The Continents A continent is defined as a large unbroken land mass completely surrounded by water, although in some cases continents are (or were in part) connected by land bridges. The seven continents are North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica. The island groups in the Pacific are often called Oceaniabut this name doesnotimply that scientists consider them the remains of a continent. Political considerations have often overridden geographical facts when it came to naming continents. Geographically, Europe, including the British Isles, is a large western peninsula of the continent of Asia; and many geographers, when referring to Europe and Asia, speak of the Eurasian continent. But traditionally, Europe is counted as a separate continent, with the Uraland the Caucasus mountains forming the line of demarcation between Europe and Asia. To the south of Europe, Asia has an odd-shaped peninsula jutting westward, which has a large number of political subdivisions. The northern section is taken up by Turkey; to the south of Turkey there are Syria, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and a number of smaller Arab countries. All these are part of Asia. Traditionally, the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean is also considered to be part of Asia. The Caribbean islands, Central America, and Greenland are considered part of North America.

World Geography Glossary Find the definition of geography terms and phrases. (last part): Tropic of Capricorn A line of latitude located at 23°30' south. The Sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Capricorn on the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere (Dec. 20 or 21). It marks the southernmost point of the tropics. Arctic Circle A line of latitude located at 66°30' north, delineating the Northern Frigid Zone of the Earth. Antarctic Circle A line of latitude located at 66°30' south, delineating the Southern Frigid Zone of the Earth. globe The most accurate map of the Earth, duplicating its spherical shape and relative size. pole Point at which the earth turns; the north and south poles illustrate the axis on which the earth rotates. map Representation of a physical plane with selective information. Maps represent a definite area and contain detailed geographical information. atlas Combination of maps and charts. An atlas usually includes geographical information, as well as varied non-geographical information (population statistics, sea levels, etc.) about a particular location. compass A directional device that is made of a magnetic needle that synchronizes with the north and south poles. climate maps Give general information about the climate and precipitation (rain and snow) of a region. Cartographers, or mapmakers, use colors to show different climate or precipitation zones. economic or resource maps Feature the type of natural resources or economic activity that dominates an area. Cartographers use symbols to show the locations of natural resources or economic activities. For example, oranges on a map of Florida tell you that oranges are grown there. physical maps Illustrate the physical features of an area, such as the mountains, rivers and lakes. The water is usually shown in blue. Colors are used to show relief-differences in land elevations. Green is typically used at lower elevations, and orange or brown indicate higher elevations. political maps Do not show physical features. Instead, they indicate state and national boundaries and capital and major cities. A capital city is usually marked with a star within a circle. road maps Show major-some minor highways-and roads, airports, railroad tracks, cities and other points of interest in an area. People use road maps to plan trips and for driving directions. topographic maps Include contour lines to show the shape and elevation of an area. Lines that are close together indicate steep terrain, and lines that are far apart indicate flat terrain. map projections Two-dimensional representations of the three-dimensional Earth. Because projections attempt to present the spherical Earth on a flat plane, they inevitably produce distortions. Map projections are numerous and complex (e.g., there are a variety of cylindrical, conic, or azimuthal projections). Each projection has advantages and serves different purposes, and each produces different types of distortions in direction, distance, shape, and relative size of areas. One of the most famous projections is the Mercator, created by Geradus Mercator in 1569. It is a rectangular-shaped map in which all longitude and latitude lines are parallel and intersect at right angles (on a globe, meridians are not parallel, but grow narrower, eventually converging at the poles). Near the equator, the scale of the Mercator is accurate, but the farther one moves toward the poles, the greater the distortion—Antarctica in the far south and Greenland in the far north, for example, appear gigantic. The Mercator projection was used well into the 20th century, but has now been superseded by others, including the widely used Robinson projection. The Robinson projection is an elliptical-shaped map with a flat top and bottom. Developed in 1963 by Arthur H. Robinson, it is an orthophanic (“right appearing”) projection, which attempts to reflect the spherical appearance of the Earth. The meridians, for example, are curved arcs, which gives the flat map a three-dimensional appearance. But to convey the likeness of a curved, three-dimensional globe, the Robinson projection must in fact distort shape, area, scale, and distance. The Albers, Lambert, Mollweide, and Winkel Tripel are some of the other commonly used map projections.

