REFORMATION: WHO LED THE REFORMATION? WHAT WERE THE RESULTS OF THE REFORMATION? The Reformation was a Christian movement of the 1500s. Its followers criticized the Catholic Church for corruption and called for radical reform. These protesters became known as Protestants. Table 45. RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, EUROPE 1517–1568 1517German monk Martin Luther demands reform 1518Swiss preacher Ulrich Zwingli calls for change 1541John Calvin founds a Protestant Church, Geneva 1545Catholics launch a Counter-Reformation 1560John Knox founds Protestant Church of Scotland 1562Wars between Catholics and Protestants in France 1568Dutch Protestants begin revolt against Catholic Spain WHO LED THE REFORMATION? The Reformation began in 1517 when a German monk, Martin Luther, nailed a list of complaints to the church door in Wittenberg. Other preachers spread the Protestant message across northern Europe. They called for simpler forms of worship and personal faith. WHAT WERE THE RESULTS OF THE REFORMATION? The success of the Protestants aroused fear and anger among Catholics in Rome. A period of religious strife began that tore Europe apart for hundreds of years. Each side murdered its opponents. Churches and monasteries were destroyed. Civil and national wars caused devastation and streams of refugees.

EXPLORATION: WHY DID PEOPLE EXPLORE THE WORLD? HOW DID EXPLORATION AFFECT THE WORLD? OLD WORLD NAVIGATION NEW WORLD People have always set out to discover new lands and oceans. The greatest age of world exploration began in the 15th century and lasted over four centuries. The Arabs and Chinese had already made improvements in ship design and NAVIGATION. These were now developed further by European seafarers. Table 46. EXPLORATION 1405–1433Chinese fleets explore the Indian Ocean 1486Diaz rounds southern Africa 1492Columbus reaches the Caribbean 1497John Cabot reaches Canada 1498Columbus reaches South America 1498Vasco da Gama sails to India 1500Pedro Cabral reaches Brazil 1522Magellan’s crew sails around the whole world 1606Willem Jansz reaches Australia This type of mariners’ compass first came into use in about 1250. This one dates from the 16th century. WHY DID PEOPLE EXPLORE THE WORLD? The most common reason was trade. The OLD WORLDwanted Asian spices, African ivory, and gold. European traders were soon also seizing lands and trying to convert the local populations to the Christian faith. Many explorers, though, were driven by a sense of adventure or scientific inquiry. HOW DID EXPLORATION AFFECT THE WORLD? European countries brought many lands under their control. The world was opened up and new crops were introduced from one land to another. However, there were some disastrous effects. In the NEW WORLD, many native peoples died because they had no resistance to the European diseases that explorers and crews brought with them. OLD WORLD Europe, Asia, and Africa had been known to geographers since ancient times. They became known as the Old World after the European discovery of the Americas. WHO EXPLORED THE OLD WORLD? In the Middle Ages, the Venetian Marco Polo and the Moroccan Ibn Battutah traveled east to China. The Chinese admiral Zheng He sailed west to Africa in the 15th century. By the 16th century, Portuguese and Dutch ships were trading in southeast Asia. NAVIGATION Navigation is any method used to find one’s way or hold a ship on course. Sailors of the 16th century had various kinds of instruments to help them cross the oceans. WHAT INSTRUMENTS WERE USED? Sailors used a compass to see which direction they were traveling. They could also work out a ship’s position by measuring the angle of the Sun or stars above the horizon. They did this with a metal plate called a quadrant, a disk called an astrolabe, or a simple stick called a cross-staff. HOW WAS DISTANCE MEASURED? Distances traveled at sea were calculated from speed and time. To measure these, a wooden log was thrown overboard. The crew called out the time it took for the log to pass between two measuring points on the ship. The ship’s course and progress were measured on a pegboard. BIOGRAPHY: HENRY THE NAVIGATOR 1394–1460 This Portuguese prince founded an observatory and a school of navigation on Cape St. Vincent, Portugal. Here, a new type of ship, called a caravel, was designed. Henry also sponsored voyages along the coast of West Africa. NEW WORLD “New World” was one of the terms that came to be used by Europeans to describe the newly discovered lands of North and South America. WHY DID COLUMBUS SAIL WEST? In 1492, Christopher Columbus persuaded King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to sponsor a voyage westward. The goal was to find a new trading route to Asia. Columbus landed in the Bahamas, starting a new age of exploration and invasion.

