ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION: WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE IN MUSLIM LANDS? HOW DID ISLAM SPREAD SO QUICKLY? WHERE DID MUSLIMS TRAVEL TO? WHY WERE TEXTILES SO IMPORTANT? CALIPHS AL ANDALUS In AD 610, an Arab merchant called Muhammad founded a new religion called Islam. His teachings inspired the Arab peoples, and by 750 Muslims (followers of Islam) had conquered an area stretching from Afghanistan to AL ANDALUSin southern Spain. Trade, science, and culture thrived in this Islamic empire. WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE IN MUSLIM LANDS? Newly conquered lands were united by Islam, and by common tax systems, coinage, and laws. Jews and Christians sometimes paid higher taxes, but they were free to run their own religious affairs so long as they did not insult the Prophet Muhammad. HOW DID ISLAM SPREAD SO QUICKLY? Islam brought a new sense of unity and purpose to the traders and tribespeople of the Arabian Peninsula. Led by the CALIPH, Arab armies spread Islam in the Middle East and beyond. It helped that their main enemies, the Sassanids in Iran and the Byzantines in eastern Europe, were weakened by fighting each other. Islam was also spread by Muslim traders. This minaret, a slender tower used to call Muslims to prayer, was built in 1199 by a new ruling dynasty as a symbol of their victory. It is part of the Quwwat al-Islam (Might of Islam) Mosque, in Delhi, India. WHERE DID MUSLIMS TRAVEL TO? Muslim pilgrims, traders, soldiers, scholars, and government officials made long journeys across the Islamic empire and beyond. One of the most famous explorers, Ibn Battuta, set out on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325. He spent the next 25 years traveling, crossing the Sahara and even reaching China before returning to Morocco to write his story. WHY WERE TEXTILES SO IMPORTANT? Many of the first Muslims were nomads, who needed to be able to pack up and move all their belongings quickly. Traditionally, woven cloth was used for tents, bags, clothes, cushions, bedding, and carpets. The art and craft of making textiles continued to be important in the Muslim world, which gave us the words for damask (from Damascus), muslin (from Mosul), and cashmere (from Kashmir). CALIPHS After the death of Muhammad in 632, Muslims were ruled by caliphs. As Islam spread, the caliphs had great political as well as spiritual authority. In the reign of the fourth caliph, from 656 to 661, two rival traditions of Islam emerged: the Sunni and the Shi’a. This division meant it was no longer possible for the whole Islamic world to be ruled by a single caliph. WHO WERE THE UMAYYADS AND THE ABBASIDS? The Umayyads and Abbasids were dynasties of caliphs. From 661, Islam was ruled by the Umayyads, based in Damascus (in Syria). In 750, a new dynasty, the Abbasid, seized power, although a branch of the Umayyad continued to rule Muslim Spain. The Abbasid caliphs were based at Baghdad, which became the prosperous center of a huge trading empire and the artistic capital of the Muslim world. AL ANDALUS Muslim armies conquered southern Spain in 711. They called it Al Andalus, and it became the richest country in Europe. The Muslims, or Moors as they are sometimes called, brought new crops, such as oranges, almonds, and cotton, and new technology, such as water wheels. In 1492, Granada, which was the last surviving Islamic kingdom in Spain, fell to Christian rulers. HOW DID AL ANDALUS LINK EAST AND WEST? During the 10th century reign of Abd al-Rahman, Cordoba was the capital of Al Andalus. With its lavishly endowed libraries, it was a magnet for scholars and acted as the door through which the science of the East reached Christian scholars in western Europe. After 1031, when the ruling dynasty changed, Cordoba’s golden age ended. In 1236 it was reconquered by Christian Spanish forces.

BYZANTINE EMPIRE WHO RULED THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE? CONSTANTINOPLE In AD 324 the emperor Constantine reunited the Roman Empire. By then Rome was too difficult to defend against barbarian attacks, so he moved his capital east to Byzantium, renaming it CONSTANTINOPLE. WHO RULED THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE? From Constantinople (now Istanbul), Constantine ruled over the entire Roman world, but eventually the empire split again. In 476, the western Roman empire was swept away. However, the eastern empire, which is called the Byzantine Empire, endured until 1453, when it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. CONSTANTINOPLE In 330, Constantinople was proclaimed capital of the Roman Empire. The new city’s splendid public buildings, which included a forum, were adorned with treasures from all over the empire. WHY WAS CONSTANTINOPLE SO PROSPEROUS? Constantinople was a meeting point for long-distance trade routes linking Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Merchants brought silks from China, pearls and perfumes from Arabia, spices from southeast Asia, and fine wool and furs from Europe to sell in its markets.

