1800–1899(A.D.)World History (part 1 of 3): War of 1812 The Civil War Spanish-American War (1898–1899) Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) Richard Wagner (1813–1883) Archive Photos Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Frederick Douglass (1817–1895) National Archives and Records Admin. Harriet Tubman (c. 1820–1913) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811–1896) National Archives and Records Admin. Walt Whitman (1819–1892) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Dred Scott (1795?–1858) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865) National Archives and Records Admin. Charles Darwin (1809–1882) Robert E. Lee (1807–1870) National Archives and Records Admin. William Tecumseh Sherman (1820–1891) National Archives and Records Admin. Chief Joseph (c. 1840–1904) National Archives and Records Admin. Statue of Liberty Tasha Vincent Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) (1835–1910) The Library of Congress Picture Collection The Eiffel Tower Tasha Vincent Marie Curie (1867–1934) AIP Niels Bohr Library 1800 Napoleon conquers Italy, firmly establishes himself as First Consul in France. In the U.S., federal government moves to Washington, D.C. Robert Owen's social reforms in England. William Herschel discovers infrared rays. Alessandro Volta produces electricity. 1801 Austria makes temporary peace with France. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland established with one monarch and one parliament; Catholics excluded from voting. 1803 U.S. negotiates Louisiana Purchasefrom France: for $15 million, U.S. doubles its domain, increasing its territory by 827,000 sq mi (2,144,500 sq km), from Mississippi River to Rockies and from Gulf of Mexico to British North America. 1804 Haiti declares independence from France; first black nation to gain freedom from European colonial rule. Napoleon transforms the Consulate of France into an empire, proclaims himself emperor of France, systematizes French law underCode Napoleon.In the U.S., Alexander Hamiltonis mortally wounded in duel with Aaron Burr. Lewis and Clark expeditionbegins exploration of what is now northwest U.S. 1805 Lord Nelsondefeats the French-Spanish fleets in the Battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon victorious over Austrian and Russian forces at the Battle of Austerlitz. 1807 Robert Fulton makes first successful steamboat trip onClermontbetween New York City and Albany. 1808 French armies occupy Rome and Spain, extending Napoleon's empire. Britain begins aiding Spanish guerrillas against Napoleon in Peninsular War. In the U.S., Congress bars importation of slaves. Beethoven'sFifthandSixth Symphoniesperformed. 1812 Napoleon's Grand Army invades Russia in June. Forced to retreat in winter, most of Napoleon's 600,000 men are lost. In the U.S., war with Britain declared over freedom of the seas for U.S. vessels (War of 1812). USSConstitution(For detailed chronology, see War of 1812.) sinks British frigate. 1814 French defeated by allies (Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Portugal) in War of Liberation. Napoleon exiled to Elba, off Italian coast. Bourbon king Louis XVIII takes French throne. George Stephenson builds first practical steam locomotive. 1815 Napoleon returns: “Hundred Days” begin. Napoleon defeated by Wellington at Waterloo, banished again to St. Helena in South Atlantic. Congress of Vienna: victorious allies change the map of Europe. War of 1812 ends with Treaty of Ghent. 1819 Simón Bolívarliberates New Granada (now Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador) as Spain loses hold on South American countries; named president of Colombia. 1820 Missouri Compromise> Missouri admitted as slave state but slavery barred in rest of Louisiana Purchase north of 36°30' N. 1821 Guatemala, Panama, and Santo Domingo proclaim independence from Spain. 1822 Greeks proclaim a republic and independence from Turkey. Turks invade Greece. Russia declares war on Turkey(1828).Greece also aided by France and Britain. War ends and Turks recognize Greek independence(1829).Brazil becomes independent of Portugal. Schubert'sEighth Symphony(“The Unfinished”). 1823 U.S. Monroe Doctrinewarns European nations not to interfere in Western Hemisphere. 1824 Mexico becomes a republic, three years after declaring independence from Spain. Bolívar liberates Peru, becomes its president. Beethoven'sNinth Symphony. 1825 First passenger-carrying railroadin England. 1826 Joseph-Nicéphore Niepce takes the world's first photograph. 1830 French invade Algeria. Louis Philippe becomes “Citizen King” as revolution forces Charles X to abdicate. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- day Saintsformed in U.S. by Joseph Smith. 1831 Polish revolt against Russia fails. Belgium separates from the Netherlands. In U.S., Nat Turnerleads unsuccessful slave rebellion. 1833 Slavery abolished in British Empire. 1834 Charles Babbage invents “analytical engine,” precursor of computer. McCormick patents reaper.

