Spain: Kings, Queens, Prime Ministers Kings and queens Carlos II(1665–1700) Felipe V(1700–1724, 1724–1746) Luis I (1724) Fernando VI(1746–1759) Carlos III(1759–1788) Carlos IV(1788–1808) Joaquín Murat, gran duque de Berg (1808) Fernando VII(1808–1833) Isabel II(1833–1868) María Cristina, regent (1833–1840) Baldomero Espartero, duque de la Victoria, regent (1840–1843) Carlos VI (1860) Amadeo I(1871–1873) Carlos VII (1872–1876) Alfonso XII(1874–1885) María Cristina, regent (1885–1886, 1886–1902) Alfonso XIII(1886–1931) Juan Carlos I(1975– ) Prime Ministers Francisco Franco(1938–1973), also head of state (1936–1975) Luis Carrero Blanco(1973) Torcuato Fernández Miranda, acting (1973–1974) Carlos Arias Navarro (1974–1976) Adolfo Suárez González (1976–1981) Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo y Bustelo (1981–1982) Felipe González Márquez(1981–1996) José María Aznar(1996–2004) José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (2004– )

Sweden: Kings and Queens Kings and Queens Karl XII(1697–1718) Ulrica Eleonora (1719–1720) Fredrik I (1720–1751) Adolf Fredrik (1751–1771) Gustaf III(1771–1792) Gustaf IV Adolf(1792–1809) Karl XIII(1809–1818) Karl XIV Johan(1818–1844) Oscar I(1844–1859) Karl XV(1859–1872) Oscar II(1872–1907) Gustaf V(1907–1950) Gustaf VI Adolf(1950–1973) Carl XVI Gustaf(1973– )

Turkey: Rulers Sultans Mustafa II(1695–1703) Ahmed III(1703–1730) Mahmud I(1730–1754) Osman III (1754–1757) Mustafa III(1757–1774) Abdülhamit I(1774–1789) Selim III(1789–1807) Mustafa IV(1807–1808) Mahmut II(1808–1839) Abdülmecit I(1839–1861) Abdülaziz I(1861–1876) Murad V(1876) Abdülhamit II (1876–1909) Mehmet V(1909–1918) Mehmet VI(1918–1923) Presidents Mustafa Kemal(Kemal Atatürk), chairman of the presidium of the Grand National Assembly (1922–1923), president (1923–1938) Mustafa Abdülhalik Renda (1938) Ismet Inönü(1938–1950) Mahmud Celal Bayar(1950–1960) Cemal Gürsel(1960–1966) Cevdet Sunay(1966–1973) Fahri Korutürk (1973–1980) Kenan Evren (1980–1989) Turgut Özal (1989–1993) Süleyman Demirel(1993–2000) Ahmet Necdet Sezer (2000– )

Vietnam: Rulers North Vietnam Presidents Ho Chi Minh(1945–1969) Ton Duc Thang (1969–1976) South Vietnam Presidents Ngo Dinh Diem(1955–1963) Duong Van Minh(1963–1964, 1975) Nguyen Khanh (!964) Phan Khac Suu (1964–1965) Nguyen Van Thieu(1965–1975) Tran Van Huong (1975) Huynh Tan Phat (1975–1976) Vietnam *.Ton Duc Thang, president (1976–1980) *.Nguyen Huu Tho, acting president (1980–1981) *.Truong Chinh, chairman of the state council (1981–1987) *.Vo Chi Cong, chairman of the state council (1987–1992) *.Le Duc Anh, president (1992–1997) *.Tran Duc Luong, president (1997– )

Biography South America: Venezuela Presidents Francisco Antonio Zea, acting (1819) Simón Bolívar(1819) José Antonio Páez(1830–1835, 1839–1843, 1861–1863) Andrés Narvarte, acting (1835, 1836–1837) José María Vargas (1835, 1935–1936) Pedro Briceño, provisional (1835) Santiago Mariño, Superior Chief of State (1835) José María Carreño, acting (1835, 1937) Carlos Soublette, acting (1837–1839, 1843–1847) Santos Michelena, acting (1843) Diego Bautista Urbaneja, acting (1847) José Tadeo Monagas(1847–1851) Antonio Leocadio Guzmán, acting (1851) José Gregorio Monaga (1851–1855, 1855–1858) Joaquín Herrera, acting (1855) Pedro Gual, president of provisional government (1858), acting president (1859, 1861) Julián Castro (1858–1859) Juan Crisóstomo Falcón (1859, 1865–1868), provisional (1863–1865) Manuel Felipe de Tovar, acting (1859–1861) Antonio Guzmán Blanco(1863, 1865, 1870–1877, 1879–1874, 1886–1888), supreme director (1879) Guillermo Tell Villegas (1868–1869, 1892) José Ruperto Monagas, acting (1869–1870) Juan Vicente González, acting (1870) Esteban Palacios, acting (1870) Jacinto Gutiérrez Martínez, acting (1877, 1878–1879) Francisco Linares Alcántara (!877–1878) José Gregorio Valera, acting (1879) Gregorio Cedeño (1879) José Rafael Pacheco (1879) Joaquín Crespo(1884–1886, 1892–1894, 1894–1898) Manuel Antonio Diez, acting (1886) Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl (1880–1890) Raimundo Andueza Palacio (1990–1892) Manuel Guzmán Álvarez, acting (1894, 1898) Ignacio Andrade (1898–1899) Víctor Rodríguez Párraga, acting (1899) Cipriano Castro(1899–1909) Juan Vicente Gómez(1909–1910, 1910–1914, 1922–1929, 1931–1935) Emilio Constantino Guerrero, acting (1910) Jesús Ramón Ayala, acting (1910) Victorino Márquez Bustillos, provisional (1914–1922) Juan Bautista Pérez (1929–1931) Pedro Itriago Chacín, acting (1931) Eleazar López Contreras (1935–1936, 1936–1941) Arminio Borjas, acting (1936) Isaías Medina Angarita (1941–1945) Rómulo Betancourt, chairman revolutionary junta (1945–1948), president (1959–1964) Rómulo Gallegos(1948) Carlos Delgado Chalbaud, chairman, military junta (1948–1950) German Suárez Flamerich, chairman, military junta (1950–1952) Marcos Pérez Jiménez(1952–1958) Wolfgang Larrazábal, chairman, government junta (1958) Edgar Sanabria Arcia, chairman, government junta (1958–1959) Raúl Leoni(1964–1969) Rafael Caldera(1969–1974, 1994–1999) Carlos Andrés Pérez(1974–1979, 1989–1993) Luis Herrera Campins (1979–1984) Jaime Lusinchi (1984–1989) Octavio Lepage, acting (1993) Ramón José Velásquez, interim (1993–1994) Hugo Chávez (1999– )

Biography South America: Peru *.Eduardo López de Romaña, president of Peru (1899–03) *.Manuel Candamo, president of Peru (1903–04) *.Serapio Calderón, acting president of Peru (1904) *.José Pardo y Barreda, president of Peru (1904–08) *. Augusto B. Leguía y Salcedo, president of Peru (1908–12; 1919–30) *.Guillermo E. Billinghurst, president of Peru (1912–14) *.Óscar Raymundo Benavides Larrea, president of Peru (1914–15) *.José Pardo y Barreda, president of Peru (1915–19) *.Manuel María Ponce Brousset, Peruvian chairman military junta (1930) *.Luis M. Sánchez Cerro, president of Preu (1930–31) *.Mariano Holguín Maldonado, Peruvian chairman Transitional Junta (1931) *.Ricardo Leoncio Elías Arias, Peruvian chairman Transitional Junta (1931) *.Gustavo A. Jiménez, Peruvian chairman Transitional Junta (1931) *.David Samanez Ocampo y Sobrino, Peruvian chairman National Junta (1931) *.Luis M. Sánchez Cerro, president of Peru (1931–33) *.Óscar Raymundo Benavides Larrea, president of Peru (1933–39) *.Manuel Prado y Ugarteche, president of Peru (1939–45, 1956–62) *.José Luis Bustamante y Rivero, president of Peru (1945–48) *. Manuel Apolinario Odría Amoretti, president of Peru (1948–50; 1950–56) *.Zenón Noriega Agüero, Peruvian chairman military junta (1950) *.Ricardo Pío Pérez Godoy, Peruvian junta chairman (1962–63) *.Nicolás Lindley López, Peruvian junta chairman (1963) *. Fernando Belaúnde Terry, president of Peru (1963–68, 1980–85) *. Juan Velasco Alvarado, president of Peru (1968–75) *.Francisco Morales Bermúdez, president of Peru (1975–80) *.Alan García Pérez , president of Peru (1985–90) *. Alberto Fujimori, president of Peru (1990–2000) *.Valentín Paniagua, president of Peru (2000–2001) *. Alejandro Toledo, president of Peru (2001– Uruguay *.Juan Lindolfo Cuestas, president of Uruguay (1897–99, 1899–1903) *. José Batlle y Ordóñez, president of Uruguay (1903–07, 1911–15) *.Claudio Wílliman, president of Uruguay (1907–11) *.Feliciano Viera, president of Uruguay (1915–19) *.Baltasar Brum, president of Uruguay (1919–23) *.José Serrato, president of Uruguay (1923–27) *.Juan Campisteguy, president of Uruguay (1927–31) *. Gabriel Terra, president of Uruguay (1931–38) *.Alfredo Baldomir, president of Uruguay (1938–43) *.Juan José de Amézaga, president of Uruguay (1943–47) *.Tomás Berreta, president of Uruguay (1947) *.Luis Batlle Berres, president of Uruguay (1947–51) *.Andrés Martínez Trueba, president of Uruguay (1951–52) *.Andrés Martínez Trueba, president of the National Council (1952–55) *.Luis Batlle Berres, president of the National Council (1955–56) *.Alberto Fermín Zubiría, president of the National Council (1957–57) *.Arturo Lezama, president of the National Council (1957–58) *.Carlos L. Fischer, president of the National Council (1958–59) *.Martín R. Echegoyen, president of the National Council (1959–60) *.Benito Nardone, president of the National Council (1960–61) *.Eduardo Víctor Haedo, president of the National Council (1961–62) *.Faustino Harrison, president of the National Council (1962–63) *.Daniel Fernández Crespo, president of the National Council (1963–64) *.Luis Giannattasio, president of the National Council (1964–65) *.Wáshington Beltrán, president of the National Council (1965–66) *.Alberto Héber Usher, president of the National Council (1966–67) *.Óscar Diego Gestido, president of Uruguay (1967) *.Jorge Pacheco Areco, president of Uruguay (1967–72) *.Juan María Bordaberry Arocena, president of Uruguay (1972–76) *.Alberto Demicheli, acting president of Uruguay (1976) *.Aparicio Méndez, president of Uruguay (1976–81) *.Gregorio Conrado Álvarez Armelino, president of Uruguay (1981–85) *.Rafael Addiego Bruno, acting president of Uruguay (1985) *.Julio María Sanguinetti Cairolo, president of Uruguay (1985–90) *.Luis Alberto Lacalle, president of Uruguay (1990–95) *.Julio María Sanguinetti Cairolo, president of Uruguay (1995–2000) *.Jorge Batlle, president of Uruguay (2000–)

Biography South America: Brazil *. Pedro I, Emperor of Brazil, Bragança dynasty (1822–31) *. Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil, Bragança dynasty (1831–89) *. Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca, president of Brazil (1889–91) *. Floriano Peixoto, acting president of Brazil (1891–94) *.Manuel Ferraz de Campos Sales, president of Brazil (1898–1902) *.Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves, president of Brazil (1902–06) *.Afonso Augusto Moreira Pena, president of Brazil (1906–09) *.Nilo Peçanha, president of Brazil (1909–10) *.Venceslau Brás Pereira Gomes, president of Brazil (1914–18) *.Delfim Moreira, acting president of Brazil (1918–19) *.Epitâcio da Silva Pessoa, president of Brazil (1919–22) *.Artur da Silva Bernardes, president of Brazil (1922–26) *.Washington Luís Pereira de Sousa, president of Brazil (1926–30) *.Augusto Tasso Fragoso, chairman Government Junta (1930) *. Getúlio Vargas, pesident of Brazil (1930–45, 1951–54) *.José Linhares, president of Brazil (1945–46) *.Eurico Gaspar Dutra, president of Brazil (1946–51) *.João Café Filho, president of Brazil (1954–56) *.Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira, president of Brazil (1956–61) *. Jânio da Silva Quadros, president of Brazil (1961) *. João Belchior Marques Goulart, president of Brazil (1961–64) *. Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco, president of Brazil (1964–67) *. Artur da Costa e Silva, president of Brazil (1967–69) *.Military junta: Augusto Hamann Rademaker Grünewald, Aurélio de Lyra Tavares, Márcio de Souza e Mello (1969) *. Emílio Garrastazú Médici, president of Brazil (1969–74) *.Ernesto Geisel, president of Brazil (1974–79) *. João Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo, president of Brazil (1979–85) *. José Sarney, president of Brazil (1985–90) *. Fernando Collor de Mello, president of Brazil (1990–92) *.Itamar Franco, acting for Collor (1992–95) *. Fernando Henrique Cardoso, president of Brazil (1995–) Chile *. Bernardo O'Higgins, supreme director of Chile (1818–23) *. Manuel Bulnes, president of Chile (1841–51) *. Manuel Montt, president of Chile (1851–61) *. Domingo Santa María, president of Chile (1881–86) *. José Manuel Balmaceda, president of Chile (1886–91) *. Jorge Montt, president of Chile (1891–96) *.Federico Errázuriz Echaurren, president of Chile (1896–01) *.Aníbal Zañartu Zañartu, acting president of Chile (1901) *.Germán Riesco, president of Chile (1901–06) *. Pedro Montt, president of Chile (1906–10) *.Elías Fernández Albano, acting president of Chile (1910) *.Emiliano Figueroa Larraín, president of Chile (1910) *.Ramón Barros Luco, president of Chile (1910–15) *.Juan Luis Sanfuentes, president of Chile (1915–20) *.Arturo Alessandri Palma, president of Chile (1920–24) *.Luis Altamirano Talavera, Chilean junta chairman (1924–25) *.Pedro Pablo Dartnell Encina, Chilean junta chairman (1925) *.Arturo Alessandri Palma, president of Chile (1925) *.Luis Barros Borgoño, acting, president of Chile (1925) *.Emiliano Figueroa Larraín, president of Chile (1925–27) *. Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, president of Chile (1927–31, 1952–58) *.Juan Esteban Montero Rodríguez, president of Chile (1931–32) *.Arturo Puga Osorio, chairman Junta of the Socialist Republic of Chile (1932) *.Carlos Gregorio Dávila Espinosa, chairman Junta of the Socialist Republic of Chile, provisional president of the Socialist Republic of Chile (1932) *.Bartolomé Blanche Espejo, provisional president of Chile (1932) *.Abraham Oyanedel Urrutia, acting president of Chile (1932) *.Arturo Alessandri Palma, president of Chile (1932–38) *.Pedro Aguirre Cerda, president of Chile (1938–41) *.Jerónimo Méndez Arancibia, acting president of Chile (1941–42) *.Juan Antonio Ríos Morales, president of Chile (1942–46) *.Alfredo Duhalde Vásquez, acting president of Chile (1946) *.Vicente Merino Bielich, acting president of Chile (1946) *.Juan Antonio Iribarren Cabezas, acting president of Chile (1946) *.Gabriel González Videla, president of Chile (1946–52) *.Jorge Alessandri Rodríguez, president of Chile (1958–64) *. Eduardo Frei Montalva, president of Chile (1964–70) *. Salvador Allende, president of Chile (1970–73) *. Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, Junta leader (1973–74), president of Chile (1974–90) *. José Toribio Merino Castro, Junta leader (1973–74) *. César Mendoza Durán, Junta leader (1973–74) *. Gustavo Leigh Guzmán, Junta leader (1973–74) *. Patricio Aylwin Azócar, president of Chile (1990–94) *.Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, president of Chile (1994–2000) *.Ricardo Lagos Escobar, president of Chile (2000–)

Biography South America: Argentina *. Juan Facundo Quiroga, Argentine caudillo(1790–1835) *. Juan Martín de Pueyrredón,Argentine general, supreme director of the United Provinces of La Plata (1816–19) *. Bernardino Rivadavia, Argentine statesman and diplomat, first president of the United Provinces of La Plata (1826–27) *. Juan Manuel de Rosas, Argentine dictator, governor of Buenos Aires province (1829–32, 1835–52) *. Justo José de Urquiza, Argentine general and politician, president of the confederation (1854–60) *. Bartolomé MitreArgentine statesman, general, and author, president of the republic (1862–68) *. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, Argentine statesman, educator, and author, president of the republic (1868–74) *. Nicolás Avellaneda, Argentine statesman, president of the republic (1874–80) *. Julio Argentino Roca, general, president of Argentina (1880–86, 1898–1904) *. Miguel Juárez Celman, president of Argentina (1886–90) *.Manuel A. Quintana, president of Argentina (1904–06) *.José Figueroa Alcorta, president of Argentina (1906–10) *. Roque Sáenz Peña, Argentine statesman, president of the republic (1910–14) *.Victorino de la Plaza, president of Argentina (1914–16) *. Hipólito Irigoyen, Argentine political leader, president of the republic (1916–22, 1928–30) *. Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear, Argentine statesman and diplomat, president of the republic (1922–28) *.José Félix Uriburu, president of Argentina (1930–32) *. Agustín Pedro Justo, president of Argentina (1932–38) *.Roberto M. Ortiz, president of Argentina (1938–42) *.Ramón S. Castillo, president of Argentina (1940–43) *.Arturo Rawson Corvalán, president of the Provisional Government (1943) *.Pedro Pablo Ramírez Machuca, president of the Provisional Government (1943–44) *.Edelmiro J. Farrell, president of Argentina (1944–46) *. Juan Domingo Perón,president of Argentina (1946–55, 1973–74) *.José Domingo Molina Gómez, Argentine chairman of military junta (1955) *.Eduardo A. Lonardi, provisional president of Argentina (1955) *. Pedro Eugenio Aramburu, president of Argentina (1955–58) *. Arturo Frondizi, president of Argentina (1958–62) *.José María Guido, acting president of Argentina (1962–63) *. Arturo Illia, president of Argentina (1963–66) *.Revolutionary Junta: Pascual Ángel Pistarini Ludena, Benigno Ignacio Marcelino Varela Barnadou, Adolfo Teodoro Álvarez Melendi (1966) *. Juan Carlos Onganía, president of Argentina (1966–70) *.Pedro Alberto José Gnavi, Argentine chairman Junta of Commanders (1970) *.Roberto Marcelo Levingston, president of Argentina (1970–71) *.Alejandro Agustín Lanusse, president of Argentina (1971–73) *.Héctor José Cámpora, president of Argentina (1973) *.Isabel Perón, president of Argentina (1974–76) *.Military junta: Jorge Rafael Videla, Emilio Eduardo Massera, Orlando Ramón Agosti (1976) *.Jorge Rafael Videla, president of Argentina (1976–81) *.Roberto Eduardo Viola, president of Argentina (1981) *.Carlos Alberto Lacoste, acting president of Argentina (1981) *. Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri, Argentine general, president of Argentina (1981–82) *.Alfredo Óscar Saint Jean, acting president of Argentina (1982) *.Reynaldo Bignone, president of Argentina (1982–83) *. Raúl Alfonsín, president of Argentina (1983–89) *. Carlos Saul Menem, president of Argentina (1989–1999) *.Fernando de la Rúa, president of Argentina (1999–)

Poland: Rulers Polish Royalty *. Mieszko I, duke of Poland (962–92), the first important member of the Piastdynasty *. Boleslaus I, Polish ruler (992–1025) *. Mieszko II, king of Poland (1025–34) *. Casimir I, duke of Poland (c.1040–18) *. Boleslaus II, duke (1058–76), and later king (1076–79) of Poland *. Ladislaus Herman, duke of Poland (1079–1102) *. Boleslaus III, duke of Poland (1102–38) *. Casimir II, duke of Poland (1177–94) *. Ladislaus I, duke (1306–20) and later king (1320–33) of Poland *. Casimir III, king of Poland (1333–70) *. Ladislaus II, king of Poland (1386–1434), grand duke of Lithuania (1378–1401), founder of the Jagiellodynasty *. Jadwiga, Polish queen (1384–99) *. Ladislaus III, king of Poland (1434–44) and, as Uladislaus I, king of Hungary (1440–44) *. Casimir IV, king of Poland (1447–92) *. Sigismund I, king of Poland (1506–48) *. Sigismund II, king of Poland (1548–72). *. Sigismund III, king of Poland (1587–1632) and Sweden (1592–99) *. Ladislaus IV, king of Poland (1632–48) *. John II, king of Poland (1648–68) *. John III (John Sobieski), king of Poland (1674–96), champion of Christian Europe against the Ottomans *. Augustus II, king of Poland (1697–1733) and, as Frederick Augustus I, elector of Saxony (1694–1733) *. Stanislaus I, king of Poland (1704–09, 1733–35) and duke of Lorraine (1735–66) *. Augustus III, king of Poland (1735–63) and, as Frederick Augustus II, elector of Saxony (1733–63) *. Stanislaus II, last king of Poland (1764–95) Polish Republic and Polish People's Republic Prime MinistersJedrzej Moraczewski (1918–1919) Ignace Paderewski(1919) Leopold Skulski (1919–1920) Wladislaw Grabski (!920, 1923–1925) Wincenty Witos(1920–1921, 1923, 1926)) Antonin Ponikowski (1921–1922) Artur Sliwinski (!922) Wojciech Korfanty (!922) Julian Ignacy Nowak (!922) Wladyslaw Sikorski(!922–1923) Aleksander hrabia Skrzynski (1925–1926) Kazimierz Bartel (1926, 1928–1929, 1929–1930) Józef Pilsudski(1926–1928, 1930) Kazimierz Switalski (1929) Walery Slawek (1930, 1930–1931, 1935) Aleksander Prystor (1931–1933) Janusz Jedrzejewicz (1933–1934) Leon Kozlowski (1934–1935) Marian Koscialkowski-Zyndram (1935–1936) Felicjan Slawoj-Skladkowski (1936–1939) PremiersEdward Osóbka-Morawski (1945–1947, 1954–1970) Józef Cyrankiewic(1947–1952) Boleslaw Bierut (1952–1954) Piotr Jaroszewicz(1970–1980) Edward Babiuch (1980) Józef Pinkowski (1980–1981) Wojciech Jaruzelski(1981–1985) Zbigniew Messner (1985–1988) Mieczyslaw Rakowski (1888–1989) Czeslaw Kiszczak (1989) Tadeusz Mazowiecki (1989–1991) Jan Krzysztof Bielecki (1991) Jan Olszewski (1991–1992) Waldemar Pawlak (1992, 1993–1995) Hanna Suchocka (1992–1993) Józef Oleksy (1995–1996) Wlodzimierz Cimoszewicz (1996–1997) Marek Belka (acting) (1997) Jerzy Buzek (1997–2001) Leszek Miller (2001– ) Presidents Wojciech Jaruzelski(1989–1990) Lech Walesa(1990–1995) Aleksander Kwasniewski(1995– )