World Geography Glossary Find the definition of geography terms and phrases. geography The study of the physical features of the earth. Includes study of regional formations and their relation to humans. latitude lines Imaginary lines running horizontally around the globe. Also called parallels, latitude lines are equidistant from each other. Each degree of latitude is about 69 miles (110 km) apart. Zero degrees (0°) latitude is the equator, the widest circumference of the globe. Latitude is measured from 0° to 90° north and 0° to 90° south—90° north is the North Pole and 90° south is the South Pole. longitude lines Imaginary lines, also called meridians, running vertically around the globe. Unlike latitude lines, longitude lines are not parallel. Meridians meet at the poles and are widest apart at the equator. Zero degrees longitude (0°) is called the prime meridian. The degrees of longitude run 180° east and 180° west from the prime meridian. geographic coordinates Latitude and longitude lines form an imaginary grid over the Earth's surface. By combining longitude and latitude measurements, any location on earth can be determined. The units of measurement for geographic coordinates are degrees (°), minutes ('), and seconds ("). Like a circle, the Earth has 360 degrees. Each degree is divided into 60 minutes, which in turn is divided into 60 seconds. Latitude and longitude coordinates also include cardinal directions: north or south of the equator for latitude, and east or west of the prime meridian for longitude. The geographic coordinates of New York City, for example, are 40° N, 74° W, meaning that it is located 40 degrees north latitude and 74 degrees west longitude. Using minutes and seconds as well as degrees, the coordinates for New York would be 40°42'51" N, 74°0'23" W. (Latitude is always listed first.) A less common format for listing coordinates is in decimal degrees. The Tropic of Cancer, for example, can be expressed in degrees and minutes (23°30' N) or in decimal degrees (23.5° N). continental drift Theory that the earth's continents at one time were once part of a singular landmass. It is believed that the continents have spread out due to plate tectonics. hemisphere A hemisphere is half the Earth's surface. The four hemispheres are the Northern and Southern hemispheres, divided by the equator (0° latitude), and the Eastern and Western hemispheres, divided by the prime meridian (0° longitude) and the International Date Line (180°). equator Zero degrees latitude. The Sun is directly overhead the equator at noon on the two equinoxes (March and Sept. 20 or 21). The equator divides the globe into the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The equator appears halfway between the North and South poles, at the widest circumference of the globe. It is 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 km) long. prime meridian Zero degrees longitude (0°). The prime meridian runs through the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, England (the location was established in 1884 by international agreement). The prime meridian divides the globe into the Western and Eastern hemispheres. The Earth's time zones are measured from the prime meridian. The time at 0° is called Universal Time (UT) or Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). With the Greenwich meridian as the starting point, each 15° east and west marks a new time zone. The 24 time zones extend east and west around the globe for 180° to the International Date Line. When it is noon along the prime meridian, it is midnight along the International Date Line. International Date Line Located at 180° longitude (180° E and 180° W are the same meridian). Regions to the east of the International Date Line are counted as being one calendar day earlier than the regions to the west. Although the International Date Line generally follows the 180° meridian (most of which lies in the Pacific Ocean), it does diverge in places. Since 180° runs through several countries, it would divide those countries not simply into two different time zones, but into two different calendar days. To avoid such unnecessary confusion, the date line dips and bends around countries to permit them to share the same time. tropics Also referred to as the torrid zone or tropical zone, all the water and land of the earth between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The tropics experience at least one day per year in which the sun passes directly overhead. Tropic of Cancer A line of latitude located at 23°30' north of the equator. The Sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Cancer on the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere (June 20 or 21). It marks the northernmost point of the tropics, which falls between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.

