HISTORY OF CANADA (part 1 of 2): CANADA’S PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES FIND OUT MORE The first people in Canada came from Asia 70,000 to 12,000 years ago, via a land bridge now covered by the Bering Sea. The “First Nations” spread across Canada, obtaining food by hunting, gathering, and farming. Around 6000 BC, the Inuit settled in the north. By the time Europeans reached Canada, the native peoples had well-developed trading patterns, societies, and cultures. 70,000–10,000 BCNomadic hunters arrive in Canada c. 6000 BCInuit arrive in Canada c. AD 1000Leif Eriksson and other Vikings visit Labrador and L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland 1003Vikings establish a colony in Labrador (Vinland), but it is abandoned two years later 1497John Cabot’s first voyage to North America; Cape Breton Island claimed for Henry VII of England 1534Jacques Cartier visits the Strait of Belle Isle (Newfoundland) and charts the Gulf of St. Lawrence 1608Samuel de Champlain, “Father of New France,” founds Quebec City, the first permanent European settlement in Canada 1610Henry Hudson explores Hudson Bay 1642Montreal is founded 1670The Hudson Bay Company is founded by royal charter and granted trade rights over all territory draining into Hudson Bay 1713The Treaty of Utrecht confirms British possession of Newfoundland, Hudson Bay, and Acadia (except Cape Breton Island) 1754Start of French and Indian War in America. Marks the final phase in the struggle between France and Britain in North America 1755Britain expels the Acadians from Nova Scotia, scattering them throughout her North American colonies 1759General Wolfe defeats the French on the Plains of Abraham and takes the city of Quebec for the British 1763France cedes its North American possessions to Britain in the Treaty of Paris 1774The Quebec Act provides for British criminal law but restores French civil law and guarantees religious freedom for Roman Catholics 1775–76American revolutionary forces capture Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point; Quebec City withstands a five-month American siege until the appearance of a British fleet 1791The Constitutional Act divides Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada 1792George Vancouver begins his explorations of the Pacific Coast 1818Canada’s border with the United States is defined as the 49th Parallel from Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains 1841Act of Union unites Upper and Lower Canada as the Province of Canada 184790,000 immigrants, mostly from Ireland, arrive in Canada. 5,000 die of cholera while in quarantine; 15,000 die after moving to Quebec City, Montreal, Toronto, and Kingston 1849The boundary of the 49th Parallel is extended to the Pacific Ocean 1867Britain’s North American colonies are united to become the Dominion of Canada and Sir John A. Macdonald becomes Canada’s first prime minister 1870The Red River Rebellion, in which the Métis (led by Louis Riel) resist Canadian authority in the northwest of the country, is put down 1885Riel leads the Northwest Rebellion. The Métis are defeated at Batoche, and Riel is hanged for treason. The last spike of the transcontinental railway is put in place 1895Gold is discovered in the Klondike River, prompting the biggest gold rush in history. Nearly 2.4 million settlers arrive in the country in several waves of immigration 1899The first Canadian troops ever sent overseas are dispatched to the Boer War 1903Canada loses the Alaska boundary dispute with the US 1914Britain declares war on Germany, automatically drawing Canada into the conflict in Europe. The War Measures Act orders all German and Austro-Hungarian Canadians to carry identity cards 1916The government of Manitoba grants women the right to vote and hold office 1917Munitions ship explodes in Halifax harbor, killing 2,000 and injuring 9,000. Income tax is introduced as a temporary wartime measure 1918Canadians break through the German trenches at Amiens beginning “Canada’s Hundred Days.” Armistice ends World War I 1922Canadians Charles Best, Frederick Banting, and John MacLeod win the Nobel Prize for the discovery of insulin 1929Great Depression

