, which take these armies to a level on the list. Our Top Ten’s list has combined together the Top Ten armed Forces of the World in 2013. Check out our list for ten best Armies of the World. 10. Brazil The land Army of the Brazilian Armed forces is on the number 10 in our list. The Brazilian army has been a part of many international battles, taking South America an example, in the 19thCentury. It played a role as an Allied force in World War I as well as in World War II and participated in the UN peacekeeping missions. Founded in 1822 it has an active personnel of 371,199 and active reserve of 1,340,000 till now. 9. Italy On number 9 we have the ground defense force of the Italian Armed Forces that was founded back in 1861. The fights of the army include; colonial engagements in China-Libya, against Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I, have been a part of World War II and Cold War, whereas after the Cold war the Italian army has been active enough for the peacekeeping in Afghanistan and Iraq. It has active personnel of about 108,355. 8. South Korea The republic of Korea’s army which is also known as ROK army is responsible for the warfare on ground. This Army which is on the number eight position has been active since 1948 and follows strict rules regarding military services and maintenance. Having a large number of personnel of about 506,000 has made it strong enough in a lesser time period and makes its place on our list. 7. Germany Found in 1955 the land army of the Federal Republic of Germany is on the 7thrank on our list. After World War II when Germany was split into two sovereign states, both of them came up with two different armies of their own. But until the Cold war Germany itself had its very own and official army in 1955. With the latest equipment in the army and a total number of 148,996 personnel, German Army marks itself on the list too. 6. France On number six is the French Army, Backbone of the French Government and the largest part of the French Armed Forces. Though it started back in the 15thcentury, it issued the Code of a French soldier in the year 1999 which included these commands: “Mastering his own strength, he respects his opponent and is careful to spare civilians. He obeys orders while respecting laws, customs of war and international conventions. He is aware of global societies and respects their differences.” The French army stands firm with 122,328 of total personnel. 5. United Kingdom Founded in 1707 the British army is the modern land warfare army of the world. On number five The British Army has been a part of the World’s major wars, like; Seven Years wars, Napoleonic Wars, Crimean War, World War I and World War II. Being the leading and victorious army in all these wars, British army had been establishing itself as the military and economic power around the World. The personnel of the army are 129,450 in total. 4. India Largest component of the Indian Armed forces is the Indian Army that takes hold of the ground warfare. The major missions of the Indian Army are to provide national security, defend the country from external belligerences and deliver unity. The army had fought five wars in total, from which four with Pakistan and one with China. With a personnel number of 1,129,900 it stands firm on number four. 3. China The People’s Liberation Army is number three on our list. The armed forces of the People’s Republic of China are the largest military force in the whole World with the strength of about 2,250,000 personnel. Founded in the year 1927 the People’s Liberation Army came through ups and downs and made itself capable enough to be one of the strongest Military forces in the world. 2. Russia Ground Forces of the Russian Federation came into being in 1992. Coming through from not a very long period of time it still makes itself capable enough to be world’s second strongest military force in the world. It went through Chechyen War, peacekeeping and some operations in the Soviet successor state. Whereas the recent war it had was with Georgian Forces of South Ossetia War of 2008. It has total personnel of 360,000. 1. United States The main branch of the United States Armed Forces tops our list, The United States Army came into being in 1775 and today it has total 546,047 personnel. The main mission of the army is “to fight and win our Nation’s wars by providing prompt, sustained land dominance across the full range of military operations and spectrum of conflict in support of combatant commanders.” Having the latest equipment and large number of soldiers to operate The United States Army definitely wins the list.