1700–1799(A.D.)World History French Revolution (1789–1799) Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) Frederick the Great (1712–1786) Samuel Johnson (1709–1784) George Washington (1732–1799) Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804) Napoléon Bonaparte (1769–1821) 1701 War of the Spanish Successionbegins—the last of Louis XIV's wars for domination of the continent. The Peace of Utrecht (1714) will end the conflict and mark the rise of the British Empire. Called Queen Anne's War in America, it ends with the British taking New Foundland, Acadia, and Hudson's Bay Territory from France, and Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain. 1704 Deerfield (Mass.) Massacre of English colonists by French and Indians. Bach's first cantata. Jonathan Swift'sTale of a Tub.Boston News Letter—first newspaper in America. 1707 United Kingdom of Great Britain formed—England, Wales, and Scotland joined by parliamentary Act of Union. 1729 Bach'sSt. Matthew Passion. Isaac Newton'sPrincipiatranslated from Latin into English. 1732 Benjamin Franklinbegins publishingPoor Richard's Almanack.James Oglethorpe and others found Georgia. 1735 John Peter Zenger, New York editor, acquitted of libel in New York, establishing press freedom. 1740 Capt. Vitus Bering, Dane employed by Russia, discovers Alaska. Frederick II “the Great” crowned king of Prussia. 1746 British defeat Scots under Stuart Pretender Prince Charles at Culloden Moor. Last battle fought on British soil. 1751 Publication of theEncyclopédiebegins in France, the “bible” of the Enlightenment. 1755 Samuel Johnson'sDictionaryfirst published. Great earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal—over 60,000 die. U.S. postal service established. 1756 Seven Years' War(French and Indian Wars in America) (to1763), in which Britain and Prussia defeat France, Spain, Austria, and Russia. France loses North American colonies; Spain cedes Florida to Britain in exchange for Cuba. In India, over 100 British prisoners die in “Black Hole of Calcutta.” 1757 Beginning of British Empirein India as Robert Clive, British commander, defeats Nawab of Bengal at Plassey. 1759 British capture Quebec from French. Voltaire'sCandide. Haydn'sSymphony No. 1. 1762 Catherine II(“the Great”) becomes czarina of Russia. Jean Jacques Rousseau'sSocial Contract. Mozarttours Europe as six-year-old prodigy. 1765 James Watt invents the steam engine. Britain imposes the Stamp Act on the American colonists. 1769 Sir William Arkwright patents a spinning machine—an early step in the Industrial Revolution. 1770 The Boston Massacre. 1772 Joseph Priestleyand Daniel Rutherford independently discover nitrogen. Partition of Poland—in1772, 1793,and1795,Austria, Prussia, and Russia divide land and people of Poland, end its independence. 1773 The Boston Tea Party. 1774 First Continental Congressdrafts “Declaration of Rights and Grievances.” 1775 The American Revolutionbegins with battle of Lexington and Concord. Second Continental Congress. Priestley discovers hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. 1776 Declaration of Independence. Gen. George Washingtoncrosses the Delaware Christmas night. Adam Smith'sWealth of Nations.Edward Gibbon'sDecline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Thomas Paine'sCommon Sense.Fragonard'sWasherwoman.Mozart'sHaffner Serenade. 1778 Capt. James Cookdiscovers Hawaii. Franz Mesmer uses hypnotism. 1781 Immanuel Kant'sCritique of Pure Reason.Herschel discovers Uranus. 1783 Revolutionary War ends with Treaty of Paris. William Blake's poems. Beethoven's first printed works. 1784 Crimea annexed by Russia. John Wesley'sDeed of Declaration,the basic work of Methodism. 1785 Russians settle Aleutian Islands. 1787 The Constitution of the United Statessigned. Lavoisier's work on chemical nomenclature. Mozart'sDon Giovanni. 1788 FrenchParlementpresents grievances to Louis XVI who agrees to convening of Estates-General in1789—not called since1613. Goethe'sEgmont.Laplace'sLaws of the Planetary System. 1789 French Revolutionbegins with the storming of the Bastille. (For detailed chronology, see French Revolution (1789–1799).) In U.S., Washington elected president with all 69 votes of the Electoral College, takes oath of office in New York City. Vice President: John Adams. Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson. Secretary of Treasury: Alexander Hamilton. 1790 H.M.S.Bountymutineers settle on Pitcairn Island. Aloisio Galvani experiments on electrical stimulation of the muscles. Philadelphia temporary capital of U.S. as Congress votes to establish new capital on Potomac. U.S. population about 3,929,000, including 698,000 slaves. Lavoisier formulatesTable of 31 chemical elements. 1791 U.S. Bill of Rights ratified. Boswell'sLife of Johnson. 1792 Mary Wollstonecraft'sVindication of the Rights of Woman. 1793 Louis XVIand Marie Antoinetteexecuted. Reign of Terror begins in France. Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin, spurring the growth of the cotton industry and helping to institutionalize slavery in the U.S. South.

