NATIONALISM: WHY WAS POLAND IN REVOLT? WHEN DID GERMANY COME INTO BEING? WHO WERE THE REDSHIRTS? BIOGRAPHY: OTTO VON BISMARCK 1815–1898 Nationalism means the wish of a people to govern themselves as a nation. This ideal reshaped the map of Europe in the 19th century. Later in the century, nationalism took on a second meaning—an exaggerated belief in the superiority of one’s own nation. Table 54. NEW NATIONS 1830–1831Nationalist agitation; calls for democratic reform across Europe 1832Greece recognized as independent from Turkey 1848Nationalist and liberal uprisings across Europe 1871Germany unites as an empire 1871Italy becomes a single nation WHY WAS POLAND IN REVOLT? Between 1772 and 1795, Poland was divided among Russia, Prussia, and Austria. There were nationalist uprisings against the Russians in 1830 and 1863, but independence was not regained until 1918. WHEN DID GERMANY COME INTO BEING? Since the Middle Ages, Germany had been a patchwork of free cities and small states within the Holy Roman Empire. In the 1800s, these gradually came together, economically, then politically. In 1871, Wilhelm I of Prussia became emperor of a united Germany. WHO WERE THE REDSHIRTS? Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) dreamed of uniting Italy and freeing it from foreign rule. In 1860 he assembled 1,000 volunteers, who wore red shirts as a uniform. They sailed from Genoa to Sicily and joined an uprising against that kingdom’s French rulers. They then crossed to southern Italy. Garibaldi later tried to march on Rome, and fought against Austria. BIOGRAPHY: OTTO VON BISMARCK 1815–1898 Bismarck was a Prussian politician, a conservative and a royalist. He opposed the liberal nationalists who demanded democratic change in Germany in 1848, but played a major role in creating the German Empire of 1871.

INDIAN WARS: WHAT WAS THE TRAIL OF TEARS? WHAT WAS CUSTER’S LAST STAND? For much of the 19th century, especially between 1860 and 1890, a tragic conflict took place in the United States. Settlers and soldiers fought against American Indians. They seized their lands and herded the American Indians onto parcels of land known as reservations. WHAT WAS THE TRAIL OF TEARS? In the 1830s, gold was found in Cherokee territory in the southeastern US. About 16,000 Cherokees from the region were rounded up by the US army and forced to travel west in 1838 on a “Trail of Tears.” Over 4,000 Cherokees died on the journey. WHAT WAS CUSTER’S LAST STAND? In 1876, General George Custer led the United States Seventh Cavalry into the prairie lands around the Little Bighorn River in Montana. Stumbling upon a big assembly of Sioux and Cheyenne warriors, Custer’s force was defeated and killed. It was the last American Indian victory.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: HOW WERE FACTORIES POWERED? WHY WERE GOODS MASS PRODUCED? HOW DID WORKING CONDITIONS CHANGE? BIOGRAPHY: ISAMBARD KINGDOM BRUNEL 1806–1859 TRANSPORTATION URBANIZATION The Industrial Revolution changed the way things were made as new machines invented in the 1700s and 1800s meant it was possible to mass produce goods in factories. Starting in Britain and spreading through Europe and North America, a period of rapid social and economic change began, with widespread URBANIZATION. HOW WERE FACTORIES POWERED? During the 18th century, water was an important source of power for industry, and many machines were driven by waterwheels. Steam power was also developed at this time. Steam engines were used to pump water out of mine shafts and to power new TRANSPORTATIONsystems. Engines and furnaces were all fueled by coal. By the 19th century, coal was being transported to the factories by ship or rail. WHY WERE GOODS MASS PRODUCED? Before the Industrial Revolution, most goods were produced in small workshops or at home. Mass production in factories made it possible to manufacture goods more cheaply and quickly. Huge markets for these goods were opening up in the new cities, and in the lands that the European nations were conquering and settling overseas. HOW DID WORKING CONDITIONS CHANGE? The factory age meant that workers no longer owned the means by which they made a living. Some factory owners pushed up their own profits by pushing down the wages of their workers. Men, women, and children worked long hours for little pay, often in dangerous conditions. It took many years for wages and working environments to improve. BIOGRAPHY: ISAMBARD KINGDOM BRUNEL 1806–1859 Brunel was born of a French father in Portsmouth, England. An engineering genius, he helped to shape the industrial age. He built tunnels, docks, and suspension bridges. He was appointed chief engineer of England’s Great Western Railway and also designed steamships for crossing the Atlantic Ocean. TRANSPORTATION The Industrial Revolution depended on transportation to move materials, goods, and people. Canals were dug in the 18th century. In the 19th, it was the turn of the railroads. WHEN DID THE RAILROAD AGE BEGIN? The first steam locomotive to run on rails was seen in Wales in 1804. Designs were greatly improved in the 1820s by English rail pioneer George Stephenson. Railroads were soon opening up the world. URBANIZATION Urbanization means the spread of towns. Between 1700 and 1900 the world’s population grew from 679 million to 1.633 billion. Many people were city-dwellers. WHAT KINDS OF CITIES WERE BUILT? Cities grew up around coalfields or factories, at important seaports and railroad crossings. They provided cheap housing for the industrial workers. New British cities were often rows of row houses built of brick and slate, with small yards and alleys.