Portugal: Kings, Queens, Presidents Kings and Queens AIfonso I(1128-1185) Sancho I(1185–1211) AIfonso II(1211–1223) Sancho II (1223-1245) AIfonso III(1248-1279) Diniz(1279-1325) AIfonso IV(1325-1357) Pedro I(1357-1367) Ferdinand I(1367-1383) João I(1385–1433) Duarte(1433-1438) AIfonso V(1438-1481) João II(1481-1495) Manuel I(1495–1521) João III(1521-1527) Sebastian(1557–1578) Henry, cardinal (1557-1580) Phillip I(1580–1598) Phillip II(1598–1621) Phillip III(1621–1640) João IV(1640-1656) Alfonso VI(1656–1683) Pedro II(1683–1706) João V(1706–1750) José I (1750–1777) Maria I(1777–1816) João VI o Clemente(1816–1826) Isabel Maria, president of council of regency (1826–1828) Pedro IV de Alcântara, regent (1826–1828) Maria II da Glória(1828, 1834–1853) Miguel I(1828–1834) Pedro V de Alcântara(1853–1861) Ferdinand II, regent (1853–1855) Luís I(1861–1889) Carlos I(1889–1908) Manuel II(1908–1910) Presidents Joaquim Teófilo Fernandes Braga(1910–1911, 1915) Manuel José de Arriaga Brum da Silveira e Peyrelongue (1911–1915) Bernardino Luís Machado Guimarães (1915–1917, 1925–1926) Sidónio Bernardino Cardoso da Silva Pais (1917–1918) João do Canto e Castro Silva Antunes (1918–1919) António José de Almeida(1919–1923) Manuel Teixeira Gomes (1923–1925) José Mendes Cabeçadas Júnior, acting (1926) Manuel de Oliveira Gomes da Costa , acting (1926) António Óscar de Fragoso Carmona(1926–1951) António de Oliveira Salazar, acting (1951) Francisco Higino Craveiro Lopes (1951–1958) Américo de Deus Rodrigues Tomás (1958–1974) António de Spínola(1974) Francisco da Costa Gomes (1974–1976) António dos Santos Ramalho Eanes(1976–1986) Mário Soares(1986–1996) Jorge Sampaio(1996–2006 ) Aníbal Cavaco Silva (2006- )

Philippines: Presidents Presidents Manuel L. Quezon(1935–1944) Jorge B. Vargas, president of the Executive Commission of the Philippine Council of State (1943) José P. Laurel (1943–1945) Sergio Osmeña(1944–1946) Manuel Roxas y Acuña (1946–1948) Elpidio Quirino(1948–1953) Ramon Magsaysay(1953–1957) Carlos Polestico Garcia (1957–1961) Diosdado Macapagal(1961–1965) Ferdinand E. MarcosA0831745 (1965–1986) Corazon Aquino(1986–1992) Fidel V. Ramos(1992–1998) Joseph Estrada (1998–2001) Gloria Macapagal- Arroyo(2001– )

Iraq: Rulers Kings Faisal I(1921–1933) Ghazi I (1933–1939) Faisal II(1939–1958) Abd al-Ilah, regent (1939–1941, 1941–1953) Sharaf ibn Rajih al-Fawwaz, regent (1941) Chairman of the Sovereignty CouncilMuhammad Najib ar-Ruba`i PresidentsAbd as-Salam `Arif (1963–1966) Abd ar-Rahman al-Bazzaz (!966) Abd ar-Rahman `Arif (1966–1968) Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr (1968–1979) Saddam Hussein(1979–2003

Ireland: Presidents PresidentsTimothy Sullivan, Frank Fahy, and Conor Alexander Maguire, presidential commission (1937–1938) Douglas Hyde(1938–1945) Sean T. O'Kelly (1945–1959) Eamon de Valera(1959–1973) Erskine H. Childers(1973–1974) Sean Treacy, James Clement Dooge, Thomas O'Higgin, presidential commission (1974, 1976) Cearbhall O Dalaigh (1974–1976) Patrick J. Hillery (1976–1990) Mary Robinson (1990–1997) Liam Hamilton, Seamus Pattison, Liam Cosgrave, and Brian Mullooly, presidential commission (1997) Mary McAleese (1997– ) Prime Ministers William Thomas Cosgrave(1922–1932) Eamon de Valera(1932–1948, 1951–1954, 1957–1959) John A. Costello (1948–1951, 1954–1957) Sean F. Lemass (1959–1966) John Lynch(1966–1973, 1977–1979) Liam Cosgrave(1973–1977) Charles Haughey(1979–1981, 1982, 1987–1992) Garrett FitzGerald(1981–1982, 1982–1987) Albert Reynolds(1992–1994) John Bruton(1994–1997)

Israel: Prime Ministers Prime Ministers David Ben-Gurion(1948–1953, 1955–1963) Moshe Sharett(1953–1955) Levi Eshkol(1963–1969) Yigal Allon, acting (1969) Golda Meir(1969–1974) Yitzhak Rabin(1974–1977, 1992–1995) Shimon Peres(1977, 1984–1986, 1995–1996) Menachem Begin(1977–1983) Yitzhak Shamir(1983–1984, 1986–1992) Benjamin Netanyahu(1996–1999) Ehud Barak(1999–2001) Ariel Sharon(2001–2006) Ehud Olmert(2006–2009) Benjamin Netanyahu(2009–)

Jordan: Kings Kings Abdullah I, emir (1921–1946), king (1946–1951) Naif, regent (1951) Talal (1951–1952) Hussein(1952–1999) Hassan, regent (1998–1999) Abdullah II(1999– )

Mexico: Presidents Presidents *. Guadalupe Victoria(1824–1829) *. Vicente Ramón Guerrero(1829) *.Pedro Velez, Lucas Alamán Luis de Quintana, acting presidents (!829–1830) *. Anastasio Bustamante(1830–1832, 1837–1841) *.Manuel Gómez Pedraza (1832–1833) *.Valentín Gómez Farías (1833, 1846–1847) *. Antonio López de Santa Anna(1833–1837, 1841–1844, 1844–1845, 1847, 1853–1855) *.Valentín Canalizo (1844) *.José Joaquín de Herrera (1845,. 1848–1851) *.Gabriel Valencia (1846–1846) *. Mariano Paredes(1846) *.José Mariano de Salas (1846, 1859) *.José Manuel de la Peña y Peña (1847, 1848) *.Pedro María de Anaya (1847–1848) *. Mariano Arista(1851–1853) *. Rómulo Díaz de la Vega(1855) *.Juan Álvarez (1856) *. Ignacio Comonfort(1856–1858) *. Félix María Zuloaga(1858, 1859–1860) *.Manuel Robles Pezuela (1858–1859) *.Miguel Miramón (1859) *.Juan Nepomuceno Almonte (1862–1863) *.Teodosio Lares (1863) *.Supreme Provisional Executive Power (1863–1864) *. Maximiliano I, emperor of Mexican Empire (1864–1867) *. Benito Juárez., president (1867–1872) *.Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada (1872–1876) *.José María Iglesias (1876) *. Porfirio Díaz(1876–1880, 1884–1911) *.Manuel González (1880–1884) *.Francisco León de la Barra (1911) *. Francisco Indalécio Madero(1911–1913) *. Victoriano Huerta(1913–1914) *.Francisco S. Carvajal (1914) *. Venustiano Carranza(1914, 1915–1920) *.Antonio I. Villarreal González (1914) *.Eulalio Martín Gutiérrez Ortiz (1914–1915) *.Roque González Garza (1915) *.Francisco Lagos Cházaro (1915) *. Adolfo de la Huerta(1920) *. Álvaro Obregón(1920–1924) *.Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–1928) *.Emilio Portes Gil (1928–1930) *.Pascual Ortiz Rubio (1930–1932) *.Abelardo L. Rodríguez (1932–1934) *. Lázaro Cárdenas(1934–1940) *. Manuel Ávila Camacho(1940–1946) *. Miguel Alemán(1946–1952) *.Adolfo Ruíz Cortines (1952–1958) *. Adolfo López Mateos(1958–1964) *. Gustavo Díaz Ordaz(1964–1970) *. Luis Echeverría Álvarez(1970–1976) *. José López Portillo(1976–1982) *. Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado(1982–1988) *. Carlos Salinas de Gortari(1988–1994) *. Ernesto Zedillo(1994–2000) *. Vicente Fox Quesada(2000– )

Pakistan: Prime Ministers Prime Ministers Liaquat Ali Khan(1947–1951) Khwaja Nazimuddin (1951–1953) Mohammad Ali Bogra (1953–1955) Chaudhri Mohammad Ali (1955–1956) Husayn Sahid Suhrawardi (1956–1957) Ismail Ibrahim Chundrigar (1957) Malik Firoz Khan Nun (1957–1958) Muhammad Ayub Khan(1958) Nurul Amin (1971) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto(1973–1977), president (1971–1973) Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq(1977–1985, 1988) Mohammad Khan Junejo (1985–1988) Benazir Bhutto(1988–1990, 1993–1996) Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi (1990) Nawaz Sharif(1990–1993, 1997–1999) Balakh Sher Mazari (1993) Moeen Qureshi (1993) Miraj Khalid (1996–1997) Pervez Musharraf(1999– )

Modern Egypt: Rulers *. Baybars I, Mamluk sultan (1260–77) of Egypt and Syria *. Muhammad Ali, pasha of Egypt after 1805 *. Ismail Pasha, ruler of Egypt (1863–79) *. Tewfik Pasha (Muhammad Tewfik), khedive of Egypt (1879–92) *. Abbas II, last khedive of Egypt (1892–1914) *. Fuad I (Ahmed Fuad Pasha), first king of modern Egypt (1922–36) *. Farouk, king of Egypt (1936–52) *. Gamal Abdal Nasser, Egyptian army officer and political leader, first president of the republic of Egypt (1956–70) *. Anwar al-Sadat, Egyptian political leader and president (1970–81) *. Muhammad Hosni Mubarak, president of Egypt (1981–)

India: Rulers *. Maurya, ancient Indian dynasty (c.325–c.183B.C.) *. Asoka, Indian emperor (c.273–c.232B.C.) of the Mauryadynasty *. Harsha, Indian emperor (606–47) *. Prithvi Raj, ruler of the Chauan dynasty of N. India (d. 1192) *. Mughal, Muslim empire in India (1526–1857) *. Babur, founder of the Mughalempire of India (1494–1530) *. Humayun, second Mughal emperor of India (1530–56) *. Sher Khan, Afghan ruler in N. India (1540–45) *. Akbar, Mughalemperor of India (1556–1605) *. Jahangir, Mughalemperor of India (1605–27) *. Shah Jahan, Mughalemperor of India (1628–58) *. Aurangzeb, Mughalemperor of India (1658–1707) *. Sivaji, Indian ruler, leader of the Marathas(1674–80) *. Shah Alam, Mughalemperor of India (1759–1806) *. Haidar Ali, Indian ruler (1761–82) *. Tippoo Sahib, Indian ruler, sultan of Mysore (1782–99) *. Warren Hastings, first governor general of British India (1774–84) *. Ranjit Singh, Indian maharaja, ruler of the Sikhs (1799–1839) *. Bahadur Shah II, last Mughalemperor of India (1837–57) *. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Indian political and spiritual leader (1869–1948) *. Rajendra Prasad, first president of India (1950–62) *. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Indian philosopher, president of India (1962–67) *. Varahagiri Venkata Giri, president of India (1969–74) *. Indira Gandhi, Indian political leader, prime minister (1966–77, 1980–84) *. Rajiv Gandhi, prime minister of India (1984–89) *. H. D. Deve Gowda, prime minister of India (1996–1997) *. Atal Bihari Vajpayee, prime minister of India (1996, 1998–)

Indonesia: Presidents Presidents Sukarno(1945–1967) Sjafruddin Prawiranegara (1948–1949, 1958–1961) Suharto(1967–1998) B. J. Habibie(1998–1999) Abdurrahman Wahid (1999–2001) Megawati Sukarnoputri, daughter of Sukarno(2001– )

Modern Persia and Iran: Rulers *. Samanid, Muslim Persian dynasty that ruled (819–1005) in Khorasan and Transoxiana *. Ismail, shah of Persia (1502–24), founder of the Safavid dynasty *. Tahmasp, shah of Persia (1524–76) *. Abbas I, shah of Persia (1587–1628), of the Safavid dynasty *. Sultan Husayn, Safavid shah of Persia (1694–1722) *. Nadir Shah, shah of Iran (1736–47) *. Karim Khan, ruler of Persia (1750–79), founder of the Zand dynasty *. Aga Muhammad Khan, shah of Persia, founder of the Qajar dynasty (1796–97) *. Fath Ali Shah, shah of Persia (1797–1834) *. Nasir ad-Din, shah of Persia (1848–96) *. Muzaffar ad-Din, shah of Persia (1896–1907) *. Muhammad Ali, shah of Persia (1906–09) *. Ahmad Mirza, shah of Persia (1909–25) *. Reza Shah Pahlevi, shah of Iran (1925–41) *. Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi, shah of Iran (1941–79) *. Muhammad Mussadegh, Iranian political leader, prime minister of Iran (1951–53) *. Amir Abbas Hoveida, Iranian political leader, prime minister of Iran (1965–77) *. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Iranian Shiitereligious leader (1979–89) *.Mohammad Khatami, president of Iran (1997–)

Canadian Prime Ministers Since 1867 This page lists the term in office, political party, and the name of each prime minister of Canada from 1867 to the present. TermPrime MinisterParty 1867–1873 Sir John A. MacdonaldConservative 1873–1878 Alexander MackenzieLiberal 1878–1891 Sir John A. MacdonaldConservative 1891–1892 Sir John J. C. AbbottConservative 1892–1894 Sir John S. D. ThompsonConservative 1894–1896 Sir Mackenzie BowellConservative 1896 Sir Charles TupperConservative 1896–1911 Sir Wilfrid LaurierLiberal 1911–1917 Sir Robert L. BordenConservative 1917–1920 Sir Robert L. BordenUnionist 1920–1921 Arthur MeighenUnionist 1921–1926 W. L. Mackenzie KingLiberal 1926 Arthur MeighenConservative 1926–1930 W. L. Mackenzie KingLiberal 1930–1935 Richard B. BennettConservative 1935–1948 W. L. Mackenzie KingLiberal 1948–1957 Louis S. St. LaurentLiberal 1957–1963 John G. DiefenbakerConservative 1963–1968 Lester B. PearsonLiberal 1968–1979 Pierre Elliott TrudeauLiberal 1979–1980 Charles Joseph ClarkConservative 1980–1984 Pierre Elliott TrudeauLiberal 1984 John TurnerLiberal 1984–1993 Brian MulroneyConservative 1993Kim CampbellConservative 1993–2003Jean ChrétienLiberal 2003–2006Paul MartinLiberal 2006–Stephen HarperConservative

China: Rulers See this list of Chinese Dynasties. *. Liu Pang, founder of the Handynasty (206–195B.C.) *. Wu-ti, posthumous temple name of the fifth emperor (140–87B.C.) of the Handynasty *. Wang Mang, Chinese Handynasty regent (45B.C.–A.D.23) *. Sui, dynasty of China that ruled from 581 to 618 *. Hsüan-tsung, Chinese emperor (712–56), ninth of the T'ang dynasty *. Sung, dynasty of China that ruled 960–1279 *. Chao K'uang-yin, founder of the Sungdynasty (960–79) *. Hui-tsung, Chinese emperor of the Northern Sung dynasty, painter, and a great patron of art (1082–1135) *. Kublai Khan, Mongol emperor, founder of the Yüan dynasty of China (1215–94) *. Ming, dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644 *. Yung-lo, reign title of the third emperor (1403–24) of the Chinese Mingdynasty *. Nurhaci, Manchu national founder (1559–1626) *. Manchu, people who lived in Manchuria for many centuries and who ruled China from 1644 until 1912 *. K'ang-hsi, second emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty of China (1661–1722) *. Ch'ien-lung, reign title of the fourth emperor (1735–96) of the Ch'ing dynasty *. Tz'u Hsi, Tsu Hsi, dowager empress of China (1861–1908) and regent (1861–73, 1874–89, 1898–1908) *. Kuang-hsu, emperor of China (1875–1908) *. Henry Pu Yi, last emperor (1908–12) of China *. Yüan Shih-kai, president of China (1912–16) *. Li Yüan-hung, president of China (1916–17, 1922–23) *. Chiang Kai-shek, Chinese Nationalist leader (1928–48) *. Lin Sen, president of China (1932–43) *. Mao Zedong, founder of the People's Republic of China (1943–76) *. Deng Xiaoping, Chinese revolutionary and government leader (1945–89) *. Li Peng, Chinese premier (1987–98) *. Jiang Zemin, president of China (1993–2003) *. Hu Jintao, president of China (2003– )

Denmark: Kings and Queens *. Harold Bluetooth, king of Denmark (935–c. 985) *. Sweyn, king of Denmark (986–1014) *. Harthacanute, king of Denmark (1035–42) and of the English (1040–42) *. Canute the Saint, king (1080–86) and patron saint of Denmark *. Waldemar I (Waldemar the Great), king of Denmark (1157–82) *. Waldemar II, king of Denmark (1202–41) *. Waldemar IV, king of Denmark (1340–75) *. Margaret I, queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (1353–1412) *. Christian III, king of Denmark and Norway (1534–59) *. Christian IV, king of Denmark and Norway (1588–1648) *. Frederick III, king of Denmark and Norway (1648–70) *. Christian V, king of Denmark and Norway (1670–99) *. Frederick IV, king of Denmark and Norway (1699–1730) *. Frederick V, king of Denmark and Norway (1746–66) *. Christian VII, king of Denmark and Norway (1766–1808) *. Frederick VI, king of Denmark (1808–39) and Norway (1808–14) *. Christian VIII, king of Denmark (1839–48) *. Frederick VII, king of Denmark, duke of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg (1848–63) *. Christian IX, king of Denmark (1863–1906) *. Frederick VIII, king of Denmark (1906–12) *. Christian X, king of Denmark (1912–47) and Iceland (1912–44) *. Frederick IX, king of Denmark (1947–72) *. Margaret II, queen of Denmark (1972–)

Rulers of Scotland *. Kenneth I, traditional founder of the kingdom of Scotland (c. 843–858) *. Kenneth II, Scottish king (971–995) *. Macbeth, king of Scotland (1040–57) *. Malcolm III, king of Scotland (1057–93) *. Alexander I, king of Scotland (1107–24) *. David I, king of Scotland (1124–53) *. Malcolm IV, king of Scotland (1153–65) *. William the Lion, king of Scotland (1165–1214) *. Alexander II, king of Scotland (1214–49) *. Alexander III, king of Scotland (1249–86) *. Margaret Maid of Norway, queen of Scotland (1286–90) *. John de Baliol, king of Scotland (1292–96) *. Robert I, king of Scotland (1306–29) *. David II, king of Scotland (1329–34, 1341–71) *. Edward de Baliol, English-supported king of Scotland (1332–41) *. Robert II, king of Scotland (1371–90) *. Robert Stuart, regent of Scotland (1389–1399) *. Robert III, king of Scotland (1390–1406) *. David Stuart, regent of Scotland (1399–1402) *. James I, king of Scotland (1406–37) *. James II, king of Scotland (1437–60) *. James III, king of Scotland (1460–88) *. James IV, king of Scotland (1488–1513) *. James V, king of Scotland (1513–42) *. John Stuart, regent of Scotland (1515–1524) *. Mary Queen of Scots(1542–67) *.James VI, king of Scotland (1567–1625), and as James I, king of England (1603–25) *. John Erskine Mar, regent of Scotland. (1571–72)

British Prime Ministers Since 1770 Find the name, term dates, and political party affiliation of every British Prime Minister from 1770 to the present. NameTerm Lord North(Tory)1770–1782 Marquis of Rockingham(Whig)1782–1782 Earl of Shelburne(Whig)1782–1783 Duke of Portland(Coalition)1783–1783 William Pitt, the Younger(Tory)1783–1801 Henry Addington(Tory)1801–1804 William Pitt, the Younger(Tory)1804–1806 Baron Grenville(Whig)1806–1807 Duke of Portland(Tory)1807–1809 Spencer Perceval(Tory)1809–1812 Earl of Liverpool(Tory)1812–1827 George Canning(Tory)1827–1827 Viscount Goderich(Tory)1827–1828 Duke of Wellington(Tory)1828–1830 Earl Grey(Whig)1830–1834 Viscount Melbourne(Whig)1834–1834 Sir Robert Peel(Tory)1834–1835 Viscount Melbourne(Whig)1835–1841 Sir Robert Peel(Tory)1841–1846 Earl Russell(Whig)1846–1852 Earl of Derby(Tory)1852–1852 Earl of Aberdeen(Coalition)1852–1855 Viscount Palmerston(Liberal)1855–1858 Earl of Derby(Conservative)1858–1859 Viscount Palmerston(Liberal)1859–1865 Earl Russell(Liberal)1865–1866 Earl of Derby(Conservative)1866–1868 Benjamin Disraeli(Conservative)1868–1868 William E. Gladstone(Liberal)1868–1874 Benjamin Disraeli(Conservative)1874–1880 William E. Gladstone(Liberal)1880–1885 Marquis of Salisbury(Conservative)1885–1886 William E. Gladstone(Liberal)1886–1886 Marquis of Salisbury(Conservative)1886–1892 William E. Gladstone(Liberal)1892–1894 Earl of Rosebery(Liberal)1894–1895 Marquis of Salisbury(Conservative)1895–1902 Arthur James Balfour(Conservative)1902–1905 Sir H. Campbell- Bannerman(Liberal)1905–1908 Herbert H. Asquith(Liberal)1908–1915 Herbert H. Asquith(Coalition)1915–1916 David Lloyd George(Coalition)1916–1922 Andrew Bonar Law(Conservative)1922–1923 Stanley Baldwin(Conservative)1923–1924 James Ramsay MacDonald(Labour)1924–1924 Stanley Baldwin(Conservative)1924–1929 James Ramsay MacDonald(Labour)1929–1931 James Ramsay MacDonald(Coalition)1931–1935 Stanley Baldwin(Coalition)1935–1937 Neville Chamberlain(Coalition)1937–1940 Winston Churchill(Coalition)1940–1945 Clement R. Attlee(Labour)1945–1951 Sir Winston Churchill(Conservative)1951–1955 Sir Anthony Eden(Conservative)1955–1957 Harold Macmillan(Conservative)1957–1963 Sir Alec Frederick Douglas-Home (Conservative) 1963–1964 Harold Wilson(Labour)1964–1970 Edward Heath(Conservative)1970–1974 Harold Wilson(Labour)1974–1976 James Callaghan(Labour)1976–1979 Margaret Thatcher(Conservative)1979–1990 John Major(Conservative)1990–1997 Tony Blair(Labour)1997–2007 Gordon Brown(Labour)2007–2010 David Cameron(Coalition)2010–

Austria: Rulers Emperors Franz I, last Holy Roman Emperor, first Emperor of Austria (1804–1835) Ferdinand I(1835–1848) Franz Joseph I(1848–1916) Karl I, last emperor of Austria (1916–1918) PresidentsFranz Dinghofer, Johann Nepomuk Hauser, and Karl Seitz, directory of the Council of State (1918–1919) Karl Seitz, president of the Constituent National Assembly (1919–1920) Michael Hainisch(1920–1928) Wilhelm Miklas (1928–1938) Karl Renner(1945–1950) Leopold Figl (1950–1951) Theodor Körner (1951–1957) Julius Raab, acting (1957) Adolf Schärf (1957–1965) Josef Klaus, acting (1965) Franz Jonas(1965–1974) Bruno Kreisky, acting (1974) Rudolf Kirchschläger (1974–1986) Kurt Waldheim(1986–1992) Thomas Klestil (1992–2004) Heinz Fischer (2004–

Rulers of England and Great Britain Find the name, birth date, and the number of years each monarch ruled England and Great Britain. NameBornRuled1 SAXONS2 Egbert3c. 775802–839 Ethelwulf?839–858 Ethelbald?858–860 Ethelbert?860–865 Ethelred I?865–871 Alfred the Great849871–899 Edward the Elderc. 870899–924 Athelstan895924–939 Edmund I the Deed-doer921939–946 Edredc. 925946–955 Edwy the Fairc. 943955–959 Edgar the Peaceful943959–975 Edward the Martyrc. 962975–978 Ethelred II the Unready968978–1016 Edmund II Ironsidec. 9931016 DANES Canute9951016–1035 Harold I Harefootc.10161035–1040 Hardecanutec.10181040–1042 SAXONS Edward the Confessorc.10041042–1066 Harold IIc.10201066 HOUSE OF NORMANDY William I the Conqueror10271066–1087 William II Rufusc.10561087–1100 Henry I Beauclerc10681100–1135 Stephen of Boulognec.11001135–1154 HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET Henry II11331154–1189 Richard I Coeur de Lion11571189–1199 John Lackland11671199–1216 Henry III12071216–1272 Edward I Longshanks12391272–1307 Edward II12841307–1327 Edward III13121327–1377 Richard II13671377–13994 HOUSE OF LANCASTER Henry IV Bolingbroke13671399–1413 Henry V13871413–1422 Henry VI14211422–14615 HOUSE OF YORK Edward IV14421461–14835 Edward V14701483–1483 Richard III14521483–1485 HOUSE OF TUDOR Henry VII14571485–1509 Henry VIII14911509–1547 Edward VI15371547–1553 Jane (Lady Jane Grey)615371553–1553 Mary I(“Bloody Mary”)15161553–1558 Elizabeth I15331558–1603 HOUSE OF STUART James I715661603–1625 Charles I16001625–1649 COMMONWEALTH Council of State—1649–1653 Oliver Cromwell815991653–1658 Richard Cromwell816261658–16599 RESTORATION OF HOUSE OF STUART Charles II16301660–1685 James II16331685–168810 William III1116501689–1702 Mary II1116621689–1694 Anne16651702–1714 HOUSE OF HANOVERGeorge I 1660 ... HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG12 Edward VII18411901–1910 HOUSE OF WINDSOR12 George V18651910–1936 Edward VIII1894193613 George VI18951936–1952 Elizabeth II19261952– 1. Year of end of rule is also that of death, unless otherwise indicated. 2. Dates for Saxon kings are still controversial. 3. Became king of West Saxons in 802; considered (from 828) first king of all England. 4. Died 1400. 5. Henry VI reigned again briefly 1470–1471. 6. Nominal queen for 9 days; not counted as queen by some authorities. She was beheaded in 1554. 7. Ruled in Scotland as James VI (1567–1625). 8. Lord Protector. 9. Died 1712. 10. Died 1701. 11. Joint rulers (1689–1694). 12. Name changed from Saxe-Coburg to Windsor in 1917. 13. Was known after his abdication as the Duke of Windsor, died 1972.