1600–1699(A.D.)World History The Revolutionary War Pocahontas (c. 1595–1617) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Galileo (1564–1642) Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) Taj Mahal The Library of Congress Picture Collection John Milton (1608–1674) 1600 Giordano Bruno burned as a heretic. English East India Company established. 1603 Ieyasu rules Japan, moves capital to Edo (Tokyo). Shakespeare'sHamlet. 1605 Cervantes'sDon Quixote de la Mancha,the first modern novel. 1607 Jamestown, Virginia, established—first permanent English colony on American mainland. Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, saves life of John Smith. 1609 Samuel de Champlain establishes French colony of Quebec. TheRelation,the first newspaper, debuts in Germany. 1610 Galileosees the moons of Jupiter through his telescope. 1611 Gustavus Adolphus elected King of Sweden. King James Version of the Bible published in England. Rubens paints hisDescent from the Cross. 1614 John Napier discovers logarithms. 1618 Start of the Thirty Years' War> Protestants revolt against Catholic oppression; Denmark, Sweden, and France will invade Germany in later phases of war. Kepler proposes last of three laws of planetary motion. 1619 A Dutch ship brings the first African slaves to British North America. 1620 Pilgrims, after three-month voyage inMayflower,land at Plymouth Rock. Francis Bacon'sNovum Organum. 1623 New Netherland founded by Dutch West India Company. 1630 Massachusetts Bay Colony. 1632 Maryland founded by Lord Baltimore. 1633 Inquisition forces Galileo (astronomer) to recant his belief in Copernican theory. 1642 English Civil War. Cavaliers, supporters of Charles I, against Roundheads, parliamentary forces. Oliver Cromwell defeats Royalists(1646).Parliament demands reforms. Charles I offers concessions, brought to trial(1648),beheaded(1649).Cromwell becomes Lord Protector(1653).Rembrandt paints hisNight Watch. 1643 Taj Mahal completed. 1644 End of Ming Dynasty in China—Manchus come to power. Descartes'sPrinciples of Philosophy. 1648 End of the Thirty Years' War. German population about half of what it was in1618because of war and pestilence. 1658 Cromwell dies; son Richard resigns and Puritan government collapses. 1660 English Parliament calls for the restoration of the monarchy; invites Charles II to return from France. 1661 Charles II is crowned King of England. Louis XIV begins personal rule as absolute monarch; starts to build Versailles. 1664 British take New Amsterdam from the Dutch. English limit “Nonconformity” with reestablished Anglican Church. Isaac Newton's experiments with gravity. 1665 Great Plague in London kills 75,000. 1666 Great Fire of London. Molière'sMisanthrope. 1667 Milton'sParadise Lost,widely considered the greatest epic poem in English. 1682 Pennsylvania founded by William Penn. 1683 War of European powers against the Turks (to1699). Vienna withstands three-month Turkish siege; high point of Turkish advance in Europe. 1684 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's calculus published. 1685 James II succeeds Charles II in England, calls for freedom of conscience(1687).Protestants fear restoration of Catholicism and demand “Glorious Revolution.” William of Orange invited to England and James II escapes to France(1688).William III and his wife, Mary, crowned. In France, Edict of Nantes of1598,granting freedom of worship to Huguenots, is revoked by Louis XIV; thousands of Protestants flee. 1689 Peter the Greatbecomes Czar of Russia—attempts to westernize nation and build Russia as a military power. Defeats Charles XII of Sweden at Poltava(1709).Beginning of the French and Indian Wars(to1763), campaigns in America linked to a series of wars between France and England for domination of Europe. 1690 William III of England defeats former king James II and Irish rebels at Battle of the Boyne in Ireland. John Locke'sHuman Understanding.

