Tsunami in Japan 2011: Waves Stirred Up Tsunami in Japan Japanwas hit by a 9.0 magnitude earthquakeon March 11, 2011, that triggered a deadly 23-foot tsunami in the country's north. The giant waves deluged cities and rural areas alike, sweeping away cars, homes, buildings, a train, and boats, leaving a path of death and devastation in its wake. Video footage showed cars racing away from surging waves. The earthquake—the largest in Japan's history—struck about 230 miles northeast of Tokyo. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center issued warnings for Russia, Taiwan, Hawaii, Indonesia, the Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Australia, and the west coasts the U.S., Mexico, Central America, and South America. According to the official toll, the disasters left 15,839 dead, 5,950 injured, and 3,642 missing. Earthquake Causes Nuclear Disaster What's more, cooling systems in one of the reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station in the Fukushima prefecture on the east coast of Japan failed shortly after the earthquake, causing a nuclear crisis. This initial reactor failure was followed by an explosion and eventual partial meltdowns in two reactors, then by a fire in another reactor which released radioactivity directly into the atmosphere. The nuclear troubles were not limited to the Daiichi plant; three other nuclear facilities also reported problems. More than 200,000 residents were evacuated from affected areas. On April 12, Japan raised its assessment of the situation at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant to Level 7, the worst rating on the international scale, putting the disaster on par with the 1986 Chernobyl explosion. Developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) along with countries who use nuclear energy, the scale defines level 7 as a nuclear accident that involves "widespread health and environmental effects" and the "external release of a significant fraction of the reactor core inventory." Almost two months later, the IAEA called the status of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant "very serious." At a news conference on March 13, Prime Minister Naoto Kan, who later gave the disaster the name "Great East Japan Earthquake", emphasized the gravity of the situation: "I think that the earthquake, tsunami, and the situation at our nuclear reactors makes up the worst crisis in the 65 years since the war. If the nation works together, we will overcome." The government called in 100,000 troops to aid in the relief effort. The deployment was the largest since World War II. The tsunami in Japan recalled the 2004 disaster in the Indian Ocean. On Dec. 26, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake—the largest earthquakein 40 years—ruptured in the Indian Ocean, off the northwest coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The earthquake stirred up the deadliest tsunamiin world history, so powerful that the waves caused loss of life on the coast of Africa and were even detected on the East Coast of the United States. More than 225,000 people died from the disaster, a half a million were injured, and millions were left homeless. Seestatistics on Deadliest Tsunamisand Deadliest Earthquakes. The Science of Tsunami A tsunami(pronounced soo-NAHM-ee) is a series of huge waves that occur as the result of a violent underwater disturbance, such as an earthquakeor volcanic eruption. The waves travel in all directions from the epicenter of the disturbance. The waves may travel in the open sea as fast as 450 miles per hour. As they travel in the open ocean, tsunami waves are generally not particularly large—hence the difficulty in detecting the approach of a tsunami. But as these powerful waves approach shallow waters along the coast, their velocity is slowed and they consequently grow to a great height before smashing into the shore. They can grow as high as 100 feet; the Indian Ocean tsunami generated waves reaching 30 feet. Tsunamiis the Japanese word for "harbor wave." They are sometimes mistakenly referred to as tidal waves, but tsunamis have nothing to do with the tides. Tsunamis have been relatively rare in the Indian Ocean, and are most common in the Pacific Ocean.