Top 10 Armed Forces of the World: Armed forces are referred to as the land arm of any country that has a Military Force. Among many countries in the world that hold the strongest armies some of them out class the others in regard to their position, strength of force, equipment and most importantly their abilities, which take these armies to a level on the list. Our Top Ten’s list has combined together the Top Ten armed Forces of the World in 2013. Check out our list for ten best Armies of the World. 10. Brazil The land Army of the Brazilian Armed forces is on the number 10 in our list. The Brazilian army has been a part of many international battles, taking South America an example, in the 19thCentury. It played a role as an Allied force in World War I as well as in World War II and participated in the UN peacekeeping missions. Founded in 1822 it has an active personnel of 371,199 and active reserve of 1,340,000 till now. 9. Italy On number 9 we have the ground defense force of the Italian Armed Forces that was founded back in 1861. The fights of the army include; colonial engagements in China-Libya, against Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I, have been a part of World War II and Cold War, whereas after the Cold war the Italian army has been active enough for the peacekeeping in Afghanistan and Iraq. It has active personnel of about 108,355. 8. South Korea The republic of Korea’s army which is also known as ROK army is responsible for the warfare on ground. This Army which is on the number eight position has been active since 1948 and follows strict rules regarding military services and maintenance. Having a large number of personnel of about 506,000 has made it strong enough in a lesser time period and makes its place on our list. 7. Germany Found in 1955 the land army of the Federal Republic of Germany is on the 7thrank on our list. After World War II when Germany was split into two sovereign states, both of them came up with two different armies of their own. But until the Cold war Germany itself had its very own and official army in 1955. With the latest equipment in the army and a total number of 148,996 personnel, German Army marks itself on the list too. 6. France On number six is the French Army, Backbone of the French Government and the largest part of the French Armed Forces. Though it started back in the 15thcentury, it issued the Code of a French soldier in the year 1999 which included these commands: “Mastering his own strength, he respects his opponent and is careful to spare civilians. He obeys orders while respecting laws, customs of war and international conventions. He is aware of global societies and respects their differences.” The French army stands firm with 122,328 of total personnel. 5. United Kingdom Founded in 1707 the British army is the modern land warfare army of the world. On number five The British Army has been a part of the World’s major wars, like; Seven Years wars, Napoleonic Wars, Crimean War, World War I and World War II. Being the leading and victorious army in all these wars, British army had been establishing itself as the military and economic power around the World. The personnel of the army are 129,450 in total. 4. India Largest component of the Indian Armed forces is the Indian Army that takes hold of the ground warfare. The major missions of the Indian Army are to provide national security, defend the country from external belligerences and deliver unity. The army had fought five wars in total, from which four with Pakistan and one with China. With a personnel number of 1,129,900 it stands firm on number four. 3. China The People’s Liberation Army is number three on our list. The armed forces of the People’s Republic of China are the largest military force in the whole World with the strength of about 2,250,000 personnel. Founded in the year 1927 the People’s Liberation Army came through ups and downs and made itself capable enough to be one of the strongest Military forces in the world. 2. Russia Ground Forces of the Russian Federation came into being in 1992. Coming through from not a very long period of time it still makes itself capable enough to be world’s second strongest military force in the world. It went through Chechyen War, peacekeeping and some operations in the Soviet successor state. Whereas the recent war it had was with Georgian Forces of South Ossetia War of 2008. It has total personnel of 360,000. 1. United States The main branch of the United States Armed Forces tops our list, The United States Army came into being in 1775 and today it has total 546,047 personnel. The main mission of the army is “to fight and win our Nation’s wars by providing prompt, sustained land dominance across the full range of military operations and spectrum of conflict in support of combatant commanders.” Having the latest equipment and large number of soldiers to operate The United States Army definitely wins the list.

Top 10 Gift Ideas for Your Girl Friend: Choosing a perfect gift for your girlfriend can be a nightmare.At Top Tens we have compiled a list to help you in this regard.We have taken into account what the majority of girls prefer to receive as gifts from the man in their life.If you don’t have any idea as to what to buy your girlfriend, this list will help to alleviate your problem.Here goes and hoping your girl friend will appreciate your gift as we at Top Tens have enjoyed making up the top ranking gift. ideas. 