Australia: Prime Ministers Prime Ministers Edmund Barton(1901–1903) Alfred Deakin(1903–1904, 1905–1908, 1909–1910) John Christian Watson (1904) George Huston Reid (1904–1905) Andrew Fisher(1908–1909, 1910–1913, 1914–1915) Joseph Cook(1913–1914) William Morris Hughes(1915–1923) Stanley Melbourne Bruce(1923–1929) James Henry Scullin (1929–1932) Joseph Aloysius Lyons(1932–1939) Sir Earle Page, acting (1939) Robert Gordon Menzies(1939–1941, 1949–1966) Arthur William Fadden (1941) John Curtin(1941–1945) Francis Michael Forde (1945) Joseph Benedict Chifley (1945–1949) Harold Holt(1966–1967) John McEwen (1967–1968) John Grey Gorton (1968–1971) William McMahon (1971–1972) Gough Whitlam(1972–1975) Malcolm Fraser (1975–1983) Robert J. Hawke(1983–1991) Paul Keating(1991–1996) John Howard(1996– )

Africa: Rulers (part 2 of 2): Selected Rulers from Other African Nations (alphabetical by last name) *. Ahmadou Ahidjo, president of the United Republic of Cameroon (1960–82) *. Pietro Badoglio, governor of Tripolitania (Libya) (1929–33) *. Italo Balbo, governor-general of Libya (1933–40) *. Hastings Kamuzu Banda, African political leader, president of Malawi (1966–94) *. Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali, president of Tunisia (1987–) *. Ahmed Ben Bella, Algerian Prime Minister (1962–63), president (1962–65) *. Jean Bedel Bokassa, president of Central African Republic (1966–79) *. Houari Boumedienne, president and prime minister of Algeria (1965–78) *. Ketchwayo Cetshwayo, king of the Zulus (1872–79) *. David Dacko, president of the Central African Republic (1960–66, 1979–81) *. Moktar Ould Daddah, president of Mauritania (1961–78) *. José Eduardo Dos Santos, Angolan president (1979–) *. Félix Éboué, commissioner-General of French Congo and French Equatorial Africa (1941–44) *. Gnassingbé Eyadéma, president of Togo (1967–) *. Yakubu Gowon, Nigerian head of state (1966–75) *. Rodolfo Graziani, Marchese Di Neghelli, governor of Cyrenaica, Libya (1930–34), Governor-General (1940–41) *. Teshafi Teezaz Aklilu Habte-Wold, prime minister of Ethiopia (1961–74) *. Félix Houphouët- Boigny, African political leader, president (1960–93) of Côte d'Ivoire. *. Idris I, king of Libya (1951–69) *. Joseph Leabua Jonathan, prime minister of Lesotho (1965–86) *. Jugurtha, king of Numidia (118–106B.C.) *. Kenneth David Kaunda, African political leader, president of Zambia (1964–91) *. Jomo Kenyatta, African political leader, first president of Kenya (1964–78) *. Khama, chief of the Bamangwato people of Bechuanaland (now Botswana) (1875–1923?) *. Sir Seretse Khama, president of Botswana (1966–80) *. Seyni Kountché, president of Niger(1974–87) *. Hilla Limann, president of Ghana (1979–81) *. Lobengula, king of Matabeleland (now in Zimbabwe) (1870–93) *. Samora Machel, president of Mozambique (1975–86) *. Sir Milton Margai, prime minister of Sierra Leone (1961–64) *. Mengistu Haile Mariam, president of Ethiopia (1987–91) *. Masinissa, king of Numidia (c. 238 – 148?B.C.) *. Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia after 1889 *. Pierre Messmer, high commissioner of French Congo and French Equatorial Africa (1958) *. Daniel T. arap Moi, president of Kenya (1978–) *. Robert Gabriel Mugabe, president of Zimbabwe (1987–) *. Mutesa I, kabaka, or king, of Buganda (now in Uganda), c.1857–84 *. Agostinho Neto, first president of independent Angola (1975–79) *. Francisco Macias Nguema, first president of Equatorial Guinea (1968–79) *. Kwame Nkrumah, African political leader, prime minister (1957–60) and president (1960–66) of Ghana *. Julius Kambarage Nyerere, African political leader, first president (1964–85) of Tanzania *. Apollo Milton Obote, president of Uganda (1966–71, 1980–85) *. Sylvanus Olympio, African political leader, president of Togo (1961–63) *. Muammar Al-Qaddafi, de facto Libyan Head of State (1969–) *. Radama I, founder of the kingdom of Madagascar *. Denis Sassou- Nguesso, Congolese army officer and president of the Congo (Brazzaville) (1979–92, 1997–) *. Haile Selassie, emperor of Ethiopia (1930–74) *. Léopold Sédar Senghor, African statesman and poet, president (1960–80) of the republic of Senegal *. Alhaji Shehu Shagari, president of Nigeria (1979–83) *. Shaka, paramount chief (1818–28) of the Zulus *. Ian D. Smith, prime minister of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) (1964–65), prime minister of Rhodesia (1965–79) *. Sobhuza II, king of Swaziland (1921–82) *. Siaka Probyn Stevens, president of Sierra Leone (1971–85) *. Tewodros II, emperor of Ethiopia (1855–68) *. William Richard Tolbert, Jr., president of Liberia (1971–80) *. Ahmed Sékou Touré, African political leader, president (1958–84) of the republic of Guinea *. Philibert Tsiranana, president of the Malagasy Republic (now Madagascar) (1960–72) *. William Vacanarat Shadrach Tubman, president of Liberia (1944–71) *. Maxime Weygand, Algerian Governor-General (1941) *. Fulbert Youlou, first president of the Congo (Brazzaville) (1960–63)

Africa: Rulers (part 1 of 2): Congo: Rulers *.Theophile Theodore Joseph Antoine Baron Wahis, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1900–12) *.Felix Alexandre Fuch, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1912–16) *.Eugene Joseph Marie Henry, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1916–21) *.Maurice Eugene Auguste Lippens, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1921–23) *.Martin Joseph Marie René Rutten, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1923–27) *.Auguste Constant Tilkens, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1927–34) *.Pierre Marie Joseph Ryckmans, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1934–46) *.Eugène Jacques Pierre Louis Jungers, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1946–51) *.Léon Antoine Marie Petillon, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1951–58) *.Henri Arthur Adolf Marie Christopher Cornelis, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1958–60) *. Patrice Emergy Lumumba, prime minister of the Republic of the Congo (1960) *. Moise Tshombe, president of Katanga (1960–61), prime minister of the Republic of the Congo (1964–65) *. Joseph Kasavubu, president of the Republic of the Congo (1960–65) *. Mobutu Sese Seko, president of Zaïre (1965–97) *. Laurent Kabila, president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (1997–2001) *. Joseph Kabila, son of Laurent, president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (2001–) Morocco: Rulers *. Yakub I, ruler of Morocco (1184–99) and Moorish Spain. *. Ismail, sultan of Morocco (1672–1727) *. Abd ar-Rahman, sultan of Morocco (1822–59) *. Hassan, sultan of Morocco (1873–94) *. Abd al-Aziz IV, sultan of Morocco (1894–1908) *. Abd al-Hafiz, sultan of Morocco (1908–12) *.Yusuf, sultan of Morocco (1912–27) *. Muhammad V, sultan of Morocco (1927–53, 1955–57), king of Morocco (1957–61) *.Muhammad VI, sultan of Morocco (1953–55) *.Council of Throne Guardians (1955) *. Hassan II, king of Morocco (1961–1999) *.Muhammad VI, king of Morocco (1999–) South Africa: Rulers *. Sir John Henry Brand, South African politician, president of the Orange Free State (1864–71) *. Stephanus Johannes Paulus Krüger, president of Transvaal (1883–1902) *. Martinus Theunis Steyn, last president (1896–1900) of the Orange Free State *.Hamilton John Goold-Adams, governor of the Orange Free State (1901–02, 1907–10) *. Sir Alfred Milner, governor of Cape Colony (1897–1901), governor of Orange River Colony, Orange Free State (1902–05), governor of Transvaal (1902) *.Sir John Gordon Sprigg, premier of Cape Colony (1900–04) *.Sir Walter Francis Hely-Hutchinson, governor of Natal (1893–1901), governor of Cape Colony (1901–09) *.Sir Henry Edward McCallum, governor of Natal (1901–07) *. Leander Starr Jameson, premier of Cape Colony (1904–08) *.William Waldegrave Palmer, Earl of Selborne, governor of the Orange Free State (1905–07), governor of Transvaal (1906–10) *.Sir Matthew Nathan, governor of Natal (1907–10) *.John Xavier Merriman, premier of Cape Colony (1908–10) *.Paul Sandford, Baron Methuen of Corsham, governor of Natal (1910) *. Herbert John Gladstone, Viscount Gladstone, governor-general of South Africa (1910–14) *. Louis Botha, prime minister of South Africa (1910–19) *.Sydney Charles Buxton, Viscount Buxton, governor-general of South Africa (1914–20) *. Jan Christian Smuts, prime minister of South Africa (1919–24, 1939–48 *.Arthur Frederick Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught, governor-general of South Africa (1920–24) *.Alexander, Earl of Athlone, governor-general of South Africa (1924–31) *. James Hertzog, prime minister of South Africa (1924–39) *.George Herbert Hyde Villiers, Earl of Clarendon, governor-general of South Africa (1931–37) *.Sir Patrick Duncan, governor-general of South Africa (1937–43) *.Nicolaas Jacobus de Wet, acting governor-general of South Africa (1943–46) *.Gideon Brand van Zyl, governor-general of South Africa (1946–51) *. Daniel F. Malan, prime minister of South Africa, (1948–54) *.Ernest George Jansen, governor-general of South Africa (1951–59) *.Johannes G. Strijdom, prime minister of South Africa (1954–58) *.Charles Robberts Swart, governor-general of South Africa (1959–61), president of South Africa (1961–67) *. Hendrik F. Verwoerd, prime minister of South Africa (1958–66) *.Jozua François Naudé, acting president of South Africa (1967–68) *.Jacobus Johannes Fouché, president of South Africa (1968–75) *.Nicolaas J. Diederichs, president of South Africa (1975–78) *.Marais Viljoen, president of South Africa (1978, 1979–84) *. B. J. Vorster, prime minister of South Africa (1966–78), governor-general of South Africa (1978–79) *. Pieter Willem Botha, prime minister of South Africa (1978–84), governor-general of South Africa (1984–89) *.J. Christian Heunis, acting president of South Africa (1989) *. Frederik Willem de Klerk, South African president (1989–94) *. Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela, South African president (1994–1999) *. Thabo Mbeki, South African president (1999–)

Africa: Rulers Congo: Rulers *.Theophile Theodore Joseph Antoine Baron Wahis, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1900–12) *.Felix Alexandre Fuch, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1912–16) *.Eugene Joseph Marie Henry, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1916–21) *.Maurice Eugene Auguste Lippens, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1921–23) *.Martin Joseph Marie René Rutten, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1923–27) *.Auguste Constant Tilkens, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1927–34) *.Pierre Marie Joseph Ryckmans, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1934–46) *.Eugène Jacques Pierre Louis Jungers, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1946–51) *.Léon Antoine Marie Petillon, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1951–58) *.Henri Arthur Adolf Marie Christopher Cornelis, governor-general of the Belgian Congo (1958–60) *. Patrice Emergy Lumumba, prime minister of the Republic of the Congo (1960) *. Moise Tshombe, president of Katanga (1960–61), prime minister of the Republic of the Congo (1964–65) *. Joseph Kasavubu, president of the Republic of the Congo (1960–65) *. Mobutu Sese Seko, president of Zaïre (1965–97) *. Laurent Kabila, president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (1997–2001) *. Joseph Kabila, son of Laurent, president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (2001–) Morocco: Rulers *. Yakub I, ruler of Morocco (1184–99) and Moorish Spain. *. Ismail, sultan of Morocco (1672–1727) *. Abd ar-Rahman, sultan of Morocco (1822–59) *. Hassan, sultan of Morocco (1873–94) *. Abd al-Aziz IV, sultan of Morocco (1894–1908) *. Abd al-Hafiz, sultan of Morocco (1908–12) *.Yusuf, sultan of Morocco (1912–27) *. Muhammad V, sultan of Morocco (1927–53, 1955–57), king of Morocco (1957–61) *.Muhammad VI, sultan of Morocco (1953–55) *.Council of Throne Guardians (1955) *. Hassan II, king of Morocco (1961–1999) *.Muhammad VI, king of Morocco (1999–) South Africa: Rulers *. Sir John Henry Brand, South African politician, president of the Orange Free State (1864–71) *. Stephanus Johannes Paulus Krüger, president of Transvaal (1883–1902) *. Martinus Theunis Steyn, last president (1896–1900) of the Orange Free State *.Hamilton John Goold-Adams, governor of the Orange Free State (1901–02, 1907–10) *. Sir Alfred Milner, governor of Cape Colony (1897–1901), governor of Orange River Colony, Orange Free State (1902–05), governor of Transvaal (1902) *.Sir John Gordon Sprigg, premier of Cape Colony (1900–04) *.Sir Walter Francis Hely-Hutchinson, governor of Natal (1893–1901), governor of Cape Colony (1901–09) *.Sir Henry Edward McCallum, governor of Natal (1901–07) *. Leander Starr Jameson, premier of Cape Colony (1904–08) *.William Waldegrave Palmer, Earl of Selborne, governor of the Orange Free State (1905–07), governor of Transvaal (1906–10) *.Sir Matthew Nathan, governor of Natal (1907–10) *.John Xavier Merriman, premier of Cape Colony (1908–10) *.Paul Sandford, Baron Methuen of Corsham, governor of Natal (1910) *. Herbert John Gladstone, Viscount Gladstone, governor-general of South Africa (1910–14) *. Louis Botha, prime minister of South Africa (1910–19) *.Sydney Charles Buxton, Viscount Buxton, governor-general of South Africa (1914–20) *. Jan Christian Smuts, prime minister of South Africa (1919–24, 1939–48 *.Arthur Frederick Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught, governor-general of South Africa (1920–24) *.Alexander, Earl of Athlone, governor-general of South Africa (1924–31) *. James Hertzog, prime minister of South Africa (1924–39) *.George Herbert Hyde Villiers, Earl of Clarendon, governor-general of South Africa (1931–37) *.Sir Patrick Duncan, governor-general of South Africa (1937–43) *.Nicolaas Jacobus de Wet, acting governor-general of South Africa (1943–46) *.Gideon Brand van Zyl, governor-general of South Africa (1946–51) *. Daniel F. Malan, prime minister of South Africa, (1948–54) *.Ernest George Jansen, governor-general of South Africa (1951–59) *.Johannes G. Strijdom, prime minister of South Africa (1954–58) *.Charles Robberts Swart, governor-general of South Africa (1959–61), president of South Africa (1961–67) *. Hendrik F. Verwoerd, prime minister of South Africa (1958–66) *.Jozua François Naudé, acting president of South Africa (1967–68) *.Jacobus Johannes Fouché, president of South Africa (1968–75) *.Nicolaas J. Diederichs, president of South Africa (1975–78) *.Marais Viljoen, president of South Africa (1978, 1979–84) *. B. J. Vorster, prime minister of South Africa (1966–78), governor-general of South Africa (1978–79) *. Pieter Willem Botha, prime minister of South Africa (1978–84), governor-general of South Africa (1984–89) *.J. Christian Heunis, acting president of South Africa (1989) *. Frederik Willem de Klerk, South African president (1989–94) *. Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela, South African president (1994–1999) *. Thabo Mbeki, South African president (1999–)

Holy Roman Empire: Emperors *. Charlemagne(Charles I), emperor of the West (800–814), Carolingian king of the Franks (768–814) *. Charles II, emperor of the West (875–77) and king of the West Franks (843–77) *. Otto I, Holy Roman emperor (962–73) and German king (936–73) *. Otto II, Holy Roman emperor (973–83) and German king (961–83) *. Otto III, Holy Roman emperor (996–1002) and German king (983–1002) *. Henry II, Holy Roman emperor (1014–24) and German king (1002–24), last of the Saxon line *. Conrad II, Holy Roman emperor (1027–39) and German king (1024–39), first of the Salian dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire *. Henry III, Holy Roman emperor (1046–56) and German king (1039–56) *. Henry IV, Holy Roman emperor (1084–1105) and German king (1056–1105) *. Henry V, Holy Roman emperor (1111–25) and German king (1105–25) *. Lothair II, also called Lothair III, Holy Roman emperor (1133–37) and German king (1125–37) *. Frederick I, Holy Roman emperor (1155–90) and German king (1152–90) *. Henry VI, Holy Roman emperor (1191–97) and German king (1190–97) *. Constance, Holy Roman empress, wife of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI *. Otto IV, Holy Roman emperor (1209–15) and German king (1208–15) *. Frederick II, Holy Roman emperor (1220–50) and German king (1212–20), king of Sicily (1197–1250), and king of Jerusalem (1229–50) *. Henry VII, Holy Roman emperor (1312–13) and German king (1308–13) *. Louis IV, Holy Roman emperor (1328–47) and German king (1314–47), duke of Upper Bavaria *. Charles IV, Holy Roman emperor (1355–78), German king (1347–78), and king of Bohemia (1346–78) *. Wenceslaus, Holy Roman emperor (uncrowned) and German king (1378–1400), king of Bohemia (1378–1419) as Wenceslaus IV, elector of Brandenburg (1373–76) *. Sigismund, Holy Roman emperor (1433–37), German king (1410–37), king of Hungary (1387–1437) and of Bohemia (1419–37), elector of Brandenburg (1376–1415) *. Frederick III, Holy Roman emperor (1452–93) and German king (1440–93) *. Maximilian I, Holy Roman emperor and German king (1493–1519) *. Charles V, Holy Roman emperor (1519–58) and, as Charles I, king of Spain (1516–56) *. Ferdinand I, Holy Roman emperor (1558–64), king of Bohemia (1526–64) and of Hungary (1526–64) *. Maximilian II, Holy Roman emperor (1564–76), king of Bohemia (1562–76) and of Hungary (1563–76) *. Rudolf II, Holy Roman emperor (1576–1612), king of Bohemia (1575–1611) and of Hungary (1572–1608) *. Matthias, Holy Roman emperor (1612–19), king of Bohemia (1611–17) and of Hungary (1608–18) *. Ferdinand II, Holy Roman emperor (1619–37), king of Bohemia (1617–37) and of Hungary (1618–37) *. Ferdinand III, Holy Roman emperor (1637–57), king of Hungary (1626–57) and of Bohemia (1627–57) *. Leopold I, Holy Roman emperor (1658–1705), king of Bohemia (1656–1705) and of Hungary (1655–1705) *. Joseph I, Holy Roman emperor (1705–11), king of Hungary (1687–1711) and of Bohemia (1705–11) *. Charles VI, Holy Roman emperor (1711–40), king of Bohemia (1711–40) and, as Charles III, king of Hungary (1712–40) *. Charles VII, Holy Roman emperor (1742–45) and, as Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria (1726–45) *. Francis I, Holy Roman emperor (1745–65), duke of Lorraine (1729–37) as Francis Stephen, grand duke of Tuscany (1737–65) *. Joseph II, Holy Roman emperor (1765–90), king of Bohemia and Hungary (1780–90) *. Leopold II, Holy Roman emperor (1790–92), king of Bohemia and Hungary (1790–92), as Leopold I grand duke of Tuscany (1765–90) *. Francis II, last Holy Roman emperor (1792–1806), first emperor of Austria as Francis I (1804–35), king of Bohemia and of Hungary (1792–1835)