Nuclear Disaster Glossary: Terms and Definitions Becquerel, Cesium, Hibakusha, Pressurized water reactor, and more by Catherine McNiff Below are terms and definitions frequently used in the aftermath of the nuclear disaster in Japan. A-M| N-Z Acute radiation syndrome (ARS) Also known as radiation sickness, this serious illness is caused by high doses of radiation. The first symptoms are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, and often include skin damage. Apocalypse A great disaster, usually equated with the end of the world. Becquerel A measurement of radioactivity; its symbol is Bq. Cesium Cesium is a naturally occurring element found combined with other elements in rocks, soil, and dust in low amounts. Nuclear explosions or the breakdown of uranium in fuel elements can produce two radioactive forms of cesium134Cs and137Cs. Both isotopes decay into non-radioactive elements. The half-life of134Cs is two years, and 30 years for137Cs. Boiling water nuclear reactor (BWR) In the boiling water reactor (BWR), the water that passes over the reactor core to slow down the neutrons and acts as a coolant is also the steam source for the turbine, which in turn powers the generator to produce energy. Chernobyl The Chernobyl nuclear power station was the site of the world's worst nuclear accident, in 1986. The result of a flawed reactor design that was operated with inadequately trained personnel, the accident released at least 5% of the radioactive reactor core into the atmosphere and claimed 30 lives within the first few weeks, and unconfirmed numbers over the ensuing years. Cold shutdown The term used to define a reactor coolant system at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature below 200 degrees Fahrenheit following a reactor cooldown. Containment vessels A gas-tight shell or other enclosure around a nuclear reactor to confine fission products that otherwise might be released into the atmosphere in the event of an accident. Such enclosures are usually dome-shaped and made of steel-reinforced concrete. Cooldown The gradual decrease in reactor fuel rod temperature caused by the removal of heat from the reactor coolant system after the reactor has been shutdown. Core The central portion of a nuclear reactor, which contains the fuel assemblies, moderator, neutron poisons, control rods, and support structures. The reactor core is where fission takes place. Exposure Absorption of ionizing radiation or ingestion of a radioisotope. Acute exposure is a large exposure received over a short period of time. Chronic exposure is exposure received over a long period of time, such as during a lifetime. Fission The splitting of an atom, which releases a considerable amount of energy (usually in the form of heat) that can be used to produce electricity. During fission, the heavy nucleus splits into roughly equal parts, producing the nuclei of at least two lighter elements. In addition to energy, this reaction usually releases gamma radiation and two or more daughter neutrons. Fuel rod A long, slender, zirconium metal tube containing pellets of fissionable material, which provide fuel for nuclear reactors. Fuel rods are assembled into bundles called fuel assemblies, which are loaded individually into the reactor core. Fukushima Daiichi Explosions, fire, and a failed cooling system caused by a magnitude 9.0 earthquake and a 23-foot tsunami in this Japanese nuclear power plant in March 2011 released radioactivity directly into the atmosphere and into the sea. Half-life The time required for half the amount of a substance (as a drug, radioactive tracer, or pesticide) in or introduced into a living system or ecosystem to be eliminated or disintegrated by natural processes. Hibakusha The surviving victims of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, meaning "explosion-affected people" International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) The International Atomic Energy Agency, the center of worldwide cooperation in the nuclear field, through which member countries and multiple international partners work together to promote the safe, secure, and peaceful use of nuclear technologies. The United Nations established the IAEA in 1957 as "Atoms for Peace." The IAEA and its then director, Mohamed ElBaradei, shared the 2005 Nobel Peace Prize. International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES) The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale is a tool for promptly communicating to the public in consistent terms the safety significance of reported nuclear and radiological incidents and accidents. A-M|N-Z Meltdown The melting of a significant portion of a nuclear-reactor core due to inadequate cooling of the fuel elements, a condition that could lead to the escape of radiation.