RENAISSANCE: WHERE DID THE RENAISSANCE TAKE PLACE? WHAT WAS THE RENAISSANCE VIEW OF THE WORLD? BIOGRAPHY: LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452–1519 WHAT CAN WE SEE OF THE RENAISSANCE TODAY? PATRONAGE One of the most creative periods in history occurred in Europe around 1350–1550. This cultural revival is known as the Renaissance (meaning “rebirth”). It was inspired by the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome. WHERE DID THE RENAISSANCE TAKE PLACE? Italy was the powerhouse of the Renaissance. At that time it was divided into independent states, where wealthy rulers offered PATRONAGEto great artists. The Renaissance also spread through southern France and Spain, and influenced northern Europe. WHAT WAS THE RENAISSANCE VIEW OF THE WORLD? There was a passion for knowledge. Scholars had mostly studied the teachings of the Church, but they now rediscovered ancient philosophers. Artists became fascinated by the human body. To celebrate its beauty, they turned away from the formal drawing style of the Middle Ages and adopted a more realistic, natural style. Leonardo da Vinci was a brilliant inventor. This reconstruction shows a flying machine that first appeared in his sketchbooks, alongside futuristic plans for a helicopter, tank, and diving suit. BIOGRAPHY: LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452–1519 Leonardo was a genius. Writer, painter, sculptor, engineer, and architect, he left behind a wealth of sketches and what has become the world’s best-known painting—the portrait of a mysterious, smiling woman known as Mona Lisa. WHAT CAN WE SEE OF THE RENAISSANCE TODAY? Many Italian cities still have splendid palaces, churches, libraries, and public squares built during the Renaissance. Visitors to Rome can wonder at the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, created by Michelangelo, or the masterpieces painted by Raphael. PATRONAGE Patronage is the support given by the wealthy to artists, writers, and musicians. Renaissance patrons included the French royal family and powerful Italian nobles such as the Sforzas, the Medicis, and the Borgias. WHY DID FLORENCE FLOURISH? The Renaissance was a period of great social change, when more and more political power came from money and trade. The Italian city of Florence was a European center of banking. Its leading family, the Medici, loaned money to popes and kings. It was the Medici fortune that paid the wages of artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.

RENAISSANCE: WHERE DID THE RENAISSANCE TAKE PLACE? WHAT WAS THE RENAISSANCE VIEW OF THE WORLD? BIOGRAPHY: LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452–1519 WHAT CAN WE SEE OF THE RENAISSANCE TODAY? PATRONAGE One of the most creative periods in history occurred in Europe around 1350–1550. This cultural revival is known as the Renaissance (meaning “rebirth”). It was inspired by the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome. WHERE DID THE RENAISSANCE TAKE PLACE? Italy was the powerhouse of the Renaissance. At that time it was divided into independent states, where wealthy rulers offered PATRONAGEto great artists. The Renaissance also spread through southern France and Spain, and influenced northern Europe. WHAT WAS THE RENAISSANCE VIEW OF THE WORLD? There was a passion for knowledge. Scholars had mostly studied the teachings of the Church, but they now rediscovered ancient philosophers. Artists became fascinated by the human body. To celebrate its beauty, they turned away from the formal drawing style of the Middle Ages and adopted a more realistic, natural style. Leonardo da Vinci was a brilliant inventor. This reconstruction shows a flying machine that first appeared in his sketchbooks, alongside futuristic plans for a helicopter, tank, and diving suit. BIOGRAPHY: LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452–1519 Leonardo was a genius. Writer, painter, sculptor, engineer, and architect, he left behind a wealth of sketches and what has become the world’s best-known painting—the portrait of a mysterious, smiling woman known as Mona Lisa. WHAT CAN WE SEE OF THE RENAISSANCE TODAY? Many Italian cities still have splendid palaces, churches, libraries, and public squares built during the Renaissance. Visitors to Rome can wonder at the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, created by Michelangelo, or the masterpieces painted by Raphael. PATRONAGE Patronage is the support given by the wealthy to artists, writers, and musicians. Renaissance patrons included the French royal family and powerful Italian nobles such as the Sforzas, the Medicis, and the Borgias. WHY DID FLORENCE FLOURISH? The Renaissance was a period of great social change, when more and more political power came from money and trade. The Italian city of Florence was a European center of banking. Its leading family, the Medici, loaned money to popes and kings. It was the Medici fortune that paid the wages of artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE: WHY WAS SULEIMAN I MAGNIFICENT? HOW DID CONSTANTINOPLE BECOME ISTANBUL? WHERE DID JANISSARIES COME FROM? Around AD 1300, a new Muslim empire ruled by Turkish leaders called sultans was founded. At its largest extent, in 1700, it covered vast areas of Europe, Africa, and Asia. It lasted until the end of World War I (1918). Today’s republic of Turkey was founded in 1923. WHY WAS SULEIMAN I MAGNIFICENT? The greatest of the Ottoman sultans was Suleiman the Magnificent. During his reign (1520–1566), the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest extent. He was also a poet and a patron of the arts, adorning Istanbul and other Ottoman cities with glittering mosques. HOW DID CONSTANTINOPLE BECOME ISTANBUL? In 1453, after a siege during which its walls were pounded by a battery of cannons, Constantinople was captured by Sultan Muhammad II. Renamed Istanbul, the old capital of the Byzantine Empire then became the new capital of the expanding Ottoman Empire. WHERE DID JANISSARIES COME FROM? Janissaries were elite soldiers who started as non-Turkish Christian boys from the Balkans. They were trained in Istanbul, where they converted to Islam.