Byzantium: Emperors *. Leo I, Byzantine or East Roman emperor (457–74) *. Justin I, Byzantine emperor (518–27) *. Justinian I, Byzantine emperor (527–65) *. Theodora, Byzantine empress (527–48) *. Justin II, Byzantine emperor (565–78) *. Maurice, Byzantine emperor (582–602) *. Heraclius, Byzantine emperor (610–41) *. Constans II, Byzantine emperor (641–68) *. Constantine IV, Byzantine emperor (668–85) *. Justinian II, Byzantine emperor (685–95, 705–11) *. Leo III, Byzantine emperor (717–41) *. Constantine V, Byzantine emperor (741–75) *. Leo IV, Byzantine emperor (775–80) *. Constantine VI, Byzantine emperor (780–97) *. Irene, Byzantine empress (797–802) *. Nicephorus I, Byzantine emperor (802–11) *. Michael I, Byzantine emperor (811–13) *. Leo V, Byzantine emperor (813–20) *. Michael II, Byzantine emperor (820–29) *. Michael III, Byzantine emperor (842–67) *. Basil I, Byzantine emperor (867–86) *. Leo VI, Byzantine emperor (886–912) *. Constantine VII, Byzantine emperor (913–59) *. Romanus I, Byzantine emperor (usurper) (920–44) *. Romanus II, Byzantine emperor (959–63) *. Nicephorus II (Nicephorus Phocas), Byzantine emperor (963–69) *. John I (John Tzimisces), Byzantine emperor (969–76) *. Basil II, Byzantine emperor (976–1025) *. Romanus III (Romanus Argyrus), Byzantine emperor (1028–34) *. Zoë, Byzantine empress (1028–50) *. Comnenus, family name of several Byzantine emperors in the 11th and 12th centuries *. Isaac I (Isaac Comnenus), Byzantine emperor (1057–59), first of the Comneni dynasty *. Romanus IV (Romanus Diogenes), Byzantine emperor (1068–71) *. Alexius I (Alexius Comnenus), Byzantine emperor (1081–1118) *. John II (John Comnenus), Byzantine emperor (1118–43) *. Manuel I (Manuel Comnenus), Byzantine emperor (1143–80) *. Alexius II, Byzantine emperor (1180–83) *. Andronicus I (Andronicus Comnenus), Byzantine emperor (1183–85) *. Isaac II (Isaac Angelus), Byzantine emperor (1185–95, 1203–04) *. Alexius III (Alexius Angelus), Byzantine emperor (1195–1203) *. Alexius IV, Byzantine emperor (1203–04) *. Alexius V (Alexius Ducas Mourtzouphlos), Byzantine emperor (1204) *. Baldwin I, first Latin emperor of Constantinople (1204–05) *. Theodore I, Byzantine emperor of Nicaea (1204–22) *. Robert of Courtenay, Latin emperor of Constantinople (1218–28) *. John III (John Ducas Vatatzes), Byzantine emperor of Nicaea (1222–54) *. Theodore II, Byzantine emperor of Nicaea (1254–58) *. Baldwin II, last Latin emperor of Constantinople (1228–61) *. John IV (John Lascaris), Byzantine emperor of Nicaea (1258–61) *. Michael VIII, Byzantine emperor (1261–82), first of the Palaeologusdynasty *. Andronicus II (Andronicus Palaeologus), Byzantine emperor (1282–1328) *. Andronicus III, Byzantine emperor (1328–41) *. John V (John Palaeologus), Byzantine emperor (1341–91) *. John VI (John Cantacuzene), Byzantine emperor (1347–54) *. John VII (John Palaeologus), Byzantine emperor (1390, 1399–1402) *. Manuel II, Byzantine emperor (1391–1425) *. John VIII, Byzantine emperor (1425–48) *. Constantine XI, last Byzantine emperor (1449–53)

Roman Republic and Roman Empire: Rulers Roman Republic *. Cato the Elder,statesman (234–149B.C.) *. Gracchi, (Tiberius Sempronius Graccus [d. 133B.C.] and Caius Sempronius Gracchus [d. 121B.C.], statesmen and social reformers *. Caius Marius, general and consul (157–86B.C.) *. Lucius Cornelius Sulla, general and consul (138–78B.C.) *. Pompey, general and member of First Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Crassus (106–48B.C.) *. Marcus Licinius Crassus, member of First Triumvirate with Caesar and Pompey (d. 53B.C.) *. Cato the Younger, statesman (95–46B.C.) *. Julius Caesar, general and statesman (100?–44B.C.) *. Marc Antony, politician and soldier, member of Second Triumvirate with Lepidus and Octavian (Augustus) (83–30B.C.) *. Lepidus, member of Second Triumvirate with Marc Antony and Octavian (d. 13B.C.) Roman Empire *. Augustus, (Octavian) first emperor, grandnephew of Julius Caesar, (27B.C.–A.D.14) *. Tiberius, stepson of Augustus, (14–37) *. Caligula, grandnephew of Tiberius (37–41) *. Claudius, uncle of Caligula (41–54) *. Nero, stepson of Claudius (54–68) *. Galba, proclaimed emperor by his soldiers (68–69) *. Otho, military commander (69) *. Vitellius, military commander (69) *. Vespasian, military commander (69–79) *. Titus, son of Vespasian (79–81) *. Domitian, son of Vespasian (81–96) *. Nerva, elected interim ruler (96-98) *. Trajan, adopted son of Nerva (98–117) *. Hadrian, ward of Trajan (117–138) *. Antoninus Pius, adopted by Hadrian (138–161) *. Marcus Aurelius, adopted by Antoninus Pius (161–180) *.Lucius Verus, adopted by Antoninus Pius; ruled jointly with Marcus Aurelius (161–169) *. Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius (180–192) *. Pertinax, proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard (193) *. Didius Julianus, bought office from the Praetorian Guard (193) *. Severus, proclaimed emperor (193–211) *. Caracalla, son of Severus (211–217) *.Geta, son of Severus, ruled jointly with Caracalla (211–212) *. Macrinus, proclaimed emperor by his soldiers (217–18) *. Heliogabalus, cousin of Caracalla (218–222) *. Alexander Severus, cousin of Heliogabalus (222–235) *. Maximin, proclaimed emperor by soldiers, (235–238) *. Gordian I, made emperor by the senate (238) *. Gordian II, son of Gordian I, ruled jointly with his father (238) *.Balbinus, elected joint emperor by the senate (238) *.Pupienus Maximus, elected joint emperor with Balbinus by the senate (238) *. Gordian III, son of Gordian II (238–244) *. Philip (the Arabian), assassin of Gordian III (244–249) *. Decius, proclaimed emperor by the soldiers (249–2251) *.Hostilianus, son of Decius, colleague of Gallus (251) *. Gallus, military commander (251–253) *.Aemilianus, military commander (253) *. Valerian, military commander (253–260) *. Gallienus, son of Valerian, coemperor with his father and later sole emperor (253–268) *. Claudius II, military commander (268–270) *. Aurelian, chosen by Claudius II as successor (270–275) *. Tacitus, chosen by the senate (275–276) *.Florianus, half brother of Tacitus (276) *. Probus, military commander (276–282) *. Carus, proclaimed by the Praetorian Guard (282–283) *. Carinus, son of Carus (283–285) *.Numerianus, son of Carus, joint emperor with Carinus (283–284) *. Diocletian, military commander, divided the empire; ruled jointly with Maximian and Constantius I 284–305) *. Maximian, appointed joint emperor by Diocletian (286–305) *. Constantius I, joint emperor and successor of Diocletian (305–306) *. Galerius, joint emperor with Constantius I (305–310) *. Maximin, nephew of Galerius (308–313) *. Licinius, appointed emperor in the West by Galerius; later emperor in the East (308–324) *. Maxentius, son of Maximian (306–312) *. Constantine I (the Great), son of Constantius I (306–337) *. Constantine II, son of Constantine I (337–340) *. Constans, son of Constantine I (337–350) *. Constantius II, son of Constantine I (337–361) *.Magnentius, usurped Constans' throne, (350–353) *. Julian (the Apostate), nephew of Constantine I (361–363) *. Jovian, elected by the army (363–364) *. Valentinian I, proclaimed by the army; ruled in the West (364–375) *. Valens, brother of Valentinian I; ruled in the East (364–378) *. Gratian, son of Valentinian I; coruler in the West with Valentinian II (375–383) *. Maximus, usurper in the West (383–388) *. Valentinian II, son of Valentinian I, ruler of the West (375–392) *.Eugenius, usurper in the West (393–394) *. Theodosius I (the Great), appointed ruler of the East (379–395) by Gratian; last ruler of united empire (394–395) Emperors in the East *. Arcadius, son of Theodosius I (395–408) *. Theodosius II, son of Arcadius, (408–450) *. Marcian, brother-in-law of Theodosius II (450–457) *. Leo I, chosen by the senate (457–474) *.Leo II, grandson of Leo I (474) *. Zeno(474–475) *. Basilicus(475–476) Emperors in the West *. Honorius, son of Theodosius (395–423) *.Maximus, usurper in Spain (409–411) *. Constantius III, named joint emperor by Honorius (421)

Ancient Persia: Kings *. Cambyses, two kings of the Achaemeniddynasty of Persia (c. 600–500B.C.) *. Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, founder of the greatness of the Achaemenidsand of the Persian Empire (c. 559–529B.C.) *. Darius I (Darius the Great), king of ancient Persia (521–486B.C.) *. Xerxes I (Xerxes the Great), king of ancient Persia (486–465B.C.) *. Artaxerxes I, king of ancient Persia (464–425B.C.), of the dynasty of the Achaemenis *. Xerxes II, king of ancient Persia (424B.C.) *. Darius II, king of ancient Persia (423?–404B.C.) *. Tissaphernes, Persian satrap of coastal Asia Minor (c.413–395B.C.) *. Artaxerxes II, king of ancient Persia (404–358B.C.) *. Mausolus, Persian satrap, ruler over Caria (c.376–353B.C.) *. Artaxerxes III, king of ancient Persia (358–338B.C.) *. Darius III (Darius Codomannus), king of ancient Persia (336–330B.C.) *. Tiridates, king of Parthia (c.248–211B.C.), second ruler of the Arsacid dynasty *. Shapur I, king of Persia (241–72) *. Shapur II, king of Persia (310–79), of the Sassanid, or Sassanian, dynasty *. Ardashir II, king of Persia (379–83), of the Sassanid, or Sassanian, dynasty *. Shapur III, king of Persia (383–88), of the Sassanid, or Sassanian, dynasty *. Khosrow I (Khosrow Anüshirvan), king of Persia (531–79) *. Khosrow II (Khosrow Parviz), king of Persia of the Sassanid, or Sassanian, dynasty (590–628)

Ancient Greece and Macedon: Rulers *. Draco, Athenian politician (c. 621B.C.) *. Solon, chief magistrate of Athens (594–546B.C.) *. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens (605?–527B.C.) *. Hippias, tyrant of Athens (527–510B.C.) *. Hipparchus, tyrant of Athens (c. 555–514B.C.) *. Themistocles, Athenian statesman (c. 525–462B.C.) *. Cimon, Athenian general and statesman (d. 449B.C.) *. Cleisthenes, democratic ruler of Athens (506B.C.) *. Pericles, Athenian statesman (c. 495-429B.C.) *. Cleon, Athenian statesman (d. 422B.C.) *. Alcibiades, Athenian statesman, (c. 450–404B.C.) *. Agesilaus II, king of Sparta (c. 444–360B.C.) *. Agis, name of four Spartan kings *. Philip II, king of Macedon and Greece (359–336B.C.) *. Alexander the Great, , king of Macedon and much of Asia, (356–323B.C.) *. Lysimachus, general of Alexander the Great, ruler of Thrace, west Asia Minor, and Macedonia, (c. 355–281B.C.) *. Cassander, king of Macedon (358–297B.C.) *. Demetrius I, king of Macedon (c. 337–283B.C.) *. Antigonus II, king of Macedon (c. 320-239B.C.) *. Demetrius II, king of Macedon (c. 239–229B.C.) *. Antigonus III, king of Macedon (d. 221B.C.) *. Cleomenes III, king of Sparta (235–221B.C.) *. Philip V, king of Macedon (221–179B.C.) *. Perseus, last king of Macedon (179–168B.C.)

Ancient Egypt: Rulers *. Amenemhet I, king of ancient Egypt, founder of the XII dynasty (2000–1970B.C.) *. Sesostris I, king of ancient Egypt, second ruler of the XII dynasty (1980–1926B.C.) *. Amasis I, king of ancient Egypt (c.1570–1545B.C.), founder of the XVIII dynasty *. Thutmose I, king of ancient Egypt (1525–1495B.C.), third ruler of the XVIII dynasty *. Hatshepsut, queen of ancient Egypt (1486–1468B.C.), of the XVIII dynasty *. Ikhnaton, king of ancient Egypt (c.1372–1354B.C.), of the XVIII dynasty *. Ramses, name of several kings of ancient Egypt of the XIX and XX dynasties *. Horemheb, king of ancient Egypt (c.1342–c.1303B.C.), founder of the XIX dynasty *. Seti I, king of ancient Egypt (1302–1290B.C.), of the XIX dynasty *. Merneptah, king of ancient Egypt (1224–1215B.C.), of the XIX dynasty *. Sheshonk I, king of ancient Egypt (950–924?B.C.), founder of the XXII (Libyan) dynasty *. Piankhi, king of ancient Nubia(c.741–c.715B.C.) *. Taharka, king of ancient Egypt (688–663B.C.), last ruler of the XXV dynasty *. Psamtik, king of ancient Egypt (661–609B.C.), founder of the XXVI dynasty *. Apries, king of ancient Egypt (588–569B.C.), of the XXVI dynasty *. Amasis II, king of ancient Egypt (569–525B.C.), of the XXVI dynasty *. Ptolemy I (Ptolemy Soter), king of ancient Egypt (323–284B.C.), the first ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (or Lagid dynasty) *. Ptolemy II (Ptolemy Philadelphus), king of ancient Egypt (285–246B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Berenice, queen of ancient Cyrene and Egypt (273–221B.C.) *. Ptolemy III (Ptolemy Euergetes), king of ancient Egypt (246–221B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy IV (Ptolemy Philopator), king of ancient Egypt (221–205B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy V (Ptolemy Epiphanes), king of ancient Egypt (205–180B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy VI (Ptolemy Philometor), king of ancient Egypt (180–145B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy VII (Ptolemy Physcon), king of ancient Egypt (145–116B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy VIII (Ptolemy Lathyrus), king of ancient Egypt (116–107B.C., 88–81B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy IX, king of ancient Egypt (107–88B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy X, king of ancient Egypt (80B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Cleopatra, queen of Egypt (69–30B.C.) *. Ptolemy XI (Ptolemy Auletes), king of ancient Egypt (80–58B.C., 55–51B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy XII, king of ancient Egypt (51–47B.C.), of the Macedonian dynasty *. Ptolemy XIII, king of ancient Egypt (47–44B.C.), the last of the Macedonian dynasty

Pentagon History World's largest office building has distinctive past The world's largest office building, the Pentagon is synonymous with the Department of Defenseand a symbol of American military might. Exactly 60 years before the September 2001 attacks, on September 11, 1941, ground was broken in Arlington Country, Virginia, for a huge new building to house the War Department, forerunner of today's Department of Defense. The department was then operating from 17 separate buildings in Washington. Pearl Harbor Alters Plans At certain periods 13,000 people worked on the project. Originally, plans called for three floors, but as the military prepared for war after the attack on Pearl Harbor, two more floors were added. To conserve steel, concrete ramps were used in place of elevators and the outside walls were made of reinforced concrete. The Pentagon was built in "stripped classical" style, a variation of Greek and Roman classicism popular in the middle of the 20th century and often used for government buildings. On January 15, 1943, just 16 months after construction began, the Pentagon was completed. In April, occupants began moving in. Including outside facilities, the project cost about $83,000,000. Five Sides, Five Layers, Five Floors Since five roads surrounded the site, builders chose a five-sided building, which is how the Pentagon got its name. The building consists of five concentric rings connected by ten corridors that run, like spokes, from the inner ring to the outer. Interior courtyards that provide light separate the rings. The corridors are a total of 17.5 miles long, while the building provides a gross floor area of 6,500,000 square feet. There are 3,800,000 square feet for offices, concessions, and storage. The five-sided center courtyard covers five acres. A shopping concourse, numerous snack bars, cafeterias, dining rooms, banks, a subway station, and a bus platform make the Pentagon "a city within a city." Massive Dimensions The structure is supported by 41,492 concrete piles. There are five floors, plus mezzanines and basements. The building itself is 77 feet, 3.5 inches high. Each outside wall is 921 feet long. More than seven acres of glass went into the 7,754 windows in the Pentagon. There are 16,250 light fixtures, with some 250 bulb replacements made each day. There are 7,000 electric clock outlets, 691 drinking fountains, 131 stairways, 19 escalators, 13 elevators, 672 firehouse cabinets, and 284 rest rooms. The Pentagon site covers a total of 583 acres, while the building itself sits on 29 acres. The Pentagon's sewage treatment plant and the heating and refrigeration unit each cover one acre. The parking lot is 67 acres and has spaces for 8,770 vehicles. Miles of Cables Thirty miles of access highway and 21 bridges and overpasses were built to connect the complex to nearby roads. Some 100,000 miles of telephone cable handle the 200,000 phone calls made at the Pentagon each day. The Defense Post Office handles 1,200,000 pieces of mail each month. At its peak during World War II, 33,000 people worked in the Pentagon. A Historic Landmark In 1992, the Pentagon became a national historic landmark. Architects noted the building's unusual shape, facades, courtyard, two terraces, and its history as significant characteristics. September 11 Attack In 1990, a major renovation plan was approved, calling for the building to be gutted, asbestos removed, and new plumbing, wiring, and other features installed in compliance with current building codes. The plane that crashed into the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, hit a section that had recently been renovated and was still only partially occupied. Authorities say the death toll of 189 would have likely been much higher if the area had been fully occupied. The crash caused a gash on the west side of the Pentagon measuring 30 yards wide and 10 yards deep; 185,693 square feet were damaged and 37,161 square feet were destroyed. Three of the five Pentagon rings were damaged. It cost $501 million to repair the building; repairs were finished within a year of the attack.

Arlington National Cemetery Arlington National Cemetery occupies 612 acres in Virginiaon the Potomac River, directly opposite Washington. This land was part of the estate of John Parke Custis, Martha Washington'sson. His son, George Washington Parke Custis, built the mansion which later became the home of Robert E. Lee. In 1864, Arlington became a military cemetery. More than 240,000 service members and their dependents are buried there. Expansion of the cemetery began in 1966, using a 180-acre tract of land directly east of the present site. Among the many famous and distinguished people buried in the cemetery are presidents William Howard Taftand John F. Kennedy; a number of supreme court justices, including Chief Justice Earl Warren, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.,and Thurgood Marshall; explorers Robert Pearyand Matthew Henson; civil rights leader Medgar Evers; band leader Glenn Miller; and mystery writer Dashiell Hammett. There are also 3,800 Civil War “contrabands” (fugitive and liberated slaves) buried there, their headstones engraved only with “Civilian” or “Citizen.” In 1921, an Unknown American Soldierof World War I was buried in the cemetery; the monument at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier was opened to the public without ceremony in 1932. Two additional Unknowns, one from World War II and one from the Korean War, were buried May 30, 1958. The Unknown Serviceman of Vietnam was buried on May 28, 1984. In June 1998 his body was disinterred and recent DNA-testing technology was used to identify him as First Lt. Michael Blassie, an Air Force pilot from St. Louis. It is possible that technology will prevent there from ever being another “unknown” buried in the tomb. The inscription carved on the Tomb of the Unknowns reads: HERE RESTS IN HONORED GLORY AN AMERICAN SOLDIER KNOWN BUT TO GOD

Mount Rushmore Mount Rushmore(6,000 ft), in South Dakota, became a celebrated American landmark after sculptor Gutzon Borglumtook on the project of carving into the side of it the heads of four great presidents. From 1927 until his death in 1941, Borglum worked on chiseling the 60-foot likenesses of Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt. His son, Lincoln, finished the sculpture later that year.

The Supreme Court Building Source:U.S. Supreme Court. Web: www.supremecourtus .gov. Despite its role as a coequal branch of government, the Supreme Court was not provided with a building of its own until 1935, the 146th year of its existence. Initially, the Court met in the Merchants Exchange Building in New York City. When the national capital moved to Philadelphiain 1790, the Court moved with it, establishing Chambers first in Independence Halland later in the City Hall. When the Federal Government moved, in 1800, to the permanent capital in Washington, D.C., Congress lent the Court space in the new Capitol Building. The Court was to change its meeting place a half dozen times within the Capitol. Additionally, the Court convened for a short period in a private house after the British set fire to the Capitol during the War of 1812. Following this episode, the Court returned to the Capitol and met from 1819 to 1860 in a chamber now restored as the “Old Supreme Court Chamber.” Then from 1860 until 1935, the Court sat in what is now known as the “Old Senate Chamber.” Finally in 1929, Chief Justice William Howard Taft, who had been president of the United States from 1909 to 1913, persuaded Congress to end this arrangement and authorize the construction of a permanent home for the Court. Architect Cass Gilbertwas charged by Chief Justice Taft to design “a building of dignity and importance suitable for its use as the permanent home of the Supreme Court of the United States.” Neither Taft nor Gilbert survived to see the Supreme Court Building completed. The construction, begun in 1932, was completed in 1935, when the Court was finally able to occupy its own building.

The Liberty Bell The Liberty Bell was cast in England in 1752 for the Pennsylvania Statehouse (now named Independence Hall) in Philadelphia. It was recast in Philadelphiain 1753. It is inscribed with the words, “Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof” (Lev. 25:10). The bell was rung on July 8, 1776, for the first public reading of the Declaration of Independence. Hidden in Allentown during the British occupation of Philadelphia, it was re-placed in Independence Hall in 1778. The bell cracked on July 8, 1835, while tolling the death of Chief Justice John Marshall. In 1976 the Liberty Bell was moved to a special exhibition building near Independence Hall.

Washington Monument Construction of this magnificent Washington, DC, monument took nearly a century of planning, building, and controversy. Provision for a large equestrian statue of George Washingtonwas made in the original city plan, but the project was soon dropped. After Washington's death it was taken up again, and a number of false starts and changes of design were made. Finally, in 1848, work was begun on the monument that stands today. The design, by architect Robert Mills, then featured an ornate base. In 1854, however, political squabbling and a lack of money brought construction to a halt. Work was resumed in 1880, and the monument was completed in 1884 and opened to the public in 1888. The tapered shaft, faced with white marble and rising from walls 15 ft (4.6 m) thick at the base, was modeled after the obelisksof ancient Egypt. The monument, one of the tallest masonry constructions in the world, stands just over 555 ft (169 m). Memorial stones from the 50 states, foreign countries, and organizations line the interior walls. The top, reached only by elevator, commands a panoramic view of the city.