Oil Spill Glossary Berm, Dispersants, Static Kill, and more A-Q| R-W Annulus The space between the pipe and the wellbore. Biodegradation The breaking down of substances by microorganisms, such as oil-hungry Alcanivorax, which use the substances for food and generally release harmless byproducts such as carbon dioxide and water. Berm A wall or barrier of sand usually used to protect against flooding along coasts, used to stop oil from washing up on Gulf Coast beaches. Boom A temporary floating barrier used to contain an oil spill. Blowout An uncontrolled flow of reservoir fluids into the wellbore, and sometimes catastrophically to the surface. A blowout may consist of salt water, oil, gas or a mixture of these. Blind shear ram The part of the blowout preventer that can completely seal the well. Blowout preventer (BOP) A large valve at the top of a well that may be closed in the event of a problem. Bottom kill A procedure in which mud and cement are pumped from deep underground to seal the well permanently. Containment cap A collection device engineered to create a seal over an open pipe atop the blowout preventer to funnel leaking oil up to a tanker ship floating above. Crude oil Unrefined petroleum or liquid petroleum. Dispersants Chemicals, such as Corexit, used to break down spilled oil into small droplets. Fossil fuels Fuel, such as oil, formed in the earth from plant or animal remains. Junk shot One method of temporarily plugging an oil leak by shooting material such as shredded tires and golf balls into the broken wellhead. Loop current Flow of warm ocean water that steers Gulf waters toward Florida. Moratorium Suspension of activity. A-Q|R-W Relief well A secondary well drilled to intersect the leaking main well, allowing engineers to intercept the oil flow from the reservoir below and pump in cement and heavy fluids to stop the leak. Rig Machine used to drill a wellbore. Riser pipe The pipe that connects an underwater wellhead to the drilling rig floating on the surface of the ocean above. Skimmers Devices, such as boats, used to remove oil from the water's surface. Slick A thin film of oil on the water's surface. Static Kill A method of spill containment which involves pumping mud and cement into the damaged well to prevent more oil from leaking into the ocean. Tar balls Dense, black sticky spheres of hydrocarbons; formed from weathered oil. Top hat A containment device used to cap off the oil. Top kill A temporary method of sealing an oil well involving pumping dense mud into the blowout preventer under such high pressure that it forces the leaking oil back into the ground. Wellbore A hole drilled for the purpose of extracting oil. Wellhead A system of spools, valves and assorted adapters that provide pressure control of a production well. The wellhead is the component at the surface of the wellbore to which the apparatus for extracting the oil is attached. The blowout preventer is at the wellhead.

Oil Spills and Disasters The following list includes major oil spills since 1967. The circumstances surrounding the spill, amount of oil spilled, and the attendant environmental damage is also given. 1967 March 18, Cornwall, Eng.:Torrey Canyonran aground, spilling 38 million gallons of crude oil off the Scilly Islands. 1976 Dec. 15, Buzzards Bay, Mass.:Argo Merchantran aground and broke apart southeast of Nantucket Island, spilling its entire cargo of 7.7 million gallons of fuel oil. 1977 April, North Sea:blowout of well in Ekofisk oil field leaked 81 million gallons. 1978 March 16, off Portsall, France:wrecked supertankerAmoco Cadizspilled 68 million gallons, causing widespread environmental damage over 100 mi of Brittany coast. 1979 June 3, Gulf of Mexico:exploratory oil well Ixtoc 1 blew out, spilling an estimated 140 million gallons of crude oil into the open sea. Although it is one of the largest known oil spills, it had a low environmental impact. July 19, Tobago:theAtlantic Empressand theAegean Captaincollided, spilling 46 million gallons of crude. While being towed, theAtlantic Empressspilled an additional 41 million gallons off Barbados on Aug. 2. 1980 March 30, Stavanger, Norway:floating hotel in North Sea collapsed, killing 123 oil workers. 1983 Feb. 4, Persian Gulf, Iran:Nowruz Field platform spilled 80 million gallons of oil. Aug. 6, Cape Town, South Africa:the Spanish tankerCastillo de Bellvercaught fire, spilling 78 million gallons of oil off the coast. 