1800–1899(A.D.)World History (part 3 of 3): 1865 Gen. Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox; the Civil War is over. Lincoln fatally shot at Ford's Theater by John Wilkes Booth. Vice President Johnson sworn as successor. Booth caught and dies of gunshot wounds; four conspirators are hanged. Joseph Listerbegins antiseptic surgery. Gregor Mendel'sLaw of Heredity. Lewis Carroll'sAlice's Adventures in Wonderland. 1866 Alfred Nobelinvents dynamite (patented in Britain,1867). Seven Weeks' War: Austria defeated by Prussia and Italy. 1867 Austria-Hungary Dual Monarchy established. French leave Mexico; Maximilian executed. Dominion of Canada established. U.S. buys Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000. South African diamond field discovered. Japan ends 675–year shogun rule. Volume I of Marx'sDas Kapital. Strauss'sBlue Danube. 1868 Revolution in Spain; Queen Isabella deposed, flees to France. In U.S., Fourteenth Amendmentgiving civil rights to blacks is ratified. Georgia under military government after legislature expels blacks. 1869 First U.S. transcontinental rail route completed. James Fiskand Jay Gould's attempt to control gold market causes Black Friday panic. Suez Canalopens. Mendeleev's periodic table of elements. 1870 Franco-Prussian War(to1871): Napoleon III capitulates at Sedan. Revolt in Paris; Third Republic proclaimed. 1871 France surrenders Alsace-Lorraine to Germany; war ends. German Empire proclaimed with Prussian King as Kaiser Wilhelm I. Fighting with Apaches begins in American West. Boss Tweedcorruption exposed in New York. The Chicago Fire, with 250 deaths and $196-million damage. Stanleymeets Livingstonein Africa. 1872 Congress gives amnesty to most Confederates. Jules Verne'sAround the World in 80 Days. 1873 Economic crisis in Europe. U.S. establishes gold standard. 1875 First Kentucky Derby. 1876 Sioux kill Gen. George A. Custerand 264 troopers at Little Big Horn River. Alexander Graham Bellpatents the telephone. 1877 After presidential election of1876,electoral commission gives disputed electoral college votes to Rutherford B. Hayes despite Tilden's popular majority. Russo-Turkish war(ends in1878with power of Turkey in Europe broken). Reconstructionends in the American South. Thomas Edisonpatents phonograph. The Nez Perce leader Chief Josephis forced to surrender. Tchaikovsky'sSwan Lake. 1878 Congress of Berlinrevises Treaty of San Stefano, ending Russo-Turkish War; makes extensive redivision of southeast Europe. First commercial telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Conn. 1879 Thomas A. Edison invents practical electric light. 1880 U.S.-China treaty allows U.S. to restrict immigration of Chinese labor. 1881 President Garfieldfatally shot by assassin; Vice President Arthur succeeds him. Charles J. Guiteau convicted and executed (1882). 1882 Terrorism in Ireland after land evictions. Britain invades and conquers Egypt. Germany, Austria, and Italy form Triple Alliance. In U.S., Congress adopts Chinese Exclusion Act. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Trust is first industrial monopoly. In Berlin, Robert Kochannounces discovery of tuberculosis germ. 1883 Congress creates Civil Service Commission. Brooklyn Bridge and Metropolitan OperaHouse completed. 1884 Berlin West Africa Conference held in Berlin (lasting untilFeb. 1885), at which the major European nations discuss expansion in Africa. 1885 British general Charles G. “Chinese” Gordonkilled at Khartoum in Egyptian Sudan. World's first skyscraper built in Chicago. 1886 Bombing at Haymarket Square, Chicago, kills seven policemen and injures many others. Eight alleged anarchists accused—three imprisoned, one commits suicide, four hanged. (In1893,Illinois governor Altgeld, critical of trial, pardons three survivors.) Statue of Libertydedicated. Geronimo, Apache Indian chief, surrenders. 1887 Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's first Sherlock Holmes story,A Study in Scarlet. 1888 Historic March blizzard in northeast U.S.—many perish, property damage exceeds $25 million. George Eastman's box camera (the Kodak). J. B. Dunlop invents pneumatic tire. Jack the Ripper murders in London. 1889 Second (Socialist) International founded in Paris. Indian Territory in Oklahoma opened to settlement. Thousands die in Johnstown, Pa. flood. Eiffel Tower built for the Paris exposition. Mark Twain'sA Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. 1890 Congress votes to pass Sherman Antitrust Act. Sioux chief Sitting Bullarrested and killed by police on Pine Ridge reservation; two weeks later, U.S. troops kill over 200 Sioux at Battle of Wounded Knee. 1892 Battle between steel strikers and Pinkerton guards at Homestead, Pa.; union defeated after militia intervenes. Silver mine strikers in Idaho fight non-union workers; U.S. troops dispatched. Diesel enginepatented. 1893 New Zealand becomes first country in the world to grant women the vote.