The White House: The White House, the official residence of the president, is at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC 20500. The site, covering about 18 acres, was selected by President Washington and city planner Pierre Charles L'Enfant, and the architect was James Hoban. The design appears to have been influenced by Leinster House, Dublin, and James Gibb'sBook of Architecture.The cornerstone was laid Oct. 13, 1792, and the first residents were President John Adamsand First Lady Abigail Adamsin Nov. 1800. The White House has a fascinating history. The main building was burned by the British in 1814 during the War of 1812. Afterward, when the building was being restored, the smoke-stained gray stone walls were painted white. The name “White House,” however, was not used officially until President Theodore Roosevelthad it engraved on his stationery in 1901. Prior to that, the building was known variously as the “President's Palace,” the “President's House,” and the “Executive Mansion.” Over the years, there have been several additions made to the main building, including the west wing (1902), the east wing (1942), and a penthouse and a bomb shelter (1952). The west wing, which contains the president's oval office and the offices of his staff, is the center of activity at the White House. During Harry Truman'spresidency, from Dec. 1948 to March 1952, the interior of the White House was rebuilt, and the outer walls were strengthened. Nevertheless, the exterior stone walls are the same ones that were first put in place when the White House was constructed two centuries ago. The rooms for public functions are on the first floor; the second and third floors are used as the residence of the president and first family. The most celebrated public room is the East Room, where formal receptions take place. Other public rooms are the Red Room, the Green Room, and the Blue Room. The State Dining Room is used for formal dinners. In all, there are 132 rooms, 35 bathrooms, 28 fireplaces, 8 staircases, and 3 elevators. Source:Department of the Interior, U.S. National Park Service

U.S. Capitol: When the French architect and engineer Maj. Pierre Charles L'Enfantfirst began to lay out the plans for a new federal city (now Washington, DC), he noted that Jenkins' Hill, overlooking the area, seemed to be “a pedestal waiting for a monument.” It was here that the U.S. Capitol would be built. The basic structure as we know it today evolved over a period of more than 150 years. In 1792 a competition was held for the design of a capitol building. Dr. William Thornton, a physician and amateur architect, submitted the winning plan, a simple, low-lying structure of classical proportions with a shallow dome. Later, internal modifications were made by Benjamin Henry Latrobe. After the building was burned by the British in 1814, Latrobe and architect Charles Bulfinchwere responsible for its reconstruction. Finally, under Thomas Walter, who was Architect of the Capitol from 1851 to 1865, the House and Senate wings and the imposing cast-iron dome topped with the Statue of Freedom were added, and the Capitol assumed the form we see today. The Capitol building is rich in historic associations. It was in the old Senate chamber that Daniel Webstercried out, “Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable!” In Statuary Hall, which used to be the old House chamber, a small disk on the floor marks the spot where John Quincy Adamswas fatally stricken after more than 50 years of service to his country. A whisper from one side of this room can be heard across the vast space of the hall. Visitors can see the original Supreme Courtchamber a floor below the Rotunda. The Capitol Building is also a vast artistic treasure house. The works of such famous artists as Gilbert Stuart, Rembrandt Peale, and John Trumbullare displayed on the walls. The Great Rotunda, with its 180-foot- (54.9-meter-) high dome, is decorated with a fresco by Constantino Brumidi, which extends some 300 ft (90 m) in circumference. Throughout the building are many paintings of events in U.S. history and sculptures of outstanding Americans.The 68-acre (27.5-hectare) park that the Capitol is situated on was designed by the 19th-century landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. There are free guided tours of the Capitol, which include admission to the House and Senate galleries. Those who wish to visit the visitors' gallery in either wing without taking the tour may obtain passes from their senators or representatives. Visitors may ride on the monorail subway that joins the House and Senate wings of the Capitol with the congressional office buildings.

U.S. Historical Monuments: The Statue of Liberty: The Statue of Liberty (“Liberty Enlightening the World”) is a 225-ton, steel-reinforced copper female figure, 151 ft 1 in. (46.05 m) in height, facing the ocean from Liberty Island1in New York Harbor. The right hand holds aloft a torch, and the left hand carries a tablet upon which is inscribed: “July IV MDCCLXXVI.” The statue was designed by Fredéric Auguste Bartholdiof Alsace as a gift to the United States from the people of Franceto memorialize the alliance of the two countries in the American Revolutionand their abiding friendship. The French people contributed the $250,000 cost. The 150-foot pedestal was designed by Richard M. Huntand built by Gen. Charles P. Stone, both Americans. It contains steel underpinnings designed by Alexander Eiffelof France to support the statue. The $270,000 cost was borne by popular subscription in this country. President Grover Clevelandaccepted the statue for the United States on Oct. 28, 1886. The Statue of Liberty was designated a National Monument in 1924 and a World Heritage Site in 1984. On Sept. 26, 1972, President Richard M. Nixondedicated the American Museum of Immigration, housed in structural additions to the base of the statue. In 1984 scaffolding went up for a major restoration and the torch was extinguished on July 4. It was relit with much ceremony July 4, 1986, to mark its centennial. On a tablet inside the pedestal is engraved the following sonnet, written by Emma Lazarus(1849–1887): The New ColossusNot like the brazen giant of Greek fame. With conquering limbs astride from land to land; Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name Mother of Exiles. From her beacon-hand Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame. “Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!” cries she With silent lips. “Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door!” 1. Called Bedloe's Island prior to 1956.

Seven New Wonders The original Seven Wonders of the Ancient World is a list that has no doubt long frustrated intrepid travelers. Six of the seven structures on the list haven't existed for centuries, and must be forever imagined, never seen. (And one of the seven, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, may never have existed at all, according to some historians.) Herodotus is believed to have started the original list, way back in the 5th century B.C., so it's no surprise that the architectural marvels he praised were not around for modern man to admire. But as of 7/7/07 travelers should take note: a new list is out, one that's modern in both origin and scope, and each of the structures on it can be viewed in person. 100 Million Votes The new Seven Wonders of the World was compiled by popular vote over a six year period by a nonprofit group headed by Swiss adventurer Bernard Weber. In 1999 Weber began collecting suggestions from Internet users around the world. A list of over 200 nominations was narrowed down to 70, and then to 21, and finally to 7. The group reported more than 100 million votes, received via the Internet and cell phone messages, which, if true, makes this the largest poll ever conducted. Not everyone has welcomed the list with open arms. Egyptian officials were not pleased that the Pyramids of Giza, the only original wonder that still exists, had to compete in the contest. Eventually the organizers decided to remove it from the voting and make it an honorary choice (making it a list of eight). And the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) did not support the contest, pointing out that the results reflected only the opinions of the cyber voters. But for Warner and other organizers, the contest was a way to celebrate cultural diversity and history, and to encourage travel and communication. Half of the money raised during the contest will be used to fund the preservation and restoration of monuments around the world, including a giant Buddha statue destroyed by the Taliban in 2000 in Afghanistan. The new list: The Great Wall of China This 4,160-mile wall was built to protect China from invading Huns, Mongols, and other tribes, and to unite fortifications into one defense system. Begun in the 7thcentury B.C., the barricade took hundreds of years to build, and ranks as the world's longest man-made structure-and is apparently the only one visible from space. Petra Jordan This ancient capital city was built around 9 B.C. during the reign of King Aretas IV and continued to flourish during the Roman Empire. It is now visible in its pink stone ruins and carved façade. Christ Redeemer Statue Brazil Standing 125 feet tall atop the Corcovado Mountain high above Rio, this statue took five years to build. Constructed in France by sculptor Paul Landowski, it was shipped to Brazil in pieces, and then carried up the mountain by train, where it was reassembled. Machu Picchu Peru This "city in the clouds" was built 8,000 feet above sea level in the 15thcentury by Incan emperor Pachacutec. Abandoned by the Incas, the city remained unknown until it was rediscovered by an explorer in 1911. Pyramid at Chichen Itza Mexico The center of Mayan civilization in its day, Chichen Itza is still visible in several structures, including the pyramid of Kukulkan. Roman Colosseum Italy This giant, 50,000 seat amphitheater in the center of Rome was built over 2,000 years ago, and still influences the design of sports stadiums worldwide. Taj Mahal India Built in 1630 by a grieving emperor, Shah Jahan, in honor of his dead wife, this white marble structure combines Indian, Persian, and Islamic style of architecture.

World Trade Center History (part 2 of 2): Rebuilding Plans In 2002, separate design contests were held for rebuilding the World Trade Center site and creating a memorial for the victims of the attacks. The first round of finalists for the site, unveiled in July 2002, were widely criticized as being too boring and having too much of an emphasis on office space, leading to a new round of finalists in December. In February 2003, the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation, which was established by Governor Pataki to coordinate the various agencies and advisory committees involved in the rebuilding efforts, chose architect Daniel Libeskind's design for rebuilding the 16-acre site of the former World Trade Center. The design included a hanging garden, a memorial, a cultural center, and Freedom Tower, which would be a symbolic 1,776 feet tall from the ground to the top of its spire. This would make it taller than any building currently standing in the world. (The Burj Dubai skyscraper currently under construction in the United Arab Emirates is expected to be higher, however.) In July 2003, David Childs was brought in as the new lead architect of Freedom Tower, although Libeskind remained in charge of designing the site in general. The two had different visions for the tower; a design combining the approaches of both architects was unveiled in December 2003. It would include wind turbines in its spire, designed to generate as much as 20% of the building's power. On July 4, 2004, New York Governor Pataki, New Jersey Governor McGreevey, and New York City Mayor Bloomberg laid the cornerstone for Freedom Tower. The skyscraper, estimated to cost $1.5 billion, was expected to be ready for its first occupants by late 2008, while construction on the site in general was expected to last through 2015. Just as construction was beginning, security concerns were raised, leading to a complete redesign of the tower. The new plans were released on June 29, 2005. The tower is to be moved further back from the street, and will have a cubic base the same size as each of the Twin Towers. The wind turbines have been eliminated. The design recalls that of the old buildings, while adding its own twists: starting with the square base, the tower's design moves to triangular forms, creating an octagon in the middle, and culminates in a square at the top, rotated 45 degrees from the base. A spire will rise a bit more than 400 feet beyond that, to retain the planned total height of 1,776 feet. Work on excavating the foundation finally got underway in late April 2006. Refined plans were announced in June 2006, calling for glass prisms around a concrete base, to liven up the area while meeting security requirements. The tower is now planned to cost $2 billion, and be ready for occupants in 2011. Design for World Trade Center Memorial Selected The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation announced in January 2004 that architects Michael Arad and Peter Walker had won a competition to design the memorial to the people who died at the World Trade Center. There had been more than 5,000 entries in the competition. The memorial, Reflecting Absence, would honor those who died at the World Trade Center in terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, and February 26, 1993. In the 1993 tragedy, a truck bomb exploded in a garage in the north tower, killing six people and injuring more than a thousand. Reflecting Absence, which will be built where the Twin Towers once stood, includes two shallow pools surrounded by leafy trees. The names of the victims would be etched in walls around the pools. “In its powerful, yet simple articulation of the footprints of the Twin Towers, Reflecting Absence has made the gaping voids left by the towers' destruction the primary symbol of loss,” said Vartan Gregorian, who chaired the jury that chose the winner. The memorial plans were redesigned in June 2006 due to security concerns, budgetary issues, and input from the victims' families. The central features—including the two pools, fed by waterfalls—will be retained. The names of those killed would be moved to the surrounding plaza, above ground. Construction will begin in 2006, and the memorial is scheduled to open on Sept. 11, 2009. Twin Towers Stats —200,000 tons of steel —425,000 cubic yards of concrete —43,600 windows —12,000 miles of electric cables —198 miles of heating ducts —23,000 fluorescent light bulbs Each Tower —110 floors —208 ft by 208 ft at base —1,368 ft high (north tower) —1,362 ft high (south tower) —Weighed 500,000 tons —97 elevators for passengers, 6 for freight

World Trade Center History (part 1 of 2): The twin towers of the World Trade Center were more than just buildings. They were proof of New York's belief in itself. Built at a time when New York's future seemed uncertain, the towers restored confidence and helped bring a halt to the decline of lower Manhattan. Brash, glitzy, and grand, they quickly became symbols of New York. Rockefeller Brainchild The World Trade Center was conceived in the early 1960s by the Downtown-Lower Manhattan Development Association to revitalize the seedy “radio row” dominated by electronic stores. Chase Manhattan Bank chairman David Rockefeller, founder of the development association, and his brother, New York governor Nelson Rockefeller, pushed hard for the project, insisting it would benefit the entire city. In 1962, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey began plans to build the center. Minoru Yamasaki and Associates of Michigan was hired as architect. Eventually, Yamasaki decided on two huge towers. Critics charged that a modern monolith would rob New York of character, ruin the skyline, disrupt television reception, and strain city services. However, the project was approved and construction began in 1966. In order to create the 16-acre World Trade Center site, five streets were closed off and 164 buildings were demolished. Construction required the excavation of more than 1.2 million cubic yards of earth, which was used to create 23.5 acres of land along the Hudson River in lower Manhattan. During peak construction periods, 3,500 people worked at the site. A total of 10,000 people worked on the towers; 60 died during its construction. Instant Landmarks The north tower was opened in Dec. 1970 and the south tower in Jan. 1972; they were dedicated in April 1973. They were the world's tallest buildings for only a short time, since the Sears Tower in Chicago was completed in May 1973. However, the towers were ranked as the fifth and sixth tallest buildings in the world at the time of their destruction on Sept. 11, 2001. Four smaller buildings and a hotel, all built nearby around a central landscaped plaza, completed the complex. The mall at the World Trade Center, which was located immediately below the plaza, was the largest shopping mall in lower Manhattan. The six basements housed two subway stations and a stop on the PATH trains to New Jersey. Some 50,000 people worked in the buildings, while another 200,000 visited or passed through each day. The top floor observation deck had 26,000 visitors daily, who could see for 45 mi on a clear day. From the ground, the towers were visible for at least 20 mi. The complex had its own zip code, 10048. Previous Bombing In 1993 terrorists drove a truck packed with 1,100 lbs of explosives into the basement parking garage at the World Trade Center. Despite the size of the blast—it left a crater 22 ft wide and five stories deep—only six people were killed and 1,000 injured. The towers were repaired, cleaned, and reopened in less than a month. September 11, 2001 On the morning of September 11, 2001, terrorists from al-Qaeda hijacked four planes. Two were Boston-to-Los Angeles flights, which the hijackers diverted to New York City. At 8:45 a.m., American Airlines Flight 11 was flown into the north tower of the World Trade Center. Eighteen minutes later, United Airlines Flight 175 was flown into the south tower. Each plane was loaded with sufficient jet fuel for its intended cross-country trip, which ignited upon impact, creating intense fireballs in both towers and weakening the structural integrity of each. At 9:50 a.m., the affected floors of the south tower gave way; the upper floors collapsed onto the lower ones, destroying the tower and crushing everyone who was still inside it. At 10:29 a.m., the same happened to the north tower. 2,824 people were killed in the attacks, including hundreds of firefighters and other rescue workers. (Of the other two hijacked planes, one was crashed into the Pentagon; the other crashed southeast of Pittsburgh, apparently as a result of its passengers fighting the hijackers. There were no survivors.)

World's Tallest Skyscrapers: A Brief History The Empire State Building, built in 1931, was the world's tallest skyscraper for 41 years until it was surpassed in 1972 by the World Trade Center (1,368 ft, 110 stories). Two years later, the Sears Tower in Chicago (1,450 ft, 110 stories) superseded it. And 24 years after that, in 1998, the record went to the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (1,483 ft, 88 stories). Taipei 101 in Taiwan was the tallest from 2004 to 2010, topping out at 1,670 ft and 101 stories. Burj Khalifa, in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, was completed in January 2010 and became the world's tallest building at 2,716 feet (828 meters) and 160 stories.

Top Ten Tallest Completed Building Projects, 2008. This table provides information about completed buildings in 2008 that are fully clad and either "open for business" or at least partially occupied.. Building name/locationHeight (m/ft)StoriesUse 1. Shanghai World Financial Center, Shanghai492 m /1,614 ft101Office/Hotel 2. Minsheng Bank Building, Wuhan331 m /1,087 ft68Office 3. The Address Downtown, Burj Dubai306 m /1,004 ft63Hotel 4. One Island East, Hong Kong298 m /979 ft69Office 5. Comcast Center, Philadelphia297 m /974 ft57Office 6. Landmark Tower, Yokohama296 m /972 ft73Office/Hotel 7. The Cullinan I, Hong Kong270 m /886 ft68Residential 8. The Cullinan II, Hong Kong270 m /886 ft68Hotel/Residential 9. Al Kazim Tower 1, Dubai265 m /869 ft53Residential 10. Al Kazim Tower 2, Dubai265 m /869 ft53Residential NOTE: Height is measured from sidewalk level of the main entrance to the structural top of the building including spire, but not including communications antennas or flagpoles. Source:Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. Web: www.ctbuh.org.

World's Tallest Buildings1 The following table lists the tallest buildings in the world by height. The Burj Khalifa, completed in January 2010, tops the list. NOTE: This list includes only buildings.2For towers,see World's Tallest Towers.See also Skyscraper History, Skyscraper Facts, and America's Favorite Structures. Building, cityYearStoriesHeight Rankmft 1.Burj Khalifa (formerly Burj Dubai), Dubai, The United Arab Emirates20101608282,716 2. Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan20041015081,667 3.World Financial Center, Shanghai, China20081014921,614 4. Petronas Tower1, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia1998884521,483 5.Petronas Tower 2, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia1998884521,483 6.Greenland Financial Center, Nanjing, China2009664501,476 7. Sears Tower, Chicago19741104421,451 8.Guangzhou West Tower, Guangzhou, China20091034381,435 9.Jin Mao Building, Shanghai, China1999884211,381 10.Two International Finance Centre, Hong Kong2003884151,362 11.Trump International Hotel, Chicago, U.S.2009964151,362 12.CITIC Plaza, Guangzhou, China1996803911,283 13.Shun Hing Square, Shenzhen, China1996693841,260 14. Empire State Building, New York19311023811,250 15.Central Plaza, Hong Kong1992783741,227 16.Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong1989703671,205 17.Bank of America Tower, New York City, U.S.2009543661,200 18.Almas Tower, Dubai, United Arab Emirates2009683631,191 19.Emirates Tower One, Dubai, United Arab Emirates1999543551,165 20.Tuntex Sky Tower, Kaohsiung, Taiwan1997853481,140 21.Aon Centre, Chicago1973803461,136 22.The Center, Hong Kong1998733461,135 23.John Hancock Center, Chicago19691003441,127 24.Rose Tower, Dubai2007723331,093 25.Shimao International Plaza, Shanghai2006603331,093 26.Minsheng Bank Building, Wuhan, China2007683311,087 27.Ryugyong Hotel, Pyongyang, N. Korea19951053301,083 28.China World Trade Center, Beijing, China2009743301,083 29.The Index, Dubai, United Arab Emirates2009803281,076 30.Q1, Gold Coast, Australia2005783231,058 31.Burj al Arab Hotel, Dubai1999603211,053 32. Chrysler Building, New York1930773191,046 33.Nina Tower I, Hong Kong2006803191,046 34.New York Times Building, New York2007523191,046 35.Bank of America Plaza, Atlanta1993553171,039 36.U.S. Bank Tower, Los Angeles1990733101,018 37.Menara Telekom Headquarters, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia1999553101,017 38.Emirates Tower Two, Dubai2000563091,014 39.AT&T Corporate Center, Chicago1989603071,007 40.The Address Downtown Burj Dubai, Dubai, U.A.E.2008633061,004 41.JP Morgan Chase Tower, Houston1982753051,002 42.Baiyoke Tower II, Bangkok199785304997 43.Two Prudential Plaza, Chicago199064303995 44.Wells Fargo Plaza, Houston198371302992 45.Kingdom Centre, Riyadh200241302992 46.Aspire Tower, Doha200636300984 47.Arraya 2, Kuwait City, Kuwait200956300984 48.One Island East Centre, Hong Kong, China200869298979 49.First Bank Tower, Toronto197572298978 50.Shanghai Wheelock Square, Shanghai, China200958298978 51.Eureka Tower, Melbourne200691297975 52.Comcast Center, Philadelphia, U.S.200857297975 53.Landmark Tower, Yokohama, Japan199373296971 54.Emirates Crown, Dubai, U.A.E200863296971 55.311 South Wacker Drive, Chicago199065293961 56.SEG Plaza, Shenzhen, China200071292957 57.American International Building, New York193267290952 58.Key Tower, Cleveland199157289947 59.Plaza 66, Shanghai200166288945 60.One Liberty Place, Philadelphia198761288945 61.Columbia Center, Seattle, U.S.198576285937 62.Millennium Tower, Dubai200659285935 63.Sunjoy Tomorrow Square, Shanghai200355285934 64.Chongqing World Trade Center, Chongqing, China200560283929 65.Cheung Kong Center, Hong Kong199963283929 66.The Trump Building, New York193071283927 67.Bank of America Plaza, Dallas198572281921 68.United Overseas Bank Plaza, Singapore199266280919 69.Republic Plaza, Singapore199566280919 70.Overseas Union Bank Centre, Singapore198663280919 71.Citigroup Center, New York197759279915 72.Hong Kong New World Tower, Shanghai200261278913 73.Diwang International Commerce Center, Nanning, China200654276906 74.Scotia Plaza, Toronto198968275902 75.Williams Tower, Houston198364275901 76.Moscow, Moscow200973274900 77.Wuhan World Trade Tower, Wuhan, China199860273896 78.Cullinan North Tower, Hong Kong200768270886 79.Cullinan South Tower, Hong Kong200768270886 80.Renaissance Tower, Dallas197556270886 81.China International Center Tower B, Guangzhou, China200762270884 82.Dapeng International Plaza, Guangzhou, China200656269883 83.One Luijiazui, Shanghai, China200847269883 84.21st Century Tower, Dubai200355269883 85.Naberezhnaya Tower C, Moscow200761268881 86.Al Faisaliah Center, Riyadh200030267876 87.900 North Michigan Ave., Chicago198966265871 88.

Famous Buildings and Structures Prehistorical and Ancient (part 2 of 2): Peter(England; 1220–1472);Milan Cathedral(Italy; begun in 1386); andCologne Cathedral(Germany; 13th–19th centuries; damaged in World War II but completely restored). The Duomo(cathedral) in Florence, with its pink, white, and green marble façade, has become a symbol of the city and the Renaissance. Construction began in 1296 and was completed nearly 200 years later, with the addition of Brunelleschi's massive dome. The adjacent baptistery is famous for its gilded bronze doors by Ghiberti. The Vaticanis a group of buildings in Rome comprising the official residence of the pope. TheBasilica of St. Peter,the largest church in the Christian world, was begun in 1452, and it was rebuilt between 1506 and 1626. TheSistine Chapel,begun in 1473, is noted for frescoes by Michelangelo. Other examples of Renaissance architecture are thePalazzo Riccardi,thePalazzo Pitti,and thePalazzo Strozziin Florence; thePalazzo Farnesein Rome; thePalazzo Grimani(completed c. 1550) in Venice; theEscorial(1563–93) near Madrid; theTown Hallof Seville (1527–32); theLouvre,Paris; theChâteauat Blois, France;St. Paul's Cathedral,London (1675–1710; badly damaged in World War II); theÉcole Militaire,Paris (1752); thePazzi Chapel,Florence, designed by Brunelleschi (1429); and thePalace of Fontainebleauand theChâteau de Chambordin France. The Palace of Versaillesin France, containing the famous Hall of Mirrors, was built during the reign of Louis XIV in the 17th century and served as the royal palace until 1793. Built on the colossal scale typical of many works of baroque architecture, the palace is also noted for its gardens, which include some 1,400 fountains. Outstanding European buildings of the 18th and 19th centuries are theSupergaat Turin (Italy); theHôtel-Dieuin Lyons; theBelvedere Palaceat Vienna; theRoyal Palaceof Stockholm; theBank of England,theBritish Museum,theUniversity of London,and theHouses of Parliament,all in London; and thePanthéon,theChurch of the Madeleine,theBourse,thePalais de Justice, and theOpera House,all in Paris. The Eiffel Tower,in Paris, was built for the Exposition of 1889 by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel. It is 984 ft high (1,056 ft including the television tower). TheGuggenheim Bilbao Museum(1993–97) in Bilbao, Spain, was designed by Frank Gehry. The undulating form of this riverfront building, clad in glass and gleaming sheets of titanium, has been compared to a fish, a boat, and water itself. See also: Architects World's Tallest Buildings Seven Wonders of the World Asian, African, and South American The Taj Mahal(1632–1650), at Agra, India, built by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife, is considered by some as the most perfect example of the Mogul style and by others as the most beautiful building in the world. Four slim white minarets flank the building, which is topped by a white dome; the entire structure is made of marble. Another well-known Muslim edifice is theCitadel,located on an outcrop of limestone overlooking Cairo. Begun in 810, it was fortified (1176–1183) by Saladin during the Crusades. Petra,in Jordan, is an ancient city whose buildings have been carved out of the surrounding hills. It was the capital of the Nabataeans in the 4th centuryB.C.The most famous of its buildings is Al Khazneh, a temple or treasury, with its impressive two-story facade jutting out from a pink rock. Other famed Muslim edifices are theTombs of the Mamelukes(15th century) in Cairo, theTomb of Humayunin Delhi, theBlue Mosque(1468) at Tabriz, and theTamerlane Mausoleumat Samarkand. Angkor Wat,outside the city of Angkor Thom, Cambodia, is one of the most beautiful examples of Cambodian, or Khmer, architecture. The sanctuary was built during the 12th century. The 8th-century Borobudur Templeon Java is a masterpiece of Indonesian Buddhist art and architecture. Its ascending terraces feature bas-relief sculptures and 72 Buddha statues. The Great Wall of China(begun c. 214B.C.), designed specifically as a defense against nomadic tribes, has large watchtowers that could be called buildings. It was erected by Emperor Ch'in Shih Huang Ti and is 1,400 mi long. Built mainly of earth and stone, it varies in height between 18 and 30 ft. The Forbidden City(1407–1420) in Beijing served as the seat of imperial power during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911). It is the world's largest palace complex, covering about 183 acres and including 9,999 buildings. Typical of Chinese architecture are the pagodas, or temple towers. Among some of the better-known pagodas are theGreat Pagoda of the Wild Geeseat Sian (founded in 652) andNan t'a(11th century) at Fang Shan.