1988 July 6, North Sea off Scotland:166 workers killed in explosion and fire on Occidental Petroleum'sPiper Alpharig in North Sea; 64 survivors. It is the world's worst offshore oil disaster. Nov. 10, Saint John's, Newfoundland:Odysseyspilled 43 million gallons of oil. 1989 March 24, Prince William Sound, Alaska:tankerExxon Valdezhit an undersea reef and spilled 10 million–plus gallons of oil into the water, causing the worst oil spill in U.S. history. Dec. 19, off Las Palmas, the Canary Islands:explosion in Iranian supertanker, theKharg-5,caused 19 million gallons of crude oil to spill into Atlantic Ocean about 400 mi north of Las Palmas, forming a 100-square-mile oil slick. 1990 June 8, off Galveston, Tex.:Mega Borgreleased 5.1 million gallons of oil some 60 nautical miles south-southeast of Galveston as a result of an explosion and subsequent fire in the pump room. 1991 Jan. 23–27, southern Kuwait:during the Persian Gulf War, Iraq deliberately released 240–460 million gallons of crude oil into the Persian Gulf from tankers 10 mi off Kuwait. Spill had little military significance. On Jan. 27, U.S. warplanes bombed pipe systems to stop the flow of oil. April 11, Genoa, Italy:Havenspilled 42 million gallons of oil in Genoa port. May 28, Angola:ABT Summerexploded and leaked 15–78 million gallons of oil off the coast of Angola. It's not clear how much sank or burned. 1992 March 2, Fergana Valley, Uzbekistan:88 million gallons of oil spilled from an oil well. 1993 Aug. 10, Tampa Bay, Fla.:three ships collided, the bargeBouchard B155,the freighterBalsa 37,and the bargeOcean 255.TheBouchardspilled an estimated 336,000 gallons of No. 6 fuel oil into Tampa Bay. 1994 Sept. 8, Russia:dam built to contain oil burst and spilled oil into Kolva River tributary. U.S. Energy Department estimated spill at 2 million barrels. Russian state-owned oil company claimed spill was only 102,000 barrels. 1996 Feb. 15, off Welsh coast:supertankerSea Empressran aground at port of Milford Haven, Wales, spewed out 70,000 tons of crude oil, and created a 25-mile slick. 1999 Dec. 12, French Atlantic coast:Maltese-registered tankerErikabroke apart and sank off Britanny, spilling 3 million gallons of heavy oil into the sea. 2000 Jan. 18, off Rio de Janeiro:ruptured pipeline owned by government oil company, Petrobras, spewed 343,200 gallons of heavy oil into Guanabara Bay. Nov. 28, Mississippi River south of New Orleans:oil tankerWestchesterlost power and ran aground near Port Sulphur, La., dumping 567,000 gallons of crude oil into lower Mississippi. Spill was largest in U.S. waters sinceExxon Valdezdisaster in March 1989. 2002 Nov. 13, Spain:Prestigesuffered a damaged hull and was towed to sea and sank. Much of the 20 million gallons of oil remains underwater. 2003 July 28, Pakistan:TheTasman Spirit,a tanker, ran aground near the Karachi port, and eventually cracked into two pieces. One of its four oil tanks burst open, leaking 28,000 tons of crude oil into the sea. 2004 Dec. 7, Unalaska, Aleutian Islands, Alaska:A major storm pushed the M/VSelendang Ayuup onto a rocky shore, breaking it in two. 337,000 gallons of oil were released, most of which was driven onto the shoreline of Makushin and Skan Bays.

Ten Largest Oil Spills in the U.S. The following table lists the largest oil spills in U.S. history. The date of the spill, circumstances surrounding the spill, and amount of oil spilled are also given. RankDateCauseSourceLocationSpill Volume 1.April 20, 2010explosiondrilling rigDeepwater HorizonGulf of Mexico, 50 miles off the coast of Louisianaan estimated 200,000 gallons a day 2.March 24, 1989reef collisiontankerExxon ValdezPrince William Sound, Alaska10+ million gallons 3.Dec. 15, 1976ran agroundtankerArgo MerchantNantucket Island7.7 million gallons 4.Aug.–Sept. 2005Hurricane Katrinavarious sourcesNew Orleans, La.7 million gallons 5.June 8, 1990explosiontankerMega Borg60 miles off Galveston, Texas5.1 million gallons 6.Nov. 28, 2000ran agroundtankerWestchesterPort Sulphur, La.567,000 gallons 7.Jan. 23, 2010collisiontankerEagle OtomePort Arthur, Texas462,000 gallons 8.July 25, 2008collisionunnamed bargeNew Orleans, La.419,000 gallons 9.Dec. 7, 2004ran agroundM/VSelendang AyuAleutian Islands, Alaska337,000 gallons 10.Aug. 10, 1993collisionbargeBouchard B155Tampa Bay, Fla.336,000 gallons