MONARCHY: WHAT WAS THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS? WERE KINGS EVER ELECTED? DYNASTIES Monarchy means rule by a single person, such as a king or a queen. Normally, rule passes from one generation to the next within the same family, or DYNASTY. In the 17th century monarchs held great power, but this power was increasingly being challenged, often with violence. WHAT WAS THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS? This was the belief that monarchs were appointed by God to rule, and therefore had a right to impose their will on their subjects. This made it almost impossible to criticize or oppose the monarch. WERE KINGS EVER ELECTED? From 1573, kings of Poland were elected by an assembly of lords, called the Republic of Nobles. The great Polish soldier Jan Sobiewski was elected king in 1674, after defeating invading Turks. Many of those chosen as king were foreigners. DYNASTIES Dynasties, or royal families, often held power for hundreds of years. Many became hugely wealthy. Their rule came to an end if there were no children or relatives to inherit the throne, or if a monarch was overthrown by rivals or revolutions. HABSBURG 1273–1918 The Habsburgs ruled Austria and at times the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, and Spain. Charles V reigned 1516–1556. STUART 1371–1714 The Stuarts ruled Scotland and, after 1603, England, Wales, and Ireland. Charles II reigned 1660–1685. BOURBON 1589–1830 The Bourbons ruled in France, Navarre, Naples, and Spain. Louis XIV was King of France 1643–1715. QING 1644–1912 The last dynasty of the Chinese Empire was founded by Manchurian invaders. Emperor Qianlong ruled 1711–1799. ROMANOV 1613–1917 The Romanovs were the last Russian dynasty. Catherine the Great married into the family and was empress 1762–1796. WHICH IS THE WORLD’S OLDEST DYNASTY? The same dynasty has ruled Japan for 2,000 years or more. Legend states that it is even older, having been founded by Jimmu in 660 BC. However, the emperors have not always held great power. Sometimes, real power was held by military governors called shoguns.

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION: WHO WAS THE FIRST PERSON TO SEE GERMS? WHO DISCOVERED HOW BLOOD CIRCULATES? WHO WERE THE FIRST CHEMISTS? REFLECTING TELESCOPE BIOGRAPHY: ROBERT BOYLE 1627–1691 The 18th century was a period of remarkable scientific breakthroughs. This began with the scientific advances of the 16th and 17th centuries, when people began to reject unproven theories and superstition in favor of careful observation, and carried out experiments to test ideas. Table 51. NEW SCIENCE 1609Johannes Kepler works out how planets move 1638Galileo Galilei publishes his theories of mechanics 1687Isaac Newton publishes his three Laws of Motion 1753Carolus Linnaeus works out a way of classifying species 1774Joseph Priestley studies oxygen WHO WAS THE FIRST PERSON TO SEE GERMS? The first microscopes were made in the Netherlands in about 1590. Their design was improved by Robert Hooke and Anton van Leeuwenhoek. Van Leeuwenhoek made many important observations and in 1675 was the first person to see bacteria, or germs. WHO DISCOVERED HOW BLOOD CIRCULATES? In 1597, English student William Harvey went to Padua in Italy, which was then a center for studying the human body. He returned to become royal doctor, and in 1628 declared that blood was pumped around the body by the heart. Many doctors ridiculed his views, but Harvey was correct. His discovery changed our understanding of the human body forever. WHO WERE THE FIRST CHEMISTS? From the Middle Ages to the early 18th century, alchemists believed they could turn ordinary metals into gold, and so find the secret of everlasting life. Although this was impossible, alchemy did provide a basis for useful experiments in chemistry, and inspired the genuine research of Robert Boyle. REFLECTING TELESCOPE Telescopes were invented in the Netherlands in about 1608. In 1668, Isaac Newton was the first to use mirrors to improve the image seen through the telescope. BIOGRAPHY: ROBERT BOYLE 1627–1691 Irish chemist and physicist Robert Boyle experimented with gases and with vacuums (in which gases are pumped out of a space). He introduced the idea of chemical elements, essential to the development of chemistry as a science.