Famous Buildings and Structures (part 1 of 2): Prehistorical and Ancient The megalithic passage tomb atNewgrangein Ireland covers over an acre and was constructed around 3200B.C.Buried for centuries, the mound was rediscovered in 1699 and was restored starting in 1962. The tomb is extensively decorated with spiral and lozenge shapes. At the winter solstice, the rising sun shines down a long passage and lights up a cross-shaped chamber. Stonehenge,a massive circular megalithic monument on the Salisbury Plain in southern England, is the most famous of all prehistoric structures. Thought to have been built c. 2000B.C.,it may have been used as an astronomical instrument to measure solar and lunar movements. The Great Sphinxof Egypt, one of the wonders of ancient Egyptian architecture, adjoins thepyramids of Gizaand has a length of 240 ft. Built in the fourth dynasty, it is approximately 4,500 years old. A 10-year, $2.5 million restoration project was completed in 1998. Other Egyptian buildings of note include theTemples of Karnak,Edfu,andAbu Simbeland theTombs at Beni Hassan. The Parthenonof Greece, built on the Acropolisin Athens, was the chief temple to the goddess Athena. It was believed to have been completed by 438B.C.The present temple remained intact until the 5th centuryA.D.Today, though the Parthenonis in ruins, its majestic proportions are still discernible. Other great structures of the ancient Greek world were theTemples at Paestum(c. 540 and 420B.C.); the famous Erechtheum(c. 421–405B.C.), theTemple of Athena Nike(c. 426B.C.), and theOlympieum(begun in the 6th centuryB.C.) in Athens; theAthenian Treasuryat Delphi (c. 515B.C.); and theTheater at Epidaurus(c. 325B.C.). The Colosseum(Flavian Amphitheater) of Rome, the largest and most famous of the Roman amphitheaters, was opened for useA.D.80. Elliptical in shape, it consisted of three stories and an upper gallery, rebuilt in stone in its present form in the 3rd centuryA.D.It was principally used for gladiatorial combat and could seat between 40,000 and 50,000 spectators. The Pantheonat Rome, begun by Agrippa in 27B.C.as a temple, was rebuilt in its present circular form by Hadrian (A.D.118–128). Literally the Pantheonwas intended as a temple of “all the gods.” It is remarkable for its perfect preservation today, and has served continuously for 20 centuries as a place of worship. Famous Roman triumphal arches, built to commemorate major military victories, include theArch of Titus(c.A.D.80) and theArch of Constantine(c.A.D.315). Later European St. Mark's Cathedralin Venice (1063–1071), one of the great examples of Byzantine architecture, was begun in the 9th century. Partly destroyed by fire in 976, it was later rebuilt as a Byzantine edifice. Other famous examples of Byzantine architecture areSt. Sophiain Istanbul (532–537);San Vitalein Ravenna (542); andAssumption Cathedralin the Kremlin, Moscow (begun in 1475). The cathedral group at Pisa (1067–1173), one of the most celebrated groups of structures built in Romanesque style, consists of the cathedral, the cathedral's baptistery, and the campanile ( Leaning Tower). The campanile, a form of bell tower, is 180 ft high and now leans 13.5 ft out of the perpendicular. Other examples of Romanesque architecture include theVézelay Abbeyin France (1130) andDurham Cathedralin England. TheAlhambra(1248–1354), located in Granada, Spain, is universally esteemed as one of the greatest masterpieces of Muslim architecture. Designed as a palace and fortress for the Moorish monarchs of Granada, it is surrounded by a heavily fortified wall more than a mile in perimeter. The Tower of Londonis a group of buildings and towers covering 13 acres along the north bank of the Thames. The centralWhite Tower,begun in 1078 during the reign of William the Conqueror, was originally a fortress and royal residence, but was later used as a prison. TheBloody Toweris associated with Anne Boleyn and other notables. Westminster Abbey,in London, was begun in 1050 and completed in 1065. It was rebuilt and enlarged in several phases, beginning in 1245. With only two exceptions (Edward V and Edward VIII), every British monarch since William the Conqueror has been crowned in the abbey. Notre-Dame de Paris(begun in 1163), one of the great examples of Gothic architecture, is a twin-towered church with a steeple over the crossing and immense flying buttresses supporting the masonry at the rear of the church. Other famous Gothic structures are Chartres Cathedral(France; 12th century);Sainte-Chapelle(Paris, France; 1246–1248);Reims Cathedral(France; 13th–14th centuries; rebuilt after its almost complete destruction in World War I);Rouen Cathedral(France; 13th–16th centuries);Salisbury Cathedral(England; 1220–1260);York Minster, or theCathedral of St.

Famous Buildings and Structures Prehistorical and Ancient The megalithic passage tomb atNewgrangein Ireland covers over an acre and was constructed around 3200B.C.Buried for centuries, the mound was rediscovered in 1699 and was restored starting in 1962. The tomb is extensively decorated with spiral and lozenge shapes. At the winter solstice, the rising sun shines down a long passage and lights up a cross-shaped chamber. Stonehenge,a massive circular megalithic monument on the Salisbury Plain in southern England, is the most famous of all prehistoric structures. Thought to have been built c. 2000B.C.,it may have been used as an astronomical instrument to measure solar and lunar movements. The Great Sphinxof Egypt, one of the wonders of ancient Egyptian architecture, adjoins thepyramids of Gizaand has a length of 240 ft. Built in the fourth dynasty, it is approximately 4,500 years old. A 10-year, $2.5 million restoration project was completed in 1998. Other Egyptian buildings of note include theTemples of Karnak,Edfu,andAbu Simbeland theTombs at Beni Hassan. The Parthenonof Greece, built on the Acropolisin Athens, was the chief temple to the goddess Athena. It was believed to have been completed by 438B.C.The present temple remained intact until the 5th centuryA.D.Today, though the Parthenonis in ruins, its majestic proportions are still discernible. Other great structures of the ancient Greek world were theTemples at Paestum(c. 540 and 420B.C.); the famous Erechtheum(c. 421–405B.C.), theTemple of Athena Nike(c. 426B.C.), and theOlympieum(begun in the 6th centuryB.C.) in Athens; theAthenian Treasuryat Delphi (c. 515B.C.); and theTheater at Epidaurus(c. 325B.C.). The Colosseum(Flavian Amphitheater) of Rome, the largest and most famous of the Roman amphitheaters, was opened for useA.D.80. Elliptical in shape, it consisted of three stories and an upper gallery, rebuilt in stone in its present form in the 3rd centuryA.D.It was principally used for gladiatorial combat and could seat between 40,000 and 50,000 spectators. The Pantheonat Rome, begun by Agrippa in 27B.C.as a temple, was rebuilt in its present circular form by Hadrian (A.D.118–128). Literally the Pantheonwas intended as a temple of “all the gods.” It is remarkable for its perfect preservation today, and has served continuously for 20 centuries as a place of worship. Famous Roman triumphal arches, built to commemorate major military victories, include theArch of Titus(c.A.D.80) and theArch of Constantine(c.A.D.315). Later European St. Mark's Cathedralin Venice (1063–1071), one of the great examples of Byzantine architecture, was begun in the 9th century. Partly destroyed by fire in 976, it was later rebuilt as a Byzantine edifice. Other famous examples of Byzantine architecture areSt. Sophiain Istanbul (532–537);San Vitalein Ravenna (542); andAssumption Cathedralin the Kremlin, Moscow (begun in 1475). The cathedral group at Pisa (1067–1173), one of the most celebrated groups of structures built in Romanesque style, consists of the cathedral, the cathedral's baptistery, and the campanile ( Leaning Tower). The campanile, a form of bell tower, is 180 ft high and now leans 13.5 ft out of the perpendicular. Other examples of Romanesque architecture include theVézelay Abbeyin France (1130) andDurham Cathedralin England. TheAlhambra(1248–1354), located in Granada, Spain, is universally esteemed as one of the greatest masterpieces of Muslim architecture. Designed as a palace and fortress for the Moorish monarchs of Granada, it is surrounded by a heavily fortified wall more than a mile in perimeter. The Tower of Londonis a group of buildings and towers covering 13 acres along the north bank of the Thames. The centralWhite Tower,begun in 1078 during the reign of William the Conqueror, was originally a fortress and royal residence, but was later used as a prison. TheBloody Toweris associated with Anne Boleyn and other notables. Westminster Abbey,in London, was begun in 1050 and completed in 1065. It was rebuilt and enlarged in several phases, beginning in 1245. With only two exceptions (Edward V and Edward VIII), every British monarch since William the Conqueror has been crowned in the abbey. Notre-Dame de Paris(begun in 1163), one of the great examples of Gothic architecture, is a twin-towered church with a steeple over the crossing and immense flying buttresses supporting the masonry at the rear of the church. Other famous Gothic structures are Chartres Cathedral(France; 12th century);Sainte-Chapelle(Paris, France; 1246–1248);Reims Cathedral(France; 13th–14th centuries; rebuilt after its almost complete destruction in World War I);Rouen Cathedral(France; 13th–16th centuries);Salisbury Cathedral(England; 1220–1260);York Minster, or theCathedral of St.

The Seven Wonders of the Modern World People have put together many lists of the seven ancient wonders of the world. But this “seven wonders” list celebrates monumental engineering and construction feats of the 20th century. It was chosen by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Empire State Building.Finished in 1931, it towers 1,250 ft over New York City. Until the first tower of the World Trade Center was finished in 1972, it was the world's tallest building. The Empire State Building Itaipu Dam.Built by Brazil and Paraguay on the Paraná River, the dam is the world's largest hydroelectric power plant. Completed in 1991, it took 16 years to build this series of dams whose length totals 7,744 m. It used 15 times more concrete than the Channel Tunnel. CN Tower.In 1976, the tower became the world's tallest freestanding structure. It looms about one-third of a mile high (1,815 ft) above Toronto, Canada. A glass floor on the observation deck lets you look 342 m down to the ground. Panama Canal.It took 34 years to create this 50-mile-long canal across the Isthmus of Panama. The amount of digging required and the size of its locks helped make it the most expensive project in American history at that time—and the most deadly: About 80,000 people died during construction (most from disease). Channel Tunnel.Known as the Chunnel, it links France and England. It is 31 mi long, and 23 of those miles are 150 ft beneath the seabed of the English Channel. High-speed trains whiz through its side-by-side tubes. Netherlands North Sea Protection Works.Because the Netherlands is below sea level, a series of dams, floodgates, and surge barriers have been built to keep the sea from flooding the country during storms. The biggest part of the project was a two-mile-long moveable surge barrier across an estuary finished in 1986. It is made of 65 concrete piers each weighing 18,000 tons. It has been said that the project is nearly equal in scale to the Great Wall of China. The Golden Gate Bridge Wide World Photos Golden Gate Bridge.Connecting San Francisco and Marin County in 1937, for many years this was the longest suspension bridge in world. Experts thought that winds, ocean currents, and fog would make it impossible to build. It took about four years to complete the beautiful 1.2-mile-long bridge. It is held by 80,000 mi worth of steel wire, and the cables that link the two towers are 36.5 inches in diameter—the biggest ever made.

The Seven Wonders of the World Since ancient times, numerous “seven wonders” lists have been created. The content of these lists tends to vary, and none is definitive. The seven wonders that are most widely agreed upon as being in the original list are theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World,which was compiled by ancient Greek historians and is thus confined to the most magnificent structures known to the ancient Greek world. Of all the Ancient Wonders, the pyramids alone survive. The Pyramids of Egyptare three pyramids at Giza, outside modern Cairo. The largest pyramid, built by Khufu (Cheops), a king of the fourth dynasty, had an original estimated height of 482 ft (now approximately 450 ft). The base has sides 755 ft long. It contains 2,300,000 blocks; the average weight of each is 2.5 tons. Estimated date of completion is 2680B.C. TheHangingGardensof Babylonwere supposedly built by Nebuchadnezzararound 600B.C.to please his queen, Amuhia. They are also associated with the mythical Assyrian queen Semiramis. Archeologists surmise that the gardens were laid out atop a vaulted building, with provisions for raising water. The terraces were said to rise from 75 to 300 ft. TheStatue of Zeus (Jupiter) at Olympiawas made of gold and ivory by the Greek sculptor Phidias(5th centuryB.C.). Reputed to be 40 ft high, the statue has been lost without a trace, except for reproductions on coins. TheTemple of Artemis(Diana) at Ephesuswas begun about 350B.C., in honor of a non-Hellenic goddess who later became identified with the Greek goddess of the same name. The temple, with Ionic columns 60 ft high, was destroyed by invading Goths inA.D.262. TheMausoleum at Halicarnassuswas erected by Queen Artemisia in memory of her husband, King Mausolusof Caria in Asia Minor, who died in 353B.C.Some remains of the structure are in the British Museum. This shrine is the source of the modern wordmausoleum. The Colossus at Rhodeswas a bronze statue of Helios (Apollo), about 105 ft high. The work of the sculptor Chares, who reputedly labored for 12 years before completing it in 280B.C., it was destroyed during an earthquake in 224B.C. The Pharos(Lighthouse) of Alexandriawas built by Sostratus of Cnidus during the 3rd centuryB.C.on the island of Pharos off the coast of Egypt. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the 13th century. (Some lists include the Walls of Babylonin place of the second or seventh wonder.)

The Seven Wonders of the World Since ancient times, numerous “seven wonders” lists have been created. The content of these lists tends to vary, and none is definitive. The seven wonders that are most widely agreed upon as being in the original list are theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World,which was compiled by ancient Greek historians and is thus confined to the most magnificent structures known to the ancient Greek world. Of all the Ancient Wonders, the pyramids alone survive. The Pyramids of Egyptare three pyramids at Giza, outside modern Cairo. The largest pyramid, built by Khufu (Cheops), a king of the fourth dynasty, had an original estimated height of 482 ft (now approximately 450 ft). The base has sides 755 ft long. It contains 2,300,000 blocks; the average weight of each is 2.5 tons. Estimated date of completion is 2680B.C. TheHangingGardensof Babylonwere supposedly built by Nebuchadnezzararound 600B.C.to please his queen, Amuhia. They are also associated with the mythical Assyrian queen Semiramis. Archeologists surmise that the gardens were laid out atop a vaulted building, with provisions for raising water. The terraces were said to rise from 75 to 300 ft. TheStatue of Zeus (Jupiter) at Olympiawas made of gold and ivory by the Greek sculptor Phidias(5th centuryB.C.). Reputed to be 40 ft high, the statue has been lost without a trace, except for reproductions on coins. TheTemple of Artemis(Diana) at Ephesuswas begun about 350B.C., in honor of a non-Hellenic goddess who later became identified with the Greek goddess of the same name. The temple, with Ionic columns 60 ft high, was destroyed by invading Goths inA.D.262. TheMausoleum at Halicarnassuswas erected by Queen Artemisia in memory of her husband, King Mausolusof Caria in Asia Minor, who died in 353B.C.Some remains of the structure are in the British Museum. This shrine is the source of the modern wordmausoleum. The Colossus at Rhodeswas a bronze statue of Helios (Apollo), about 105 ft high. The work of the sculptor Chares, who reputedly labored for 12 years before completing it in 280B.C., it was destroyed during an earthquake in 224B.C. The Pharos(Lighthouse) of Alexandriawas built by Sostratus of Cnidus during the 3rd centuryB.C.on the island of Pharos off the coast of Egypt. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the 13th century. (Some lists include the Walls of Babylonin place of the second or seventh wonder.)

The Seven Wonders of the World Since ancient times, numerous “seven wonders” lists have been created. The content of these lists tends to vary, and none is definitive. The seven wonders that are most widely agreed upon as being in the original list are theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World,which was compiled by ancient Greek historians and is thus confined to the most magnificent structures known to the ancient Greek world. Of all the Ancient Wonders, the pyramids alone survive. The Pyramids of Egyptare three pyramids at Giza, outside modern Cairo. The largest pyramid, built by Khufu (Cheops), a king of the fourth dynasty, had an original estimated height of 482 ft (now approximately 450 ft). The base has sides 755 ft long. It contains 2,300,000 blocks; the average weight of each is 2.5 tons. Estimated date of completion is 2680B.C. TheHangingGardensof Babylonwere supposedly built by Nebuchadnezzararound 600B.C.to please his queen, Amuhia. They are also associated with the mythical Assyrian queen Semiramis. Archeologists surmise that the gardens were laid out atop a vaulted building, with provisions for raising water. The terraces were said to rise from 75 to 300 ft. TheStatue of Zeus (Jupiter) at Olympiawas made of gold and ivory by the Greek sculptor Phidias(5th centuryB.C.). Reputed to be 40 ft high, the statue has been lost without a trace, except for reproductions on coins. TheTemple of Artemis(Diana) at Ephesuswas begun about 350B.C., in honor of a non-Hellenic goddess who later became identified with the Greek goddess of the same name. The temple, with Ionic columns 60 ft high, was destroyed by invading Goths inA.D.262. TheMausoleum at Halicarnassuswas erected by Queen Artemisia in memory of her husband, King Mausolusof Caria in Asia Minor, who died in 353B.C.Some remains of the structure are in the British Museum. This shrine is the source of the modern wordmausoleum. The Colossus at Rhodeswas a bronze statue of Helios (Apollo), about 105 ft high. The work of the sculptor Chares, who reputedly labored for 12 years before completing it in 280B.C., it was destroyed during an earthquake in 224B.C. The Pharos(Lighthouse) of Alexandriawas built by Sostratus of Cnidus during the 3rd centuryB.C.on the island of Pharos off the coast of Egypt. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the 13th century. (Some lists include the Walls of Babylonin place of the second or seventh wonder.)

The Seven Wonders of the World Since ancient times, numerous “seven wonders” lists have been created. The content of these lists tends to vary, and none is definitive. The seven wonders that are most widely agreed upon as being in the original list are theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World,which was compiled by ancient Greek historians and is thus confined to the most magnificent structures known to the ancient Greek world. Of all the Ancient Wonders, the pyramids alone survive. The Pyramids of Egyptare three pyramids at Giza, outside modern Cairo. The largest pyramid, built by Khufu (Cheops), a king of the fourth dynasty, had an original estimated height of 482 ft (now approximately 450 ft). The base has sides 755 ft long. It contains 2,300,000 blocks; the average weight of each is 2.5 tons. Estimated date of completion is 2680B.C. TheHangingGardensof Babylonwere supposedly built by Nebuchadnezzararound 600B.C.to please his queen, Amuhia. They are also associated with the mythical Assyrian queen Semiramis. Archeologists surmise that the gardens were laid out atop a vaulted building, with provisions for raising water. The terraces were said to rise from 75 to 300 ft. TheStatue of Zeus (Jupiter) at Olympiawas made of gold and ivory by the Greek sculptor Phidias(5th centuryB.C.). Reputed to be 40 ft high, the statue has been lost without a trace, except for reproductions on coins. TheTemple of Artemis(Diana) at Ephesuswas begun about 350B.C., in honor of a non-Hellenic goddess who later became identified with the Greek goddess of the same name. The temple, with Ionic columns 60 ft high, was destroyed by invading Goths inA.D.262. TheMausoleum at Halicarnassuswas erected by Queen Artemisia in memory of her husband, King Mausolusof Caria in Asia Minor, who died in 353B.C.Some remains of the structure are in the British Museum. This shrine is the source of the modern wordmausoleum. The Colossus at Rhodeswas a bronze statue of Helios (Apollo), about 105 ft high. The work of the sculptor Chares, who reputedly labored for 12 years before completing it in 280B.C., it was destroyed during an earthquake in 224B.C. The Pharos(Lighthouse) of Alexandriawas built by Sostratus of Cnidus during the 3rd centuryB.C.on the island of Pharos off the coast of Egypt. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the 13th century. (Some lists include the Walls of Babylonin place of the second or seventh wonder.)

Michigan and Huron: One Lake or Two? It is a widely accepted fact that Lake Superior, with an area of 31,820 square miles, is the world's largest freshwater lake. However, this fact is based on a historical inaccuracy in the naming of Lake Huron and Lake Michigan. What should have been considered one body of water, Lake Michigan-Huron with an area of 45,410 square miles, was mistakenly given two names, one for each lobe. The explorers in colonial times incorrectly believed each lobe to be a separate lake because of their great size. Why should the two lakes be considered one? The Huron Lobe and the Michigan Lobe are at the same elevation and are connected by the 120-foot-deep Mackinac Strait, also at the same elevation. Lakes are separated from each other by streams and rivers. The Strait of Mackinac is not a river. It is 3.6 to 5 miles wide, wider than most lakes are long. In essence, it is just a narrowing, not a separation of the two lobes of Lake Michigan-Huron. The flow between the two lakes can reverse. Because of the large connecting channel, the two can equalize rapidly whenever a water level imbalance occurs. Gauge records for the lakes clearly show them to have identical water level regimes and mean long-term behavior; that is, they are hydrologically considered to be one lake. Historical names are not easily changed. The separate names for the lake are a part of history and are also legally institutionalized since Lake Michigan is treated as American and Lake Huron is bisected by the international boundary between the United States and Canada. Of all the world's freshwater lakes, North America's Great Lakes are unique. Their five basins combine to form a single watershed with one common outlet to the ocean. The total volume of the lakes is about 5,475 cubic miles, more than 6,000 trillion gallons. The Great Lakes are Superior, with an area of 31,820 square miles (82,414 km) shared by the United States and Canada; Huron, with an area of 23,010 square miles (59,596 sq. km) shared by the United States and Canada; Michigan, with an area of 22,400 square miles (58,016 sq. km) entirely in the United States; Erie, with an area of 9,930 square miles (25,719 km) shared by the United States and Canada; and Ontario, with an area of 7,520 square miles (19,477 km) shared by the United States and Canada.

The Continental Divide The Continental Divide is a ridge of high ground that runs irregularly north and south through the Rocky Mountains and separates eastward-flowing from westward-flowing streams. The waters that flow eastward empty into the Atlantic Ocean, chiefly by way of the Gulf of Mexico; those that flow westward empty into the Pacific. Every continent with the exception of Antarctica has a continental divide.