1800–1899(A.D.)World History (part 2 of 3): 1836 Boerfarmers start “Great Trek”—Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State founded in South Africa. Mexican army besieges Texans in Alamo. Entire garrison, including Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie, wiped out. Texans gain independence from Mexico after winning Battle of San Jacinto. Dickens'sPickwick Papers. 1837 Victoriabecomes queen of Great Britain. Mob kills Elijah P. Lovejoy, Illinois abolitionist publisher. 1839 First Opium War(to1842) between Britain and China, over importation of drug into China. 1840 Lower and Upper Canada united. 1841 U.S. President Harrison dies (April 4) one month after inauguration; John Tyler becomes first vice president to succeed to presidency. 1842 Crawford Long uses first anesthetic (ether). 1843 Wagner's operaThe Flying Dutchman. 1844 Democratic convention calls for annexation of Texas and acquisition of Oregon (“Fifty-four-forty-or-fight”). Five Chinese ports opened to U.S. ships. Samuel F. B. Morsepatents telegraph. 1845 Congress adopts joint resolution for annexation of Texas. Edgar Allan PoepublishesThe Raven and Other Poems. 1846 U.S. declares war on Mexico. California and New Mexico annexed by U.S. Brigham Young leads Mormons to Great Salt Lake. W. T. Morton uses ether as anesthetic. Sewing machine patented by Elias Howe. Frederick Douglasslaunches abolitionist newspaperThe North Star.Failure of potato crop causes famine in Ireland. 1848 Revolt in Paris: Louis Philippe abdicates; Louis Napoleon elected president of French Republic. Revolutions in Vienna, Venice, Berlin, Milan, Rome, and Warsaw. Put down by royal troops in1848–1849.U.S.-Mexico War ends; Mexico cedes claims to Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada. U.S. treaty with Britain sets Oregon Territory boundary at 49th parallel. Karl Marxand Friedrich Engels'sCommunist Manifesto.Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery and joins the Underground Railroad. Women's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, N.Y. 1849 California gold rush begins. 1850 Henry Clayopens great debate on slavery, warns South against secession. 1851 Herman Melville'sMoby-Dick. 1852 South African Republic established. Louis Napoleon proclaims himself Napoleon III (“Second Empire”). Harriet Beecher Stowe'sUncle Tom's Cabin. 1853 Crimean Warbegins as Turkey declares war on Russia. Commodore Perryreaches Tokyo. 1854 Britain and France join Turkey in war on Russia. In U.S., Kansas- Nebraska Actpermits local option on slavery; rioting and bloodshed. Japanese allow American trade. Antislavery men in Michigan form Republican Party. Tennyson'sCharge of the Light Brigade. Thoreau'sWalden. 1855 Armed clashes in Kansas between pro- and anti-slavery forces. Florence Nightingalenurses wounded in Crimea. Walt Whitman'sLeaves of Grass. 1856 Flaubert'sMadame Bovary. 1857 Supreme Court, in Dred Scottdecision, rules that a slave is not a citizen. Financial crisis in Europe and U.S. Great Mutiny ( Sepoy Rebellion) begins in India. India placed under crown rule as a result. 1858 Pro-slavery constitution rejected in Kansas. Abraham Lincolnmakes strong antislavery speech in Springfield, Ill.: “This Government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free.” Lincoln-Douglas debates. First trans-Atlantic telegraph cable completed by Cyrus W. Field. 1859 John Brownraids Harpers Ferry; is captured and hanged. Work begins on Suez Canal. Unification of Italy starts under leadership of Count Cavour, Sardinian premier. Joined by France in war against Austria. Jean-Joseph-Étienne Lenoir builds first practical internal-combustion engine. Edward Fitzgerald's translation ofThe Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. Charles Darwin'sOrigin of Species. J. S. Mill'sOn Liberty. 1860 South Carolina secedes from the Union. 1861 U.S. Civil Warbegins as attempts at compromise fail. Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas secede; with South Carolina, they form the Confederate States of America, with Jefferson Davis as president. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina secede and join Confederacy. First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas).(For detailed chronology, see The Civil War.) Congress creates Colorado, Dakota, and Nevada territories; adopts income tax; Lincoln inaugurated. Serfs emancipated in Russia. Pasteur's theory of germs. Independent Kingdom of Italy proclaimed under Sardinian king Victor Emmanuel II. 1862 Several major Civil War battles: Battle of Shiloh, Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), Battle of Antietam. Salon des Refusés introduces impressionism. 1863 French capture Mexico City; proclaim Archduke Maximilianof Austria emperor. Battle of Gettysburg. 1864 Gen. Sherman's Atlanta campaign and “march to the sea.”