COLONIAL AMERICA: WHO BUILT ST. AUGUSTINE? WHO WERE THE SETTLERS? WHERE WAS LOUISIANA? WHERE DID THE BRITISH SETTLE? From the 16th to 18th century, European nations invaded and settled large areas of North America. The colonists often attacked and dispersed the American Indians, and fought each other for control of the territory. WHO BUILT ST. AUGUSTINE? The Spanish reached Florida in 1513, and in 1565 founded St. Augustine, the first European settlement in what is now the US. They were the first Europeans to see the Mississippi River and to reach Kansas. The Spanish also extended Mexico northward into Texas, New Mexico, and California. These territories would become part of the US in the 19th century. WHO WERE THE SETTLERS? Europeans settled in the New World for many reasons. Some were religious refugees, such as the Quakers, who were unable to worship freely in their own lands. Some were convicted criminals, sent to work in the colonies as a punishment. Some were outlaws or pirates. Others were farmers or business people looking for good land and opportunities. WHERE WAS LOUISIANA? In 1682, the French explorer Robert de la Salle claimed all the lands around the Mississippi River for France. The region was named Louisiana, after King Louis XIV of France. Most of the eastern part passed to Spain and then to the US, while the western part was purchased by the US from the French in 1803. WHERE DID THE BRITISH SETTLE? The English seafarer Sir Walter Raleigh organized three expeditions to North America after 1584. He named Virginia after Elizabeth I of England, known as the “Virgin Queen” because she never married. In 1607, Jamestown in Virginia became the first British settlement on the Atlantic coast and became wealthy through the export of tobacco. NEW AMSTERDAM In 1626, the Dutch purchased the island of Manhattan. Its port was named New Amsterdam. It was captured by the British in 1664 and renamed New York.

AMERICAN INDIANS: WHAT WAS THE LEAGUE OF FIVE NATIONS? HOW DID PEOPLE IN THE NORTHWEST LIVE? WHY DID FARMERS BECOME HUNTERS? The lands of North America were originally occupied by a wide variety of American Indian peoples, each with their own language and culture. Ways of life varied from one region to another, according to the environment—some peoples lived in farming villages, while others hunted buffalo. Their worlds were changed forever by the European invasion. Table 50. AMERICAN INDIANS 1547Horses introduced to North America by the Spanish c. 1570The Iroquois Confederacy is founded 1626Manhattan Island is sold to the Dutch 1648The Iroquois-Huron War 1722The Tuscarora join the Iroquois Confederacy 1763Pontiac, chief of the Ottawa, unites tribes against British troops WHAT WAS THE LEAGUE OF FIVE NATIONS? Five American Indian nations in the northeast—the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk—made a powerful alliance, called the Iroquois Confederacy. It was founded in about 1570 by a prophet called Deganawida. The League’s goals were cooperation and mutual defense. A council met each year to discuss their laws. HOW DID PEOPLE IN THE NORTHWEST LIVE? The northwest (in what is now both the US and Canada) was an area with a large American Indian population. Many peoples there lived by salmon fishing or whaling, and by gathering fruits and berries. They lived in large houses, which were built of red cedar wood. Cedar was also used to make hats, boats, rope, cloth, boxes, and baskets. WHY DID FARMERS BECOME HUNTERS? As Europeans invaded the northeast, many American Indian peoples were forced to retreat westward. Some had to give up farming. Instead, they became buffalo hunters on the Great Plains, the grasslands that make up the prairie regions of the central part of the modern United States and Canada.

MUGHAL INDIA: WHO WERE THE MUGHALS? WHERE WAS THE MUGHAL EMPIRE? WHO CHALLENGED MUGHAL RULE? TAJ MAHAL The Mughal Empire, founded in 1526, was the most powerful Islamic state to rule in India. It was at its most prosperous during the 17th century, when fine buildings such as the TAJ MAHALwere constructed. Table 49. THE MUGHAL EMPIRE 1526Babur founds Mughal Empire 1556Akbar the Great begins reign 1605Jahangir becomes emperor 1628Shah Jahan comes to power 1659Aurangzeb seizes the throne 1675Sikhs rise against Mughal rule 1707Start of Mughal decline 1857Last emperor WHO WERE THE MUGHALS? Mughal means “Mongol.” Babur, the Asian invader who founded the empire, was descended from Mongol warlords. Under the Mughal emperors, roads were built, trade prospered, and the arts flourished. WHERE WAS THE MUGHAL EMPIRE? The Mughals governed northern India, and at times their rule extended from Afghanistan in the west to Bengal in the east. The emperor Aurangzeb moved the capital from Agra to Delhi and pushed the empire’s borders far to the south. WHO CHALLENGED MUGHAL RULE? The Mughals had to fight against Afghans and many regional Hindu rulers. The early Muslim emperors allowed all kinds of religious worship, but Aurangzeb offended Hindus and caused the Sikhs to rebel. He also clashed fiercely with the west coast kingdom of the Marathas and its ruler, Sivaji. However, it was the growing political power of British traders in India that brought about the final decline and collapse of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century. TAJ MAHAL The most famous monument of Mughal architecture is the Taj Mahal. It was built in the 17th century by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his beloved wife, Mumtaz-i Mahal, who died in childbirth. HOW LONG DID IT TAKE TO BUILD THE TAJ MAHAL? The Taj Mahal was begun in 1632 and completed 22 years later. About 20,000 people were employed, including Asia’s finest craftsmen. Famous for its perfect symmetry, it is exactly as wide as it is high, and the dome is the same height as its façade. The domes, minarets, and arches of the Taj Mahal are reflected in still water. The walls of white marble are inlaid with over 43 varieties of precious stones.