1600–1699(A.D.)World History The Revolutionary War Pocahontas (c. 1595–1617) The Library of Congress Picture Collection Galileo (1564–1642) Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) Taj Mahal The Library of Congress Picture Collection John Milton (1608–1674) 1600 Giordano Bruno burned as a heretic. English East India Company established. 1603 Ieyasu rules Japan, moves capital to Edo (Tokyo). Shakespeare'sHamlet. 1605 Cervantes'sDon Quixote de la Mancha,the first modern novel. 1607 Jamestown, Virginia, established—first permanent English colony on American mainland. Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, saves life of John Smith. 1609 Samuel de Champlain establishes French colony of Quebec. TheRelation,the first newspaper, debuts in Germany. 1610 Galileosees the moons of Jupiter through his telescope. 1611 Gustavus Adolphus elected King of Sweden. King James Version of the Bible published in England. Rubens paints hisDescent from the Cross. 1614 John Napier discovers logarithms. 1618 Start of the Thirty Years' War> Protestants revolt against Catholic oppression; Denmark, Sweden, and France will invade Germany in later phases of war. Kepler proposes last of three laws of planetary motion. 1619 A Dutch ship brings the first African slaves to British North America. 1620 Pilgrims, after three-month voyage inMayflower,land at Plymouth Rock. Francis Bacon'sNovum Organum. 1623 New Netherland founded by Dutch West India Company. 1630 Massachusetts Bay Colony. 1632 Maryland founded by Lord Baltimore. 1633 Inquisition forces Galileo (astronomer) to recant his belief in Copernican theory. 1642 English Civil War. Cavaliers, supporters of Charles I, against Roundheads, parliamentary forces. Oliver Cromwell defeats Royalists(1646).Parliament demands reforms. Charles I offers concessions, brought to trial(1648),beheaded(1649).Cromwell becomes Lord Protector(1653).Rembrandt paints hisNight Watch. 1643 Taj Mahal completed. 1644 End of Ming Dynasty in China—Manchus come to power. Descartes'sPrinciples of Philosophy. 1648 End of the Thirty Years' War. German population about half of what it was in1618because of war and pestilence. 1658 Cromwell dies; son Richard resigns and Puritan government collapses. 1660 English Parliament calls for the restoration of the monarchy; invites Charles II to return from France. 1661 Charles II is crowned King of England. Louis XIV begins personal rule as absolute monarch; starts to build Versailles. 1664 British take New Amsterdam from the Dutch. English limit “Nonconformity” with reestablished Anglican Church. Isaac Newton's experiments with gravity. 1665 Great Plague in London kills 75,000. 1666 Great Fire of London. Molière'sMisanthrope. 1667 Milton'sParadise Lost,widely considered the greatest epic poem in English. 1682 Pennsylvania founded by William Penn. 1683 War of European powers against the Turks (to1699). Vienna withstands three-month Turkish siege; high point of Turkish advance in Europe. 1684 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's calculus published. 1685 James II succeeds Charles II in England, calls for freedom of conscience(1687).Protestants fear restoration of Catholicism and demand “Glorious Revolution.” William of Orange invited to England and James II escapes to France(1688).William III and his wife, Mary, crowned. In France, Edict of Nantes of1598,granting freedom of worship to Huguenots, is revoked by Louis XIV; thousands of Protestants flee. 1689 Peter the Greatbecomes Czar of Russia—attempts to westernize nation and build Russia as a military power. Defeats Charles XII of Sweden at Poltava(1709).Beginning of the French and Indian Wars(to1763), campaigns in America linked to a series of wars between France and England for domination of Europe. 1690 William III of England defeats former king James II and Irish rebels at Battle of the Boyne in Ireland. John Locke'sHuman Understanding.