10.CLOTHES Every girl loves shopping for clothes.Why not take her out to her favorite outlet and let her choose what she wants and may be she will choose something which you want to see her in .Never buy a girl clothes yourself,She may not like them ,and may have to pretend to like them and surely that would not be what you want. 9.GADGETS Gadgets are a useful part of everyday life,if your girl friend is one to use them it would be a great idea to buy her one as a gift.If she already has what she needs may be an upgrade would be a good idea.Get an idea of what she wants and surprize her with a useful gift she will love. 8.SURPRISE HOLIDAY TRIP What could be nicer than getting away from an everyday mundane routine. If you cannot afford to go to a far off holiday destination, maybe a weekend trip to some nearby holiday resort would be a perfect way to show how much you care for her. 7.CUTE PETS Pets are friendly, is your girlfriend the type to appreciate them.Make sure your girlfriend is not allergic to them or just detests them, before you go out to buy her that furry bundle of joy.Cats are tops in this section while puppies are not far behind,talk about animals in general before actually going out buying her a pet. 6.CHOCOLATES OR CANDIES Most girls love the rich indulgent taste of chocolate.A large box of selected chocolates would be an ideal gift to spoil your girlfriend with A colorful choice of candies and sweets presented in a fancy basket will make her feel special. 5.CUDDLEY TOYS If the girl in your life does not like pets, she is surely going to love a fluffy, lovable, cuddley toy.Lets face it who can resist the charm of some of those cute furry hugable toys.Teddy bears are a top favourite in this category. 4.PERFUMES Perfumes are an all time favorite wi th women of all ages.Girls especially love to smell nice .There are a whole variety of fragrances to choose from.Some girls prefer light flowery tones, while others prefer heavy musks.What ever the mood there is always a perfume to match it.French perfumes are famous the world over and the blends of under tones and overtones are carefully mixed to make them irresistable. Go on and splash out ,She will love you for it. 3.FLOWERS Who would not love to receive a lovely bouquet of flowers what ever the special occasion. Flowers are an intimate expression of one’s inner feelings ,may it be a single red rose or a large colorful bouquet. Flowers are a winner every time. 2.JEWELLERY Girls love to adorn themselves withe various items of jewellery.Jewellery is coveted by most young girls,Although expensive, it is made to last and be cherished for generations.Expression of love can be shown by giving an item of jewellery like a bracelet or a locket,rings are given mainly for engagament or eternity. 1.CANDLE-LIGHT DINNER What can be more romantic than an intimate candle-lit dinner for two.Choose a fine restaurant to set the mood accompanied by her favourite cuisine.Maybe a seaside setting could be her ideal!This could be the perfect time for you to propose to her, be prepared with your engagement ring in your pocket!

Top 10 Best Things You Can Do in Your Spare Time: With the increasingly hectic lives we lead in today’s society, we get little spare time to break away from our grueling routines to spend tie sole on us. When time taken, it is often difficult to choose between the array of options in order to decide what to do or what not to. We want to make the most of or free time and exploit the opportunity accordingly. There a few pastimes it seems that are popular amongst many. We’ve compiled a list of ten things that you might want to in order to make the most of your spare time 10. Cook a Great Meal How about honing or developing a skill, such as cooking. Find some great recipes from internet or get a cooking magazine from the market, grab some interesting ingredients and make one of your favourite meals. Won’t it be great to cook something you like to eat, and even if you don’t know how to cook, practice and share it with your friends and family, they’ll love the experience 9. Visit your Friends and Family Too much work does not let you be with your loved ones. If you do get a bit of spare time away from work, call your friends or family. Plan a day out. Plan days in. Rekindle old connections. 8. Surf the Internet The internet is full of new, wonderful, interesting and strange things. Switch on your laptop or tablet and Google some interesting things you might want to know about it. 7. Watch some Television Your free time is supposed to be for chilling. The best way you can chill and enjoy it is to watch television. Get your favorite movie on a DVD player or maybe just sit back on your couch and escape from reality for a few hours! 6. Catch up on your Bills Okay- this probably not something many of us would choose to do during our free time, however using your free time to get your finances in order means you have less to worry about whilst you work. It will also benefit you in the long term keeping an account of all you’re spending so that you don’t panic at the end of the week. 5. Relax and Calm your mind A hectic routine can make you feel very tense and stressed. Use your free time to relax both your body and mind. Book an appointment to get a massage, or go to the sauna or take yoga classes This will help you to keep yourself cool and calm throughout the working day. 4. Exercise and Physical fitness What would be better than making yourself fit and strong? Exercise develops health and strength; a walk in a park or an exercise schedule in a gym will definitely make you feel energized and strong. 3. Clean up your home You have a tough schedule and you cannot take time out for your own house, this might end up with you having an untidy house! So whenever you have free time you should clean up or perhaps engage in some DIY. As the old adage goes ‘a cluttered house results in a cluttered mind and you definitely don’t want to come home after a busy day and have to contend with a cluttered mind! 2. Read a little If you like to read, then this will be the favorite thing you want to do in your spare time. Grab yourself a book, catch up on some latest magazines or go to the nearest library. Books can be a great form of escapism and will help you relax and unwind. 1. Rest or Sleep Going to work, going to the gym, writing, reading and all that stuff that you do when you are awake makes you tired. So the best thing that you could do in your spare time is sleep. Take time out. Take a nap when you are free so that you can get up feeling refreshed. Sleep is the best pastime.