Mason and Dixon's Line Mason and Dixon's Line (often called the Mason-Dixon Line) is the boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland, running at a north latitude of 39°43'19.11". The greater part of it was surveyed from 1763–1767 by Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, English astronomers who had been appointed to settle a dispute between the colonies. As the line was partly the boundary between the free and the slave states, it has come to signify the division between the North and the South.

World Heritage Sites in the United States The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has identified 878 World Heritage sites that it considers of “outstanding universal value.” In the United States, there are 20 of these sites; the 17 that are natural sites are listed below. The World Heritage Web site is as follows: http://whc.unesco.org /en/list/. Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site, Illinois:BetweenA.D.900 andA.D.1500 the Cahokia site was the regional center for the Mississippian Indian culture. Named for the Cahokia Indians who came after them, Cahokia features the largest prehistoric earthen constructions in the Americas, a testament to the sophisticated engineering skills of Mississippian culture. Carlsbad Caverns National Park, New Mexico:Carlsbad Caverns National Park is a network of more than 80 limestone caves, including the nation's deepest—1,597 feet—and third longest. The Lechuguilla Cave is particularly noteworthy for its beautiful stalagtites and stalagmites. Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico:BetweenA.D.900 andA.D.1100, the Anasazi built large multistory stone villages and an impressive 400-mile road system in Chaco canyon exemplifying their engineering and construction talents. Everglades National Park, Florida:The Everglades, or “River of Grass” as the Seminoles called it, is formed by a river of fresh water 6 inches deep and 50 miles wide that flows slowly across the expanse of land of sawgrass marshes, pine forests, and mangrove islands. More than 300 species of birds live in the park as well as alligators, manatees, and Florida panthers. Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska:The park is made up of a huge chain of great tidewater glaciers and a dramatic range of landscapes, from rocky terrain recently covered by ice to lush temperate rain forest. Brown and black bears, mountain goats, whales (including humpbacks), seals, and eagles can be found within the park. Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona:The Grand Canyon is among Earth's greatest ongoing geological spectacles. About 65 million years ago in Earth's shifting, a huge area of land was lifted a mile and a half above sea level, forming what is now the Colorado Plateau. For the last 6 to 10 million years, the Colorado River has been slowly carving its way down through the center, exposing the many colorful strata of rock. Great Smoky Mountains National Park, North Carolina/Tennessee:“Place of Blue Smoke” was the name given by the Cherokee Indians to these Appalachian Highlands. The forest here exudes water vapor and oily residues which create a smoke-like haze that surrounds the peaks and fills the valleys. The park is one of the world's finest temperate deciduous forests. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii:It is thought that the Hawaiian islands were created when molten rock pushed through Earth's crust, forming volcanoes. The two most spectacular live volcanoes are Kilauea and Mauna Loa. Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky:Mammoth Cave, as its name suggests, is the world's most extensive cave system, with 345 miles of passages. Water seeping into the cave creates stalactites, stalagmites, and white gypsum crystal formations. Rare and unusual animals, such as blind fish and colorless spiders, demonstrate adaptation to the absolute blackness and isolation. Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado:In the sixth century, the Anasazi, or “Ancient Ones,” established villages on the high, flat land in southwestern Colorado. In the late 1100s they began constructing multistory stone apartment houses, or pueblos, tucked on ledges and under rock overhangs. Olympic National Park, Washington:The park encompasses not only snow-capped Mount Olympus, glaciers, alpine meadows, and rocky Pacific Mountain coastline, but also one of the few temperate rain forests in the world. The luxuriant forest is created by the warm, moisture-laden air from the Pacific meeting the mountains, resulting in a dense, green, jungle-like world. Papahanaumokuakea:This string of isolated islands is the largest conservation area in the United States and one of the largest marine conservation areas in the world. It covers 139,797 square miles of the Pacific Ocean. The extensive coral reefs found in Papahanaumokuakea are home to more than 7,000 marine species, one-quarter of which are found only in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Many of the islands and shallow water environments are important habitats for rare species, such as the threatened green sea turtle and the endangered Hawaiian monk seal. Papahanaumokuakea is also of great cultural importance to Native Hawaiians with significant cultural sites found on the islands of Nihoa and Mokumanamana.Source: http://papahanaumok uakea.gov.

Geysers in the United States Geysers are natural hot springs that intermittently eject a column of water and steam into the air. They exist in many parts of the volcanic regions of the world such as Japan and South America but their greatest development is in Iceland, New Zealand, and Yellowstone National Park. There are 120 named geysers in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, and perhaps half that number unnamed. Most of the geysers and the 4,000 or more hot springs are located in the western portion of the park. The most important are the following: Norris Geyser Basin has 24 or more active geysers; the number varies. There are scores of steam vents and hot springs.Steamboatis the largest active geyser in the world, sending water more than 300 ft. into the air for 3 to 20 minutes. It emits water every few minutes, but its major eruptions are infrequent and erratic.Valentineerupts 50–75 ft. at intervals varying from 18 hr. to 3 days or more.Minutéerupts 15–20 ft. high, several hours apart. Others include:Fearless, Veteran, Vixen, Corporal, Whirligig, Little Whirligig,andPinwheel. Lower Geyser Basin has at least 18 active geysers.Fountainthrows water 50–75 ft. in all directions at unpredictable intervals.Clepsydraerupts violently from 4 vents up to 30 ft.Great Fountainplays every 8 to 15 hr. in spurts from 30 to 90 ft. high. Midway Geyser Basin has vast steaming terraces of red, orange, pink and other colors; there are pools and springs, including the beautifulGrand Prismatic Spring. Excelsiorcrater discharges boiling water into Firehole River at the rate of 6 cu. ft. per second. Gianterupts up to 200 ft. at intervals of 21/2 days to 3 mo; eruptions last about 11/2 hr.Daisysends water up to 75 ft. but is irregular and frequently inactive. Old Faithful,the most famous geyser in the park, sends up a column varying from 116 to 175 ft. at intervals of about 65 min, varying from 33 to 90 min. Eruptions last about 4 min, during which time about 12,000 gal. are discharged. Giantessseldom erupts, but during its active period sends up streams 150–200 ft. Lionplays up to 60 ft. every 2–4 days when active;Little Cubup to 10 ft. every 1–2 hr.Big CubandLionessseldom erupt. There are no geysers in the Mammoth Hot Springs area. The formation is travertine. Sides of a hill are steps and terraces over which flow the steaming waters of hot springs laden with minerals. Each step is tinted by algae to many shades of orange, pink, yellow, brown, green, and blue. Terraces are white where no water flows.

Rivers of the United States (350 or more miles long) Alabama-Coosa(600 mi.; 966 km): From junction of Oostanula and Etowah R. in Georgia to Mobile R. Altamaha-Ocmulgee(392 mi.; 631 km): From junction of Yellow R. and South R., Newton Co. in Georgia to Atlantic Ocean. Apalachicola- Chattahoochee(524 mi.; 843 km): From Towns Co. in Georgia to Gulf of Mexico in Florida. Arkansas(1,459 mi.; 2,348 km): From Lake Co. in Colorado to Mississippi R. in Arkansas. Brazos(923 mi.; 1,490 km): From junction of Salt Fork and Double Mountain Fork in Texas to Gulf of Mexico. Canadian(906 mi.; 1,458 km): From Las Animas Co. in Colorado to Arkansas R. in Oklahoma. Cimarron(600 mi.; 966 km): From Colfax Co. in New Mexico to Arkansas R. in Oklahoma. Colorado(1,450 mi.; 2,333 km): From Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado to Gulf of California in Mexico. Colorado(862 mi.; 1,387 km): From Dawson Co. in Texas to Matagorda Bay. Columbia(1,243 mi.; 2,000 km): From Columbia Lake in British Columbia to Pacific Ocean (entering between Oregon and Washington). Colville(350 mi.; 563 km): From Brooks Range in Alaska to Beaufort Sea. Connecticut(407 mi.; 655 km): From Third Connecticut Lake in New Hampshire to Long Island Sound in Connecticut. Cumberland(720 mi.; 1,159 km): From junction of Poor and Clover Forks in Harlan Co. in Kentucky to Ohio R. Delaware(390 mi.; 628 km): From Schoharie Co. in New York to Liston Point, Delaware Bay. Gila(649 mi.; 1,044 km): From Catron Co. in New Mexico to Colorado R. in Arizona. Green(360 mi.; 579 km): From Lincoln Co. in Kentucky to Ohio R. in Kentucky. Green(730 mi.; 1,175 km): From Sublette Co. in Wyoming to Colorado R. in Utah. Illinois(420 mi.; 676 km): From St. Joseph Co. in Indiana to Mississippi R. at Grafton in Illinois. James(sometimes calledDakota) (710 mi.; 1,143 km): From Wells Co. in North Dakota to Missouri R. in South Dakota. Kanawha-New(352 mi.; 566 km): From junction of North and South Forks of New R. in North Carolina, through Virginia and West Virginia (New R. becoming Kanawha R.), to Ohio R. Kansas(743 mi.; 1,196 km): From source of Arikaree R. in Elbert Co., Colorado, to Missouri R. at Kansas City, Kansas. Koyukuk(470 mi.; 756 km): From Brooks Range in Alaska to Yukon R. Kuskokwim(724 mi.; 1,165 km): From Alaska Range in Alaska to Kuskokwim Bay. Licking(350 mi.; 563 km): From Magoffin Co. in Kentucky to Ohio R. at Cincinnati in Ohio. Little Missouri(560 mi.; 901 km): From Crook Co. in Wyoming to Missouri R. in North Dakota. Milk(625 mi.; 1,006 km): From junction of forks in Alberta Province to Missouri R. Mississippi(2,348 mi.; 3,779 km): From Lake Itasca in Minnesota to mouth of Southwest Pass in Louisiana. Mississippi-Missouri-Red Rock(3,710 mi.; 5,970 km): From source of Red Rock R. in Montana to mouth of Southwest Pass in Louisiana. Missouri(2,315 mi.; 3,726 km): From junction of Jefferson R., Gallatin R., and Madison R. in Montana to Mississippi R. near St. Louis. Missouri-Red Rock(2,540 mi.; 4,090 km): From source of Red Rock R. in Montana to Mississippi R. near St. Louis. Mobile-Alabama-Coosa(645 mi.; 1,040 km): From junction of Etowah R. and Oostanula R. in Georgia to Mobile Bay. Neosho(460 mi.; 740 km): From Morris Co. in Kansas to Arkansas R. in Oklahoma. Niobrara(431 mi.; 694 km): From Niobrara Co. in Wyoming to Missouri R. in Nebraska. Noatak(350 mi.; 563 km): From Brooks Range in Alaska to Kotzebue Sound. North Canadian(800 mi.; 1,290 km): From Union Co. in New Mexico to Canadian R. in Oklahoma. North Platte(618 mi.; 995 km): From Jackson Co. in Colorado to junction with South Platte R. in Nebraska to form Platte R. Ohio(981 mi.; 1,579 km): From junction of Allegheny R. and Monongahela R. at Pittsburgh to Mississippi R. between Illinois and Kentucky. Ohio-Allegheny(1,306 mi.; 2,102 km): From Potter Co. in Pennsylvania to Mississippi R. at Cairo in Illinois. Osage(500 mi.; 805 km): From east-central Kansas to Missouri R. near Jefferson City in Missouri. Ouachita(605 mi.; 974 km): From Polk Co. in Arkansas to Red R. in Louisiana. Pearl(411 mi.; 661 km): From Neshoba County in Mississippi to Gulf of Mexico (Mississippi-Louisiana). Pecos(926 mi.; 1,490 km): From Mora Co. in New Mexico to Rio Grande in Texas. Pee Dee-Yadkin(435 mi.; 700 km): From Watauga Co. in North Carolina to Winyah Bay in South Carolina. Pend Oreille–Clark Fork(531 mi.; 855 km): Near Butte in Montana to Columbia R. on Washington-Canada border. Platte(990 mi.; 1593 km): From source of Grizzly Creek in Jackson Co., Colorado, to Missouri R. south of Omaha, Nebraska. Porcupine(569 mi.; 916 km): From Yukon Territory, Canada, to Yukon R. in Alaska. Potomac(383 mi.; 616 km): From Garrett Co. in Maryland to Chesapeake Bay at Point Lookout in Maryland.

Mountain Peaks in the United States Higher Than 14,000 Feet NameStateHeight (ft.) Mt. McKinleyAlaska20,320 Mt. St. EliasAlaska18,008 Mt. ForakerAlaska17,400 Mt. BonaAlaska16,500 Mt. BlackburnAlaska16,390 Mt. SanfordAlaska16,237 Mt. VancouverAlaska15,979 South ButtressAlaska15,885 Mt. ChurchillAlaska15,638 Mt. FairweatherAlaska15,300 Mt. HubbardAlaska14,950 Mt. BearAlaska14,831 East ButtressAlaska14,730 Mt. HunterAlaska14,573 Browne TowerAlaska14,530 Mt. AlverstoneAlaska14,500 Mt. WhitneyCalif.14,4941 University PeakAlaska14,470 Mt. ElbertColo.14,433 Mt. MassiveColo.14,421 Mt. HarvardColo.14,420 Mt. RainierWash.14,410 Mt. WilliamsonCalif.14,370 La Plata PeakColo.14,361 Blanca PeakColo.14,345 Uncompahgre PeakColo.14,309 Crestone PeakColo.14,294 Mt. LincolnColo.14,286 Grays PeakColo.14,270 Mt. AnteroColo.14,269 Torreys PeakColo.14,267 Castle PeakColo.14,265 Quandary PeakColo.14,265 Mt. EvansColo.14,264 Longs PeakColo.14,255 Mt. WilsonColo.14,246 White Mtn.Calif.14,246 North PalisadeCalif.14,242 Mt. CameronColo.14,238 Mt. ShavanoColo.14,229 Crestone NeedleColo.14,197 Mt. BelfordColo.14,197 Mt. PrincetonColo.14,197 Mt. YaleColo.14,196 Mt. BrossColo.14,172 Kit Carson Mtn.Colo.14,165 Mt. WrangellAlaska14,163 Mt. SillCalif.14,162 Mt. ShastaCalif.14,162 El Diente PeakColo.14,159 Point SuccessWash.14,158 Maroon PeakColo.14,156 Tabeguache Mtn.Colo.14,155 Mt. OxfordColo.14,153 Mt. SneffelsColo.14,150 Mt. DemocratColo.14,148 Capitol PeakColo.14,130 Liberty CapWash.14,112 Pikes PeakColo.14,110 Snowmass Mtn.Colo.14,092 Mt. RussellCalif.14,088 Mt. EolusColo.14,083 Windom PeakColo.14,082 Mt. ColumbiaColo.14,073 Mt. AugustaAlaska14,070 Missouri Mtn.Colo.14,067 Humboldt PeakColo.14,064 Mt. BierstadtColo.14,060 Sunlight PeakColo.14,059 Split Mtn.Calif.14,058 Handies PeakColo.14,048 Culebra PeakColo.14,047 Mt. LindseyColo.14,042 Ellingwood PointColo.14,042 Middle PalisadeCalif.14,040 Little Bear PeakColo.14,037 Mt. ShermanColo.14,036 Redcloud PeakColo.14,034 Mt. LangleyCalif.14,027 Conundrum PeakColo.14,022 Mt. TyndallCalif.14,019 Pyramid PeakColo.14,018 Wilson PeakColo.14,017 Wetterhorn PeakColo.14,015 North Maroon PeakColo.14,014 San Luis PeakColo.14,014 Middle PalisadeCalif.14,012 Mt. MuirCalif.14,012 Mt. of the Holy CrossColo.14,005 Huron PeakColo.14,003 Thunderbolt PeakCalif.14,003 Sunshine PeakColo.14,001 1. National Geodetic Survey. Source:U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey.

Highest, Lowest, and Mean Elevations in the United States StateElevation (ft.)1Highest pointElevation (ft.)Lowest pointElevation (ft.) Alabama500Cheaha Mountain2,405Gulf of MexicoSea level Alaska1,900Mt. McKinley20,320Pacific OceanSea level Arizona4,100Humphreys Peak12,633Colorado River70 Arkansas650Magazine Mountain2,753Ouachita River55 California2,900Mt. Whitney14,494Death Valley–2822 Colorado6,800Mt. Elbert14,433Arkansas River3,350 Connecticut500Mt. Frissell, on south slope2,380Long Island SoundSea level Delaware60Ebright Road, Del.–Pa. state line448Atlantic OceanSea level D.C.150Tenleytown, at Reno Reservoir410Potomac River1 Florida100Sec. 30, T6N, R20W, Walton County345Atlantic OceanSea level Georgia600Brasstown Bald4,784Atlantic OceanSea level Hawaii3,030Puu Wekiu, Mauna Kea13,796Pacific OceanSea level Idaho5,000Borah Peak12,662Snake River710 Illinois600Charles Mound1,235Mississippi River279 Indiana700Franklin Township, Wayne County1,257Ohio River320 Iowa1,100Sec. 29, T100N, R41W, Osceola County1,670Mississippi River480 Kansas2,000Mt. Sunflower4,039Verdigris River679 Kentucky750Black Mountain4,139Mississippi River257 Louisiana100Driskill Mountain535New Orleans–82 Maine600Mt. Katahdin5,267Atlantic OceanSea level Maryland350Backbone Mountain3,360Atlantic OceanSea level Massachusetts500Mt. Greylock3,487Atlantic OceanSea level Michigan900Mt. Arvon1,979Lake Erie572 Minnesota1,200Eagle Mountain2,301Lake Superior600 Mississippi300Woodall Mountain806Gulf of MexicoSea level Missouri800Taum Sauk Mountain1,772St. Francis River230 Montana3,400Granite Peak12,799Kootenai River1,800 Nebraska2,600Johnson Township, Kimball County5,424Missouri River840 Nevada5,500Boundary Peak13,140Colorado River479 New Hampshire1,000Mt. Washington6,288Atlantic OceanSea level New Jersey250High Point1,803Atlantic OceanSea level New Mexico5,700Wheeler Peak13,161Red Bluff Reservoir2,842 New York1,000Mt. Marcy5,344Atlantic OceanSea level North Carolina700Mt. Mitchell6,684Atlantic OceanSea level North Dakota1,900White Butte3,506Red River750 Ohio850Campbell Hill1,549Ohio River455 Oklahoma1,300Black Mesa4,973Little River289 Oregon3,300Mt. Hood11,239Pacific OceanSea level Pennsylvania1,100Mt. Davis3,213Delaware RiverSea level Rhode Island200Jerimoth Hill812Atlantic OceanSea level South Carolina350Sassafras Mountain3,560Atlantic OceanSea level South Dakota2,200Harney Peak7,242Big Stone Lake966 Tennessee900Clingmans Dome6,643Mississippi River178 Texas1,700Guadalupe Peak8,749Gulf of MexicoSea level Utah6,100Kings Peak13,528Beaverdam Wash2,000 Vermont1,000Mt. Mansfield4,393Lake Champlain95 Virginia950Mt. Rogers5,729Atlantic OceanSea level Washington1,700Mt. Rainier14,410Pacific OceanSea level West Virginia1,500Spruce Knob4,861Potomac River240 Wisconsin1,050Timms Hill1,951Lake Michigan579 Wyoming6,700Gannett Peak13,804Belle Fourche River3,099 United States2,500Mt. McKinley (Alaska)20,320Death Valley (California)–2822 1. Approximate mean elevation. 2. Below sea level. Source:U.S. Geological Survey.

The Difference between the U.K., Great Britain, England, and the British Isles Key differences of these names often used interchangeably United Kingdom Commonwealth of Nations British Monarch Isle of Man There are key differences between Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and England—names often used interchangeably. Great Britain Great Britain is an island that consists of three somewhat autonomous regions that include England, Scotland, and Wales. It is located east of Ireland and northwest of Francein the Atlantic Ocean. The United Kingdom The United Kingdom is a country that includes England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Its official name is “United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.” England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland are often mistaken as names of countries, but they are only a part of the United Kingdom. The British Isles The British Isles is another term altogether and encompasses Great Britain, the island of Ireland, and several other smaller islands, such as the Isle of Man. The Isle of Man is not a part of the United Kingdom or the European Union, even though its Lord is the Monarch of the United Kingdom. The Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nationsis a voluntary association of countries that were formerly British colonies. Members of the Commonwealth of Nations recognize the United Kingdom Monarch as their own king or queen, but remain politically independent. Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Antigua and Barbuda Australia Bahamas Bangladesh Barbados Belize Botswana Brunei Canada Cameroon Cyprus Dominica Gambia Ghana Grenada Guyana India Jamaica Kenya Kiribati Lesotho Malawi Malaysia Maldives Malta Mauritius Mozambique Namibi a Nauru New Zealand Nigeria Papua New Guinea Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Solomon Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Swaziland Tanzania Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tuvalu Uganda United Kingdom Vanuatu Zambia

Principal Deserts of the World Deserts are arid regions, generally receiving less than ten inches of precipitation a year, or regions where the potential evaporation rate is twice as great as the precipitation. The world's deserts are divided into four categories.Subtropical desertsare the hottest, with parched terrain and rapid evaporation. Althoughcool coastal desertsare located within the same latitudes as subtropical deserts, the average temperature is much cooler because of frigid offshore ocean currents.Cold winter desertsare marked by stark temperature differences from season to season, ranging from 100° F (38° C) in the summer to 10° F (–12° C) in the winter.Polar regionsare also considered to be deserts because nearly all moisture in these areas is locked up in the form of ice. DesertLocationSizeTopography SUBTROPICAL DESERTS SaharaMorocco, Western Sahara, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia3.5 million sq. mi.70% gravel plains, sand, and dunes. Contrary to popular belief, the desert is only 30% sand. The world's largest nonpolar desert gets its name from the Arabic wordSahra', meaning desert ArabianSaudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen1 million sq. mi.Gravel plains, rocky highlands; one-fourth is the Rub al-Khali (“Empty Quarter”), the world's largest expanse of unbroken sand KalahariBotswana, South Africa, Namibia220,000 sq. mi.Sand sheets, longitudinal dunes Australian Desert Gibson Australia (southern portion of the Western Desert)120,000 sq. mi.Sandhills, gravel, grass. These three regions of desert are collectively referred to as the Great Western Desert—otherwise known as “the Outback.” Contains Ayers Rock, or Uluru, one of the world's largest monoliths Great Sandy Australia (northern portion of the Western Desert)150,000 sq. mi. Great Victoria Australia (southernmost portion of the Western Desert)250,000 sq. mi. Simpson and Sturt Stony Australia (eastern half of the continent)56,000 sq. mi.Simpson's straight, parallel sand dunes are the longest in the world—up to 125 mi. Encompasses the Stewart Stony Desert, named for the Australian explorer MojaveU.S.: Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, California54,000 sq. mi.Mountain chains, dry alkaline lake beds, calcium carbonate dunes SonoranU.S.: Arizona, California; Mexico120,000 sq. mi.Basins and plains bordered by mountain ridges; home to the Saguaro cactus ChihuahuanMexico; southwestern U.S.175,000 sq. mi.Shrub desert; largest in North America TharIndia, Pakistan175,000 sq. mi.Rocky sand and sand dunes COOL COASTAL DESERTS NamibAngola, Namibia, South Africa13,000 sq. mi.Gravel plains AtacamaChile54,000 sq. mi.Salt basins, sand, lava; world's driest desert COLD WINTER DESERTS Great BasinU.S.: Nevada, Oregon, Utah190,000 sq. mi.Mountain ridges, valleys, 1% sand dunes Colorado Plateau U.S.: Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming130,000 sq. mi.Sedimentary rock, mesas, and plateaus—includes the Grand Canyon and is also called the “Painted Desert” because of the spectacular colors in its rocks and canyons PatagonianArgentina260,000 sq. mi.Gravel plains, plateaus, basalt sheets Kara-Kum Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan135,000 sq. mi.90% gray layered sand—name means “black sand” Kyzyl-Kum Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan115,000 sq. mi.Sands, rock—name means “red sand” IranianIran100,000 sq. mi.Salt, gravel, rock TaklamakanChina105,000 sq. mi.Sand, dunes, gravel GobiChina, Mongolia500,000 sq. mi.Stony, sandy soil, steppes (dry grasslands) POLAR ArcticU.S., Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia5.4 million sq. mi.Snow, glaciers, tundra AntarcticAntarctica5.5 million sq. mi.Ice, snow, bedrock

Large Islands of the World The following table lists the world's largest islands including the name, location, political affiliation, and land area. Greenland is the world's largest island covering 2,175,597 square kilometers. Area IslandLocation and political affiliationsq. mi.sq. km GreenlandNorth Atlantic (Danish)839,9992,175,597 New GuineaSouthwest Pacific (West Papua [Irian Jaya], Indonesia, western part; Papua New Guinea, eastern part)309,000800,311 BorneoWest mid-Pacific (Indonesian, south part; Brunei and Malaysian, north part)287,300744,108 MadagascarIndian Ocean (Malagasy Republic)227,000587,931 BaffinNorth Atlantic (Canadian)195,926507,451 SumatraNortheast Indian Ocean (Indonesian)182,859473,605 HonshuSea of Japan–Pacific (Japanese)89,176230,966 Great BritainOff coast of NW Europe (England, Scotland, and Wales)88,795229,979 VictoriaArctic Ocean (Canadian)83,896217,291 EllesmereArctic Ocean (Canadian)75,767196,236 Sulawesi(Celebes)West mid-Pacific (Indonesian)73,057189,218 South IslandSouth Pacific (New Zealand)58,384151,215 JavaIndian Ocean (Indonesian)51,038132,189 North IslandSouth Pacific (New Zealand)44,702115,778 CubaCaribbean Sea (republic)42,803110,860 NewfoundlandNorth Atlantic (Canadian)42,031108,860 LuzonWest mid-Pacific (Philippines)40,420104,688 IcelandNorth Atlantic (republic)39,800103,082 MindanaoWest mid-Pacific (Philippines)36,53794,631 IrelandWest of Great Britain (republic, south part; United Kingdom, north part)32,59784,426 HokkaidoSea of Japan–Pacific (Japanese)32,24583,515 Sakhalin(Karafuto)North of Japan (Russian)29,50076,405 HispaniolaCaribbean Sea (Dominican Republic, east part; Haiti, west part)29,30075,887 BanksArctic Ocean (Canadian)27,03870,028 TasmaniaSouth of Australia (Australian)26,20067,858 Sri Lanka(Ceylon)Indian Ocean (republic)24,90064,491 DevonArctic Ocean (Canadian)21,33155,247 Tierra del FuegoSouthern tip of South America (Argentinian, east part; Chilean, west part)18,60548,187 Axel HeibergArctic Ocean (Canadian)16,67143,178 MelvilleArctic Ocean (Canadian)16,27442,149 KyushuSea of Japan–Pacific (Japanese)16,22342,018 SouthamptonHudson Bay (Canadian)15,91341,214 NOTE: Australia is not included in this list because it is defined as a continent rather than an island.