1500–1599(A.D.)World History Michelangelo's David (1504) Tasha Vincent Martin Luther (1483–1546) Henry VIII(1491–1547) Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603) William Shakespeare (1564–1616) Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669) Catherine de Medici (1519–1589) 1501 First black slaves in America brought to Spanish colony of Santo Domingo. c. 1503 Leonardo da Vincipaints theMona Lisa.Michelangelo sculpts theDavid(1504). 1506 St. Peter's Church started in Rome; designed and decorated by such artists and architects as Bramante, Michelangelo, da Vinci, Raphael, and Bernini before its completion in1626. 1509 Henry VIIIascends English throne. Michelangelo paints the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. 1513 Balboa becomes the first European to encounter the Pacific Ocean. Machiavelli writesThe Prince. 1517 Turks conquer Egypt, control Arabia. Martin Lutherposts his 95 theses denouncing church abuses on church door in Wittenberg—start of the Reformationin Germany. 1519 Ulrich Zwingli begins Reformation in Switzerland. Hernando Cortes conquers Mexico for Spain. Charles I of Spain is chosen Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sets out to circumnavigate the globe. 1520 Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X. Suleiman I(“the Magnificent”) becomes Sultan of Turkey, invades Hungary(1521),Rhodes(1522),attacks Austria(1529),annexes Hungary(1541),Tripoli(1551),makes peace with Persia(1553),destroys Spanish fleet(1560),dies(1566).Magellan reaches the Pacific, is killed by Philippine natives(1521).One of his ships under Juan Sebastián del Cano continues around the world, reaches Spain(1522). 1524 Verrazano, sailing under the French flag, explores the New England coast and New York Bay. 1527 Troops of the Holy Roman Empire attack Rome, imprison Pope Clement VII—the end of the Italian Renaissance. Castiglione writesThe Courtier.The Medici family expelled from Florence. 1532 Pizarro marches from Panama to Peru, kills the Inca chieftain, Atahualpa, of Peru(1533).Machiavelli'sThe Princepublished posthumously. 1535 Reformation begins as Henry VIII makes himself head of English Church after being excommunicated by Pope. Sir Thomas Moreexecuted as traitor for refusal to acknowledge king's religious authority. Jacques Cartier sails up the St. Lawrence River, basis of French claims to Canada. 1536 Henry VIII executes second wife, Anne Boleyn. John Calvin establishes Reformed and Presbyterian form of Protestantism in Switzerland, writesInstitutes of the Christian Religion.Danish and Norwegian Reformations. Michelangelo'sLast Judgment. 1541 John Knox leads Reformation in Scotland, establishes Presbyterian church there(1560). 1543 Publication ofOn the Revolution of Heavenly Bodiesby Polish scholar Nicolaus Copernicus—giving his theory that the earth revolves around the sun. 1545 Council of Trent to meet intermittently until1563to define Catholic dogma and doctrine, reiterate papal authority. 1547 Ivan IV(“the Terrible”) crowned as czar of Russia, begins conquest of Astrakhan and Kazan(1552),battles nobles (boyars) for power(1564),kills his son(1580),dies, and is succeeded by his weak and feeble-minded son, Fyodor I. 1553 Roman Catholicism restored in England by Queen Mary I. 1556 Akbar the Great becomes Mogulemperor of India, conquers Afghanistan(1581),continues wars of conquest (until1605). 1558 Queen Elizabeth Iascends the throne (rules to1603). Restores Protestantism, establishes state Church of England (Anglicanism). Renaissance will reach height in England— Shakespeare, Marlowe, Spenser. 1561 Persecution of Huguenotsin France stopped by Edict of Orleans. French religious wars begin again with massacre of Huguenots at Vassy. St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre—thousands of Huguenots murdered(1572).Amnesty granted(1573).Persecution continues periodically until Edict of Nantes(1598)gives Huguenots religious freedom (until1685). 1568 Protestant Netherlands revolts against Catholic Spain; independence will be acknowledged by Spain in1648. 1570 Japan permits visits of foreign ships. Queen Elizabeth I excommunicated by Pope. Turks attack Cyprus and war on Venice. Turkish fleet defeated at Battle of Lepanto by Spanish and Italian fleets(1571).Peace of Constantinople(1572)ends Turkish attacks on Europe. 1580 Francis Drake returns to England after circumnavigating the globe; knighted by Queen Elizabeth I(1581).Montaigne'sEssayspublished. 1582 Pope Gregory XIII implements the Gregorian calendar. 1583 William of Orange rules the Netherlands; assassinated on orders of Philip II of Spain(1584). 1587 Mary, Queen of Scots, executed for treason by order of Queen Elizabeth I. Monteverdi'sFirst Book of Madrigals. 1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada by English. Henry, King of Navarre and Protestant leader, recognized as Henry IV, first Bourbon king of France. Converts to Roman Catholicism in1593in attempt to end religious wars.