1800–1899(A.D.)World History (part 1 of 3): War of 1812 The Civil War Spanish-American War (1898–1899) Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) Richard Wagner (1813–1883) Archive Photos Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Frederick Douglass (1817–1895) National Archives and Records Admin. Harriet Tubman (c. 1820–1913) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811–1896) National Archives and Records Admin. Walt Whitman (1819–1892) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Dred Scott (1795?–1858) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865) National Archives and Records Admin. Charles Darwin (1809–1882) Robert E. Lee (1807–1870) National Archives and Records Admin. William Tecumseh Sherman (1820–1891) National Archives and Records Admin. Chief Joseph (c. 1840–1904) National Archives and Records Admin. Statue of Liberty Tasha Vincent Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) (1835–1910) The Library of Congress Picture Collection The Eiffel Tower Tasha Vincent Marie Curie (1867–1934) AIP Niels Bohr Library 1800 Napoleon conquers Italy, firmly establishes himself as First Consul in France. In the U.S., federal government moves to Washington, D.C. Robert Owen's social reforms in England. William Herschel discovers infrared rays. Alessandro Volta produces electricity. 1801 Austria makes temporary peace with France. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland established with one monarch and one parliament; Catholics excluded from voting. 1803 U.S. negotiates Louisiana Purchasefrom France: for $15 million, U.S. doubles its domain, increasing its territory by 827,000 sq mi (2,144,500 sq km), from Mississippi River to Rockies and from Gulf of Mexico to British North America. 1804 Haiti declares independence from France; first black nation to gain freedom from European colonial rule. Napoleon transforms the Consulate of France into an empire, proclaims himself emperor of France, systematizes French law underCode Napoleon.In the U.S., Alexander Hamiltonis mortally wounded in duel with Aaron Burr. Lewis and Clark expeditionbegins exploration of what is now northwest U.S. 1805 Lord Nelsondefeats the French-Spanish fleets in the Battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon victorious over Austrian and Russian forces at the Battle of Austerlitz. 1807 Robert Fulton makes first successful steamboat trip onClermontbetween New York City and Albany. 1808 French armies occupy Rome and Spain, extending Napoleon's empire. Britain begins aiding Spanish guerrillas against Napoleon in Peninsular War. In the U.S., Congress bars importation of slaves. Beethoven'sFifthandSixth Symphoniesperformed. 1812 Napoleon's Grand Army invades Russia in June. Forced to retreat in winter, most of Napoleon's 600,000 men are lost. In the U.S., war with Britain declared over freedom of the seas for U.S. vessels (War of 1812). USSConstitution(For detailed chronology, see War of 1812.) sinks British frigate. 1814 French defeated by allies (Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Portugal) in War of Liberation. Napoleon exiled to Elba, off Italian coast. Bourbon king Louis XVIII takes French throne. George Stephenson builds first practical steam locomotive. 1815 Napoleon returns: “Hundred Days” begin. Napoleon defeated by Wellington at Waterloo, banished again to St. Helena in South Atlantic. Congress of Vienna: victorious allies change the map of Europe. War of 1812 ends with Treaty of Ghent. 1819 Simón Bolívarliberates New Granada (now Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador) as Spain loses hold on South American countries; named president of Colombia. 1820 Missouri Compromise> Missouri admitted as slave state but slavery barred in rest of Louisiana Purchase north of 36°30' N. 1821 Guatemala, Panama, and Santo Domingo proclaim independence from Spain. 1822 Greeks proclaim a republic and independence from Turkey. Turks invade Greece. Russia declares war on Turkey(1828).Greece also aided by France and Britain. War ends and Turks recognize Greek independence(1829).Brazil becomes independent of Portugal. Schubert'sEighth Symphony(“The Unfinished”). 1823 U.S. Monroe Doctrinewarns European nations not to interfere in Western Hemisphere. 1824 Mexico becomes a republic, three years after declaring independence from Spain. Bolívar liberates Peru, becomes its president. Beethoven'sNinth Symphony. 1825 First passenger-carrying railroadin England. 1826 Joseph-Nicéphore Niepce takes the world's first photograph. 1830 French invade Algeria. Louis Philippe becomes “Citizen King” as revolution forces Charles X to abdicate. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- day Saintsformed in U.S. by Joseph Smith. 1831 Polish revolt against Russia fails. Belgium separates from the Netherlands. In U.S., Nat Turnerleads unsuccessful slave rebellion. 1833 Slavery abolished in British Empire. 1834 Charles Babbage invents “analytical engine,” precursor of computer. McCormick patents reaper.