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE WHY WAS THE EMPIRE FOUNDED? HOW DID CHARLEMAGNE WORK WITH SCHOLARS? WHAT HAPPENED TO THE TITLE? On Christmas Day, 800, Charlemagne, the King of the Franks, was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope. Under Charlemagne, much of western Europe was ruled as one vast country, but within 40 years of his death, in 814, the Holy Roman Empire had fragmented. WHY WAS THE EMPIRE FOUNDED? Charlemagne was a brilliant leader, and his kingdom stretched from the North Sea to Italy. As Holy Roman Emperor, he was expected to rule Europe like a Roman emperor, but with a new responsibility for the safety and prosperity of the Church and the Pope. HOW DID CHARLEMAGNE WORK WITH SCHOLARS? Charlemagne was a great patron of learning, inviting the most famous scholars of the day to his main court at Aachen. His advisers and friends included Peter of Pisa, Agobard of Lyons, and Alcuin of York. Under Charlemagne, rare manuscripts were collected, the text of the Bible was revised, and grammars, history books, and ballads were published. WHAT HAPPENED TO THE TITLE? By 843 Charlemagne’s empire had split into three kingdoms, each of which was ruled by a member of his family. Following Charlemagne, there was no Holy Roman Emperor until Otto I was crowned in 962. After 1438, all but one of the holders of the prestigious title were Habsburg monarchs. In 1806 Napoleon abolished the title.

CELTS: WHAT WERE CELTIC WARRIORS FAMOUS FOR? WHO WERE THE DRUIDS? The tribespeople who lived in western Europe before the Roman conquest were called Celts. Each tribe was made up of three main classes—druids, warriors, and farmers—and the largest settlements were hilltop forts. WHAT WERE CELTIC WARRIORS FAMOUS FOR? Celtic warriors were famous for their love of feasting, fighting, and jewelry. They daubed their faces with a blue war paint made from woad (plant that produces a blue dye) and yelled at the tops of their voices as they rode into battle. But the terrible look and sound of a Celtic army was no match for the discipline of highly trained Roman legions. WHO WERE THE DRUIDS? After studying everything from herbalism to astronomy for up to 20 years, druids served Celtic society as priests and judges. At sacred pools, or groves of oak trees, they led religious rites that sometimes involved human sacrifice. Unlike most Celts, many druids could read and write.

AGE OF MIGRATIONS: WHO WERE THE BARBARIANS? WHO WERE THE HUNS? In AD 285 the Roman Empire divided into eastern and western parts, each with its own emperor. Despite this reorganization, by around 400 the western empire could no longer hold out against waves of invading barbarian tribes from northeastern Europe. In 410, Rome itself was attacked. WHO WERE THE BARBARIANS? For the Romans, the Germanic tribes moving across the empire were destructive, disorderly “barbarians.” Over time, these migrant peoples did settle down, eventually giving their names to their new homelands: the Franks in France, the ANGLES AND SAXONSin England, the Lombards in northern Italy, and so on. Table 43. BARBARIAN ATTACKS AD 235Germanic tribes start to invade 410Visigoths capture Rome 435Vandals take Roman North Africa 451Hun invasions 455Vandals destroy Rome 476Last western emperor deposed WHO WERE THE HUNS? The Huns were a nomadic people from today’s Turkestan. Mounted on swift ponies, and armed with bows and arrows, Hun armies rode deep into the Roman Empire in search of plunder. They were not interested in conquering land. ANGLES AND SAXONS Angles and Saxons, who were later known as Anglo-Saxons, lived along the North Sea coast. They began to raid Britain while it was under Roman rule. After 410, when the Roman army left, they arrived in larger numbers to settle, and gradually took over much of eastern Britain. WHO WAS BURIED IN SHIPS? The Angles and Saxons were pagan, seafaring people, and ships played an important part in their culture. They believed that boats could ferry a dead person’s spirit to the next world. People who had been wealthy when they were alive were buried in ships, together with the comforts and treasures they were expected to enjoy in the next world. Poorer Anglo-Saxons were sometimes buried with a few ship’s planks. WHY DID ANGLES AND SAXONS MOVE TO BRITAIN? Around 200, the climate became warmer and sea levels rose, which made life more difficult for the Angles and Saxons living on the North Sea coast. At the same time, they were being squeezed by other westward-moving Germanic peoples. Some of the first Anglo-Saxons in Britain may have been soldiers, hired to protect villages against other raiders.