Principal Rivers of the World The following table lists the principal rivers of the world including the name, source location, outflow, and approximate length. The Nile is the world's longest river stretching 6,690 kilometers. (See Rivers of the United Statesfor other U.S. rivers.) Approx. length RiverSourceOutflowmi.km NileTributaries of Lake Victoria, AfricaMediterranean Sea4,1806,690 AmazonGlacier-fed lakes, PeruAtlantic Ocean3,9126,296 Mississippi-Missouri- Red Rock Source of Red Rock, MontanaGulf of Mexico3,7105,970 Chang Jiang (Yangtze)Tibetan plateau, ChinaChina Sea3,6025,797 ObAltai Mts., RussiaGulf of Ob3,4595,567 Huang He(Yellow)Eastern part of Kunlan Mts., West ChinaGulf of Chihli2,9004,667 YeniseiTannu-Ola Mts., western Tuva, RussiaArctic Ocean2,8004,506 ParanáConfluence of Paranaiba and Grande riversRío de la Plata2,7954,498 IrtishAltai Mts., RussiaOb River2,7584,438 Zaire (Congo)Confluence of Lualab and Luapula rivers, CongoAtlantic Ocean2,7164,371 Heilong (Amur)Confluence of Shilka (Russia) and Argun (Manchuria) riversTatar Strait2,7044,352 LenaBaikal Mts., RussiaArctic Ocean2,6524,268 MackenzieHead of Finlay River, British Columbia, CanadaBeaufort Sea (Arctic Ocean)2,6354,241 NigerGuineaGulf of Guinea2,6004,184 MekongTibetan highlandsSouth China Sea2,5004,023 MississippiLake Itasca, MinnesotaGulf of Mexico2,3483,779 MissouriConfluence of Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison rivers, MontanaMississippi River2,3153,726 VolgaValdai plateau, RussiaCaspian Sea2,2913,687 MadeiraConfluence of Beni and Maumoré rivers, Bolivia–Brazil boundaryAmazon River2,0123,238 PurusPeruvian AndesAmazon River1,9933,207 São FranciscoSouthwest Minas Gerais, BrazilAtlantic Ocean1,9873,198 YukonJunction of Lewes and Pelly rivers, Yukon Territory, CanadaBering Sea1,9793,185 St. LawrenceLake OntarioGulf of St. Lawrence1,9003,058 Rio GrandeSan Juan Mts., ColoradoGulf of Mexico1,8853,034 BrahmaputraHimalayasGanges River1,8002,897 IndusHimalayasArabian Sea1,8002,897 DanubeBlack Forest, GermanyBlack Sea1,7662,842 EuphratesConfluence of Murat Nehri and Kara Su rivers, TurkeyShatt-al-Arab1,7392,799 DarlingCentral part of Eastern Highlands, AustraliaMurray River1,7022,739 Zambezi11°21'S, 24°22'E, ZambiaMozambique Channel1,7002,736 TocantinsGoiás, BrazilPará River1,6772,699 MurrayAustralian Alps, New South WalesIndian Ocean1,6092,589 NelsonHead of Bow River, western Alberta, CanadaHudson Bay1,6002,575 ParaguayMato Grosso, BrazilParaná River1,5842,549 UralSouthern Ural Mts., RussiaCaspian Sea1,5742,533 GangesHimalayasBay of Bengal1,5572,506 Amu Darya (Oxus)Nicholas Range, Pamir Mts., TurkmenistanAral Sea1,5002,414 JapuráAndes, ColombiaAmazon River1,5002,414 SalweenTibet, south of Kunlun Mts.Gulf of Martaban1,5002,414 ArkansasCentral ColoradoMississippi River1,4592,348 ColoradoGrand County, ColoradoGulf of California1,4502,333 DnieperValdai Hills, RussiaBlack Sea1,4192,284 Ohio- AlleghenyPotter County, PennsylvaniaMississippi River1,3062,102 IrrawaddyConfluence of Nmai and Mali rivers, northeast BurmaBay of Bengal1,3002,092 OrangeLesothoAtlantic Ocean1,3002,092 OrinocoSerra Parima Mts., VenezuelaAtlantic Ocean1,2812,062 PilcomayoAndes Mts., BoliviaParaguay River1,2421,999 Xi Jiang (Si Kiang)Eastern Yunnan Province, ChinaChina Sea1,2361,989 ColumbiaColumbia Lake, British Columbia, CanadaPacific Ocean1,2321,983 DonTula, RussiaSea of Azov1,2231,968 SungariChina–North Korea boundaryAmur River1,2151,955 SaskatchewanCanadian Rocky Mts.Lake Winnipeg1,2051,939 PeaceStikine Mts., British Columbia, CanadaGreat Slave River1,1951,923 TigrisTaurus Mts., TurkeyShatt-al-Arab1,1801,899

Oceans and Seas The following table lists the world's oceans and seas, according to area and average depth, including the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Arctic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, Bering Sea, and more. NameAreaAverage depthGreatest known depthPlace of greatest known depth sq. mi.sq. kmft.mft.m Pacific Ocean60,060,700155,557,00013,2154,02836,19811,033Mariana Trench Atlantic Ocean29,637,90076,762,00012,8803,92630,2469,219Puerto Rico Trench Indian Ocean26,469,50068,556,00013,0023,96324,4607,455Sunda Trench Southern Ocean17,848,30020,327,00013,100–16,4004,000–5,00023,7367,235South Sandwich Trench Arctic Ocean5,427,00014,056,0003,9531,20518,4565,62577°45'N; 175°W Mediterranean Sea21,144,8002,965,8004,6881,42915,1974,632Off Cape Matapan, Greece Caribbean Sea1,049,5002,718,2008,6852,64722,7886,946Off Cayman Islands South China Sea895,4002,319,0005,4191,65216,4565,016West of Luzon Bering Sea884,9002,291,9005,0751,54715,6594,773Off Buldir Island Gulf of Mexico615,0001,592,8004,8741,48612,4253,787Sigsbee Deep Okhotsk Sea613,8001,589,7002,74983812,0013,658146°10'E; 46°50'N East China Sea482,3001,249,2006171889,1262,78225°16'N; 125°E Hudson Bay475,8001,232,300420128600183Near entrance Japan Sea389,1001,007,8004,4291,35012,2763,742Central Basin Andaman Sea308,000797,7002,85487012,3923,777Off Car Nicobar Island North Sea222,100575,200308942,165660Skagerrak Red Sea169,100438,0001,6114917,2542,211Off Port Sudan Baltic Sea163,000422,200180551,380421Off Gotland NOTE: For Caspian Sea,see Large Lakes of the World. 1. A decision by the International Hydrographic Organization in spring 2000 delimited a fifth world ocean. 2. Includes Black Sea and Sea of Azov.

Mortals on Mount Olympus: A History of Climbing Everest Called Chomolungma (“goddess mother of the world”) in Tibet and Sagarmatha (“goddess of the sky”) in Nepal, Mount Everest once went by the pedestrian name of Peak XV among Westerners. That was before surveyors established that it was the highest mountain on Earth, a fact that came as something of a surprise—Peak XV had seemed lost in the crowd of other formidable Himalayan peaks, many of which gave the illusion of greater height. In 1852 the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India measured Everest's elevation as 29,002 feet above sea level. This remarkably accurate figure remained the officially accepted height for more than one hundred years. In 1955 it was adjusted by a mere 26 feet to 29,028 (8,848 m). The mountain received its official name in 1865 in honor of Sir George Everest, the British Surveyor General from 1830–1843 who had mapped the Indian subcontinent. He had some reservations about having his name bestowed on the peak, arguing that the mountain should retain its local appellation, the standard policy of geographical societies. Pretenders to the Throne Before the Survey of India, a number of other mountains ranked supreme in the eyes of the world. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Andean peak Chimboraso was considered the highest. At a relatively unremarkable 20,561 feet (6,267 m), it is in fact nowhere near the highest, surpassed by about thirty other Andean peaks and several dozen in the Himalayas. In 1809, the Himalayan peak Dhaulagiri (26,810 ft.; 8,172 m) was declared the ultimate, only to be shunted aside in 1840 by Kanchenjunga (28,208 ft.; 8,598 m), which today ranks third. Everest's status has been unrivaled for the last century-and-a-half, but not without a few threats. The most recent challenge came from a 1986 American expedition climbing K2 (28,250 ft., 8,611 m) in the Karakoram range. According to their measurements, K2 was actually 29,284 feet, beating Everest by a cool 256 feet. Had this figure been accepted, mountaineering history would have required drastic revision: Everest would have taken a back seat to K2, no longer thene plus ultraof geographical extremes. The Third Pole Once the North and South Poles had been reached by explorers, the next geographical feat to capture the international imagination was Everest, often called the Third Pole. Attempts to climb Everest began in the 1921, when the forbidden kingdom of Tibet opened its borders to outsiders. On June 8, 1924, two members of a British expedition, George Mallory and Andrew Irvine, attempted the summit. Famous for his retort to the press—“because it's there”—when asked why he wanted to climb Everest, Mallory had already failed twice at reaching the summit. The two men were last spotted “going strong” for the top until the clouds perpetually swirling around Everest engulfed them. They vanished for good. Mallory's body was not found for another 75 years, and it did not clear up the mystery as to whether the two men made it to the top before the mountain killed them. Ten more expeditions over a period of thirty years failed to conquer Everest, with 13 losing their lives. Then, on May 29, 1953, Edmund Hillary, a New Zealand beekeeper, and Tenzing Norgay, an acclaimed Sherpa climber, became the first to reach the roof of the world. Their climb was made from the Nepalese side, which had eased its restrictions on foreigners at about the same time that Tibet, invaded in 1950 by China, shut its borders. World famous overnight, Hillary became a hero of the British empire—the news reached London just in time for Elizabeth II's coronation—and Norgay was touted as a symbol of national pride by three separate nations: Nepal, Tibet, and India. Into the Death Zone Although not considered one of the most technically challenging mountains to climb (K2 is more difficult), the dangers of Everest include avalanches, crevasses, ferocious winds up to 125 mph, sudden storms, temperatures of 40°F below zero, and oxygen deprivation. In the “death zone”—above 25,000 feet—the air holds only a third as much oxygen as at sea level, heightening the chances of hypothermia, frostbite, high-altitude pulmonary edema (when the lungs fatally fill with fluid) and high-altitude cerebral edema (when the oxygen-starved brain swells up). Even when breathing bottled oxygen, climbers experience extreme fatigue, impaired judgment and coordination, headaches, nausea, double vision, and sometimes hallucinations. Expeditions spend weeks, sometimes months, acclimatizing, and usually attempt Everest only in May and October, avoiding the winter snows and the summer monsoons. After Hillary and Norgay's ascent of Everest, other records were broken, including the first ascent by a woman, the first solo ascent, the first to traverse up one route and down another, and the first descent on skis.

Everest Is Higher Than Ever As of Nov. 11, 1999, the new official height of Mount Everest was announced as 29,035 feet, or 8,850 meters—6 feet, or 2 meters, higher than the previously accepted measurement. The new elevation was determined using satellite-based technology: the Trimble Global Positioning System (GPS). A team of seven climbers measured the mountain from the summit on May 5, 1999, collecting data from various GPS satellite receivers at the very top of Everest. It took the climbers a number of attempts over several years until they were able to successfully set up the equipment at the summit. Everest was first measured in 1852 in the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, which established the peak as the highest on Earth. That figure (29,002 feet above sea level) remained Everest’s officially accepted height for more than one hundred years. The original 1852 measurement was remarkably accurate: in 1955 the elevation was adjusted by a mere 26 feet to 29,028 feet (8,848 meters).

New Island Emerges off the Coast of Germany Norderoogsand, a new island in the North Sea, is already a home to many birds and plants. By Jennie Wood A new island has appeared in the North Sea. A new island has emerged from the North Sea, off the coast of Germany, located sixteen miles from the German state, Schleswig Holstein. The 34 acre island has been named Norderoogsand, but it is being referred to as Bird Island because many birds, including sea gulls, grey geese, ducks, and peregrine falcons have been found there nesting or feeding. Forty-nine plant species have also been found on the island. The island appeared slowly over a ten year period from 2003 through 2013. The land mass emerged due to tidal action, not global warming. The island’s appearance surprised scientists because that area of the North Sea has strong winds and shifting tides. However, Norderoogsand was helped by its position between other islands. The surrounding islands helped to shelter it. Also, there have been very few storm surges in the area over the last decade. In early 2013, Martin Stock, a National Park Management biologist, said in a statement, “A strong storm flood could wipe the island out overnight. The plants do not have the roots necessary yet to bind the dunes together.” Other scientists have also warned that a major storm could destroy Norderoogsand, but, for now, birds and plants have a new home.

Climbing the Seven Summits About 350 mountaineers have climbed all "Seven Summits"—the highest peak on each of the seven continents. The first was Dick Bass, an American businessman, on April 30, 1985. ContinentMountainCountry and/or locationHeight FeetMeters AsiaMt. EverestTibet-Nepal29,0358,850 South AmericaMt. AconcaguaArgentina22,8346,960 North AmericaMt. McKinley (Denali)United States, Alaska20,3206,194 AfricaMt. KilimanjaroTanzania19,3405,995 EuropeElbrusRussia/Georgia18,5105,642 AntarcticaVinson MassifEllsworth Mts.16,0664,897 Australia1KosciuskoAustralia7,3102,228 1. Some climbers believe that the true Seven Summits should include Carstensz Pyramid (16,023 ft.) in Irian Jaya, Indonesia, rather than Australia's Kosciusko. Carstensz is the highest summit in Australia/Oceania, but strictly speaking, Oceania is not a continent.

Highest Mountain Peaks of the World The following table lists the highest mountain peaks of the world including mountain name, mountain range, vertical height, and location, according to the National Geographic Society. See Named Summits in the U.S. Over 14,000 Feet Above Sea Levelfor U.S. Peaks. See also Climbing the World's 14 8,000- meter Peaks, The Seven Summits, Mortals on Mount Olympus: A History of Climbing Everest, and the Everest Almanac. Mountain peakRangeLocationHeight ft.m Everest1 HimalayasNepal/Tibet29,0358,850 K2 (Godwin Austen) KarakoramPakistan/China28,2508,611 KanchenjungaHimalayasIndia/Nepal28,1698,586 Lhotse IHimalayasNepal/Tibet27,9408,516 Makalu IHimalayasNepal/Tibet27,7668,463 Cho OyuHimalayasNepal/Tibet26,9068,201 DhaulagiriHimalayasNepal26,7958,167 Manaslu IHimalayasNepal26,7818,163 Nanga ParbatHimalayasPakistan26,6608,125 AnnapurnaHimalayasNepal26,5458,091 Gasherbrum IKarakoramPakistan/China26,4708,068 Broad PeakKarakoramPakistan/China26,4008,047 Gasherbrum IIKarakoramPakistan/China26,3608,035 Shishma Pangma (Gosainthan)HimalayasTibet26,2898,013 Annapurna IIHimalayasNepal26,0417,937 Gyachung KangHimalayasNepal25,9107,897 Disteghil SarKarakoramPakistan25,8587,882 HimalchuliHimalayasNepal25,8017,864 NuptseHimalayasNepal25,7267,841 Nanda DeviHimalayasIndia25,6637,824 MasherbrumKarakoramKashmir225,6607,821 RakaposhiKarakoramPakistan25,5517,788 Kanjut SarKarakoramPakistan25,4617,761 KametHimalayasIndia/Tibet25,4467,756 Namcha BarwaHimalayasTibet25,4457,756 Gurla MandhataHimalayasTibet25,3557,728 Ulugh Muztagh KunlunTibet25,3407,723 KungurMuztagh AtaChina25,3257,719 Tirich Mir Hindu KushPakistan25,2307,690 Saser KangriKarakoramIndia25,1727,672 Makalu IIHimalayasNepal25,1207,657 Minya Konka (Gongga Shan)Daxue ShanChina24,9007,590 Kula KangriHimalayasBhutan24,7837,554 Chang-tzuHimalayasTibet24,7807,553 Muztagh AtaMuztagh AtaChina24,7577,546 Skyang KangriHimalayasKashmir24,7507,544 Ismail Samani Peak(formerly Communism Peak) PamirsTajikistan24,5907,495 Jongsong PeakHimalayasNepal24,4727,459 Pobeda Peak Tien ShanKyrgyzstan24,4067,439 Sia KangriHimalayasKashmir24,3507,422 Haramosh PeakKarakoramPakistan24,2707,397 Istoro NalHindu KushPakistan24,2407,388 Tent PeakHimalayasNepal24,1657,365 Chomo LhariHimalayasTibet/Bhutan24,0407,327 ChamlangHimalayasNepal24,0127,319 KabruHimalayasNepal24,0027,316 Alung GangriHimalayasTibet24,0007,315 Baltoro KangriHimalayasKashmir23,9907,312 Muztagh Ata (K-5)KunlunChina23,8907,282 ManaHimalayasIndia23,8607,273 BaruntseHimalayasNepal23,6887,220 Nepal PeakHimalayasNepal23,5007,163 Amne MachinKunlunChina23,4907,160 Gauri SankarHimalayasNepal/Tibet23,4407,145 BadrinathHimalayasIndia23,4207,138 NunkunHimalayasKashmir23,4107,135 Lenin PeakPamirsTajikistan/Kyrgyzstan23,4057,134 PyramidHimalayasNepal23,4007,132 ApiHimalayasNepal23,3997,132 PauhunriHimalayasIndia/China23,3857,128 TrisulHimalayasIndia23,3607,120 Korzhenevski PeakPamirsTajikistan23,3107,105 KangtoHimalayasTibet23,2607,090 NyainqentanglhaNyainqentanglha ShanChina23,2557,088 TrisuliHimalayasIndia23,2107,074 DunagiriHimalayasIndia23,1847,066 Revolution PeakPamirsTajikistan22,8806,974 Aconcagua AndesArgentina22,8346,960 Ojos del SaladoAndesArgentina/Chile22,6646,908 BoneteAndesArgentina/Chile22,5466,872 Ama DablamHimalayasNepal22,4946,856 TupungatoAndesArgentina/Chile22,3106,800 Moscow PeakPamirsTajikistan22,2606,785 PissisAndesArgentina22,2416,779 MercedarioAndesArgentina/Chile22,2116,770 HuascaránAndesPeru22,2056,768 LlullaillacoAndesArgentina/Chile22,0576,723 El LibertadorAndesArgentina22,0476,720 CachiAndesArgentina22,0476,720 KailasHimalayasTibet22,0276,714 IncahuasiAndesArgentina/Chile21,7206,620 YerupajaAndesPeru21,7096,617 KurumdaPamirsTajikistan21,6866,610 GalanAndesArgentina21,6546,600 El MuertoAndesArgentina/Chile21,4636,542 SajamaAndesBolivia21,3916,520 NacimientoAndesArgentina21,3026,493 IllampuAndesBolivia21,2766,485 IllimaniAndesBolivia21,2016,462 CoropunaAndesPeru21,0836,426 LaudoAndesArgentina20,9976,400 AncohumaAndesBolivia20,9586,388 CuzcoAndesPeru20,9456,384 (Ausangate) Toro AndesArgentina/Chile20,9326,380 Tres CrucesAndesArgentina/Chile20,8536,356 HuandoyAndesPeru20,8526,356 ParinacotaAndesBolivia/Chile20,7686,330 TortolasAndesArgentina/Chile20,7456,323 ChimborazoAndesEcuador20,7026,310 AmpatoAndesPeru20,7026,310 El CondorAndesArgentina20,6696,300 SalcantayAndesPeru20,5746,271 HuancarhuasAndesPeru20,5316,258 FamatinaAndesArgentina20,5056,250 PumasilloAndesPeru20,4926,246 SoloAndesArgentina20,4926,246 PollerasAndesArgentina20,4566,235 PularAndesChile20,4236,225 ChañiAndesArgentina20,3416,200 McKinley (Denali)AlaskaAlaska20,3206,194 AucanquilchaAndesChile20,2956,186 JuncalAndesArgentina/Chile20,2766,180 NegroAndesArgentina20,1846,152 QuelaAndesArgentina20,1286,135 CondoririAndesBolivia20,0956,125