1700–1799(A.D.)World History French Revolution (1789–1799) Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) Frederick the Great (1712–1786) Samuel Johnson (1709–1784) George Washington (1732–1799) Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804) Napoléon Bonaparte (1769–1821) 1701 War of the Spanish Successionbegins—the last of Louis XIV's wars for domination of the continent. The Peace of Utrecht (1714) will end the conflict and mark the rise of the British Empire. Called Queen Anne's War in America, it ends with the British taking New Foundland, Acadia, and Hudson's Bay Territory from France, and Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain. 1704 Deerfield (Mass.) Massacre of English colonists by French and Indians. Bach's first cantata. Jonathan Swift'sTale of a Tub.Boston News Letter—first newspaper in America. 1707 United Kingdom of Great Britain formed—England, Wales, and Scotland joined by parliamentary Act of Union. 1729 Bach'sSt. Matthew Passion. Isaac Newton'sPrincipiatranslated from Latin into English. 1732 Benjamin Franklinbegins publishingPoor Richard's Almanack.James Oglethorpe and others found Georgia. 1735 John Peter Zenger, New York editor, acquitted of libel in New York, establishing press freedom. 1740 Capt. Vitus Bering, Dane employed by Russia, discovers Alaska. Frederick II “the Great” crowned king of Prussia. 1746 British defeat Scots under Stuart Pretender Prince Charles at Culloden Moor. Last battle fought on British soil. 1751 Publication of theEncyclopédiebegins in France, the “bible” of the Enlightenment. 1755 Samuel Johnson'sDictionaryfirst published. Great earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal—over 60,000 die. U.S. postal service established. 1756 Seven Years' War(French and Indian Wars in America) (to1763), in which Britain and Prussia defeat France, Spain, Austria, and Russia. France loses North American colonies; Spain cedes Florida to Britain in exchange for Cuba. In India, over 100 British prisoners die in “Black Hole of Calcutta.” 1757 Beginning of British Empirein India as Robert Clive, British commander, defeats Nawab of Bengal at Plassey. 1759 British capture Quebec from French. Voltaire'sCandide. Haydn'sSymphony No. 1. 1762 Catherine II(“the Great”) becomes czarina of Russia. Jean Jacques Rousseau'sSocial Contract. Mozarttours Europe as six-year-old prodigy. 1765 James Watt invents the steam engine. Britain imposes the Stamp Act on the American colonists. 1769 Sir William Arkwright patents a spinning machine—an early step in the Industrial Revolution. 1770 The Boston Massacre. 1772 Joseph Priestleyand Daniel Rutherford independently discover nitrogen. Partition of Poland—in1772, 1793,and1795,Austria, Prussia, and Russia divide land and people of Poland, end its independence. 1773 The Boston Tea Party. 1774 First Continental Congressdrafts “Declaration of Rights and Grievances.” 1775 The American Revolutionbegins with battle of Lexington and Concord. Second Continental Congress. Priestley discovers hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. 1776 Declaration of Independence. Gen. George Washingtoncrosses the Delaware Christmas night. Adam Smith'sWealth of Nations.Edward Gibbon'sDecline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Thomas Paine'sCommon Sense.Fragonard'sWasherwoman.Mozart'sHaffner Serenade. 1778 Capt. James Cookdiscovers Hawaii. Franz Mesmer uses hypnotism. 1781 Immanuel Kant'sCritique of Pure Reason.Herschel discovers Uranus. 1783 Revolutionary War ends with Treaty of Paris. William Blake's poems. Beethoven's first printed works. 1784 Crimea annexed by Russia. John Wesley'sDeed of Declaration,the basic work of Methodism. 1785 Russians settle Aleutian Islands. 1787 The Constitution of the United Statessigned. Lavoisier's work on chemical nomenclature. Mozart'sDon Giovanni. 1788 FrenchParlementpresents grievances to Louis XVI who agrees to convening of Estates-General in1789—not called since1613. Goethe'sEgmont.Laplace'sLaws of the Planetary System. 1789 French Revolutionbegins with the storming of the Bastille. (For detailed chronology, see French Revolution (1789–1799).) In U.S., Washington elected president with all 69 votes of the Electoral College, takes oath of office in New York City. Vice President: John Adams. Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson. Secretary of Treasury: Alexander Hamilton. 1790 H.M.S.Bountymutineers settle on Pitcairn Island. Aloisio Galvani experiments on electrical stimulation of the muscles. Philadelphia temporary capital of U.S. as Congress votes to establish new capital on Potomac. U.S. population about 3,929,000, including 698,000 slaves. Lavoisier formulatesTable of 31 chemical elements. 1791 U.S. Bill of Rights ratified. Boswell'sLife of Johnson. 1792 Mary Wollstonecraft'sVindication of the Rights of Woman. 1793 Louis XVIand Marie Antoinetteexecuted. Reign of Terror begins in France. Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin, spurring the growth of the cotton industry and helping to institutionalize slavery in the U.S. South.