NAPOLEONIC WARS: WHERE DID NAPOLEON’S ARMIES MARCH? WHAT WAS NAPOLEON’S LEGACY? During the French Revolution, France was at war with its neighbors in Europe. These wars resumed in 1800 under the leadership of Napoleon, who was crowned French emperor in 1804. A series of great victories soon brought much of Europe under his control. Table 52. EUROPE AT WAR 1805French victory at Austerlitz 1805British victory at Trafalgar 1808–1814Peninsular War 1812France invades Russia 1815Napoleon defeated WHERE DID NAPOLEON’S ARMIES MARCH? Napoleon was a brilliant soldier. He defeated Austria. He invaded Spain in 1808 and his armies reached Moscow in 1812, only to be beaten back by the harsh winter weather. He made his relatives rulers in Spain, Italy, and Westphalia. He was finally defeated by Britain and Prussia at Waterloo, Belgium, in 1815. WHAT WAS NAPOLEON’S LEGACY? Napoleon (1769–1821) died in exile. He is remembered as the man who brought the French Revolution to a close and as a military genius. He was a skilled administrator whose system of law, theCode Napoléon, gave the poor people of France some of the rights they had demanded in the revolution. The Code was also welcomed in many of the lands he invaded.

CANADA: WHO FOUGHT TO CONTROL CANADA? WHEN DID CANADA BECOME A NATION? BIOGRAPHY: JACQUES CARTIER 1491–1557 European fishermen and fur traders visited Canada from the 16th century onward. They bought furs from the local people, who were related to the other native peoples of North America. France established colonies in Canada in 1608 (Quebec) and 1642 (Montreal), while the British claimed a vast territory around Hudson Bay after 1670. WHO FOUGHT TO CONTROL CANADA? The French and British fought each other for Canada. Both wanted its furs, lumber, and rich fishing grounds. The French were defeated in 1759, and Canada became a British colony four years later. Many American colonists who had remained loyal to Britain during the American Revolution fled to Canada in the 1780s. WHEN DID CANADA BECOME A NATION? In 1791, the areas of Canada settled by Europeans were divided between Upper (English-speaking) and Lower (French-speaking) Canada. These were reunited in 1841. Canada became a self-governing dominion of the British Empire in 1867. Settlement spread westward as Europeans arrived. BIOGRAPHY: JACQUES CARTIER 1491–1557 This French navigator made three voyages to North America between 1534 and 1541. He was the first European to see the St. Lawrence River and claimed the land for France.