HISTORY OF CANADA (part 2 of 2): 1931The Statute of Westminster grants Canada full legislative authority 1935Ten percent of Canadians rely on welfare or “relief.” The “On to Ottawa Trek” by young men from government work camps ends in a riot at Regina 1939Canada declares war on Germany 1942Canadians of Japanese descent are moved inland from the coast of British Columbia as “security risks”; their property is confiscated 1944Canadian troops push farther inland than any other Allied units on D-Day 1945World War II ends. One million Canadians fought in World War II; 42,042 were killed. Canada joins the UN. Canada’s first nuclear reactor goes online in Chalk River, Ontario 1950Canadian troops participate in the Korean War as part of a UN force 1952Canada’s first television station begins broadcasting in Montreal and Toronto 1960The separation crisis begins in Quebec. Supporters of the Parti Québécois call for independence from a federal Canada 1965Canada’s new flag is inaugurated after a bitter political debate 1967Montreal plays host to Expo ’67 1976The Olympic games are held in Montreal 1980Quebec votes “no” to separatism in a referendum 1982Canada gains a new Constitution and Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The charter entrenches English/French bilingualism within federal institutions and provides for minority language education across the country 1988Calgary hosts the XV Winter Olympics 1989The Free Trade Agreement between Canada and the US goes into effect 1991Canadian forces join the battle to drive Iraqi troops from Kuwait. Yukon First Nations members sign an agreement on land claims and self-government 1995People of Quebec vote by a narrow majority to remain part of Canada 1999The Inuit territory of Nunavut, which covers one-fifth of Canada’s landmass, is established 2000At the largest state funeral in the country’s history, Canada bids farewell to ex-Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau 2003The Parti Québécois is ousted by Quebec’s Liberal party in the provincial elections CANADA’S PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES Table 60. CANADA’S PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES 1867New Brunswick 1867Nova Scotia 1867Ontario 1867Quebec 1870Manitoba 1871British Columbia 1873Prince Edward Island 1898Yukon Territory 1905Alberta 1905Northwest Territories 1905Saskatchewan 1949Newfoundland 1999Nunavut Territory

MIDDLE EAST: WHY HAS THERE BEEN FIGHTING IN ISRAEL? WHO CAME TO POWER IN IRAQ? The Middle East saw much conflict during the last century. Its deserts contain the world’s biggest oil fields, which have brought wealth to the area’s rulers but also colonial interference and wars. Other flashpoints were the creation of Israel and disputes over the role of Islam in government. WHY HAS THERE BEEN FIGHTING IN ISRAEL? In 1948, the UN made part of Palestine the Jewish nation of Israel. Jewish people returned to their traditional homeland, but many displaced Palestinian Arabs became refugees. The struggle between Israelis and Palestinians for this land continues. WHO CAME TO POWER IN IRAQ? In 1963, the Ba’ath party seized power in Iraq with US support. In 1979, Saddam Hussein became president. Iraq fought against Iran, and invaded oil-rich Kuwait, which was liberated by a US-led coalition in 1991. In 2003, the US and Great Britain claimed that Hussein remained an international threat and invaded Iraq.

DECOLONIZATION: WHEN DID WINDS OF CHANGE BLOW? APARTHEID After 1945, European nations began to give up their colonies. In some places, power was handed back to local people peacefully. White South Africans refused to share power, creating a system of APARTHEID. WHEN DID WINDS OF CHANGE BLOW? In 1960, the British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan made a speech in South Africa, declaring that a “wind of change” was blowing through the African continent. He meant that the age of empires and colonies was coming to an end. Today only a few colonies or “overseas territories” still exist. APARTHEID Apartheid is a word from the Afrikaans language that means “staying apart.” It was the South African government’s policy of racial separation from 1948 to 1994. White people, who made up only 14 percent of the population, refused to give the vote to black or Asian people. These peoples were denied basic rights and were not allowed to mix with the whites. WHAT WERE THE EFFECTS OF APARTHEID? Black people were not permitted to live in areas reserved for whites. They were not even allowed to sit on the same benches. Many black people endured bad housing, poverty, and inadequate education. Black and white South Africans who protested against apartheid risked imprisonment or death. WHEN DID APARTHEID END? The end of apartheid came in 1994, when Nelson Mandela won South Africa’s first democratic general election. This occasion marked the end of two centuries in which Europeans had attempted to rule the rest of the world. However, the newly independent nations of Africa still face many problems. BIOGRAPHY: NELSON MANDELA 1918- Nelson Mandela was a black lawyer who campaigned against apartheid. Imprisoned from 1964–1990, he became a symbol of resistance. After his release, he became South Africa’s first black president.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: WHY WAS THE UNITED NATIONS FOUNDED? WHAT OTHER ALLIANCES WERE SET UP? Nations have always formed alliances. In the 20th century, many new international organizations were set up worldwide for economic and political reasons, defense and peacekeeping, and health and welfare. WHY WAS THE UNITED NATIONS FOUNDED? The League of Nations was founded in 1919 to keep the peace after World War I. But it failed to prevent World War II in 1939, so in 1945 the nations of the world set up a new organization, the United Nations (UN). Since then, the UN has encouraged international cooperation and worked to resolve conflict. THE OLIVE BRANCH The United Nations flag shows the world surrounded by olive branches, a symbol of peace. The UN has sent peacekeeping forces around the world. WHAT OTHER ALLIANCES WERE SET UP? Some alliances have been political, such as the Arab League (1945) or the Organization of African Unity (1963). The European Economic Community (1958) grew from a small trading alliance into the European Union. Military alliances included the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949–) and the Warsaw Pact (1955–1991).