1600–1699(A.D.)World History The Revolutionary War Pocahontas (c. 1595–1617) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Galileo (1564–1642) Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) Taj Mahal The Library of Congress Picture Collection John Milton (1608–1674) 1600 Giordano Bruno burned as a heretic. English East India Company established. 1603 Ieyasu rules Japan, moves capital to Edo (Tokyo). Shakespeare'sHamlet. 1605 Cervantes'sDon Quixote de la Mancha,the first modern novel. 1607 Jamestown, Virginia, established—first permanent English colony on American mainland. Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, saves life of John Smith. 1609 Samuel de Champlain establishes French colony of Quebec. TheRelation,the first newspaper, debuts in Germany. 1610 Galileosees the moons of Jupiter through his telescope. 1611 Gustavus Adolphus elected King of Sweden. King James Version of the Bible published in England. Rubens paints hisDescent from the Cross. 1614 John Napier discovers logarithms. 1618 Start of the Thirty Years' War> Protestants revolt against Catholic oppression; Denmark, Sweden, and France will invade Germany in later phases of war. Kepler proposes last of three laws of planetary motion. 1619 A Dutch ship brings the first African slaves to British North America. 1620 Pilgrims, after three-month voyage inMayflower,land at Plymouth Rock. Francis Bacon'sNovum Organum. 1623 New Netherland founded by Dutch West India Company. 1630 Massachusetts Bay Colony. 1632 Maryland founded by Lord Baltimore. 1633 Inquisition forces Galileo (astronomer) to recant his belief in Copernican theory. 1642 English Civil War. Cavaliers, supporters of Charles I, against Roundheads, parliamentary forces. Oliver Cromwell defeats Royalists(1646).Parliament demands reforms. Charles I offers concessions, brought to trial(1648),beheaded(1649).Cromwell becomes Lord Protector(1653).Rembrandt paints hisNight Watch. 1643 Taj Mahal completed. 1644 End of Ming Dynasty in China—Manchus come to power. Descartes'sPrinciples of Philosophy. 1648 End of the Thirty Years' War. German population about half of what it was in1618because of war and pestilence. 1658 Cromwell dies; son Richard resigns and Puritan government collapses. 1660 English Parliament calls for the restoration of the monarchy; invites Charles II to return from France. 1661 Charles II is crowned King of England. Louis XIV begins personal rule as absolute monarch; starts to build Versailles. 1664 British take New Amsterdam from the Dutch. English limit “Nonconformity” with reestablished Anglican Church. Isaac Newton's experiments with gravity. 1665 Great Plague in London kills 75,000. 1666 Great Fire of London. Molière'sMisanthrope. 1667 Milton'sParadise Lost,widely considered the greatest epic poem in English. 1682 Pennsylvania founded by William Penn. 1683 War of European powers against the Turks (to1699). Vienna withstands three-month Turkish siege; high point of Turkish advance in Europe. 1684 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's calculus published. 1685 James II succeeds Charles II in England, calls for freedom of conscience(1687).Protestants fear restoration of Catholicism and demand “Glorious Revolution.” William of Orange invited to England and James II escapes to France(1688).William III and his wife, Mary, crowned. In France, Edict of Nantes of1598,granting freedom of worship to Huguenots, is revoked by Louis XIV; thousands of Protestants flee. 1689 Peter the Greatbecomes Czar of Russia—attempts to westernize nation and build Russia as a military power. Defeats Charles XII of Sweden at Poltava(1709).Beginning of the French and Indian Wars(to1763), campaigns in America linked to a series of wars between France and England for domination of Europe. 1690 William III of England defeats former king James II and Irish rebels at Battle of the Boyne in Ireland. John Locke'sHuman Understanding.