Millennium Milestones The 100 Most Significant Events of the Last Thousand Years Reducing the millennium to a laundry list of highlights cannot pretend to be a definitive or accurate exercise. Note that only events judged to haveworldsignificance are included. Apologies for the inevitable bias toward Western as well as twentieth century events—we are all prisoners of our own history. For a less whirlwind glance at the last thousand years, see our Millennium Timeline. *.1066— Norman Conquestof Britain *.1095—Pope Urban II calls for the Crusades *.1100s— Angkor Watis built *.1206— Genghis Khanbegins creation of largest land empire in history *.1215— Magna Cartasigned *.1260— Chartres Cathedralconsecrated *.1271— Marco Polobegins travels to Asia *.1273— Thomas Aquinas'sSumma theologica *.1300s— Renaissancebegins in Italy *.1347— Bubonic plague(Black Death) spreads in Europe *.c.1387— Chaucer'sCanterbury Tales *.1399— Tamerlanebegins last great conquest *.1438— Incan Empireformed in Peru *.1455— Gutenberg's movable-type printing press produces the Bible *.1492— Columbusreaches the New World *.1509— Michelangelobegins painting Sistine Chapel *.1513— Machiavelli'sThe Prince *.1517— Martin Lutherinitiates Reformation *.1519— Aztec Empireat height as Spanish arrive *.1520— Suleiman I“the Magnificent” presides over the Ottoman Empire's greatest period *.1522— Magellan's expedition circumnavigates the globe *.1543— Copernicuspostulates a heliocentric universe *.1582— Pope Gregory XIIIreforms calendar *.1603— Shakespeare'sHamlet *.1605— Cervantes'sDon Quixote,first modern novel *.1609— Galileomakes first astronomical observations with a telescope *.1637— DescartespublishesDiscours de la méthode *.1643— Taj Mahalcompleted *.1664— Newton's theory of universal gravitation *.1667— Milton'sParadise Lost *.1684— Leibniz's calculuspublished *.1690— Locke'sEssay Concerning Human Understanding *.1721— Bachcompletes the Brandenburg Concertos *.1755— Johnson'sDictionary of the English Language *.1760— Industrial Revolutionbegins in England *.1762— Rousseau'sThe Social Contract *.1764— Mozart(aged eight) writes first symphony *.1769— Wattpatents first practical steam engine *.1776—U.S. Declaration of Independence; Adam Smith'sWealth of Nations *.1787— U.S. Constitutionsigned *.1789— French Revolutionbegins *.1792— Wollstonecraft'sVindication of the Rights of Woman *.1796— Jennerdiscovers smallpox vaccine *.1808— Beethoven'sFifth Symphony *.1815—Battle of Waterloo crushes Napoleon *.1819— Bolívardefeats Spanish forces at Boyacá *.1826—Niepce takes first photograph *.1833— Slavery abolishedin British Empire *.1842—Long uses first anesthetic(ether) *.1859— Darwin'sOn the Origin of Species;Lenoir builds first practical internal-combustion engine *.1862— Pasteur's experiments lead to germ theory; Salon des Refusés introduces impressionism *.1867—Japan ends 675-year shogun rule *.1876— Bellpatents the telephone *.1879— Edisoninvents electric light *.1880s—Europe colonizes African continent *.1885—World's first skyscraperbuilt in Chicago *.1893— New Zealandbecomes first country in the world to grant women the vote *.1895—Lumiére brothers introduce motion pictures; Marconisends first radio signals *.1897—Herzl launches Zionist movement *.1900— Freud'sInterpretation of Dreams *.1903— Wright brothersfly first motorized airplane *.1905— Einsteinannounces theory of relativity *.1907— Picasso'sLes Demoiselles d'Avignonintroduces cubism *.1911— Rutherforddiscovers structure of atom *.1913— Forddevelops first moving assembly line *.1914— World War Ibegins *.1916— Sangerfounds international birth control movement *.1917— Leninleads the BolshevikRevolution *.1918—Global “Spanish flu” epidemic *.1922— Joyce'sUlyssespublished *.1927— Farnsworthdemonstrates working model of a television; Lemaitreproposes big bang theory *.1928— Flemingdiscovers penicillin *.1929— Hubbleproposes theory of expanding universe; U.S. stock market crash precipitates global depression *.1936— Keynes'sThe General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money *.1939— Hitlerinvades Poland; World War IIbegins *.1942—Nazi leaders at Wannsee Conferencecoordinate “final solution to the Jewish question” *.1945— Atomic bombsare dropped on Hiroshimaand Nagasaki; first electronic computer, ENIAC, is built; Arab Leaguelaunches modern pan-Arabism *.1946—First meeting of U.N. General Assembly; Churchill's “Iron Curtain” speech marks beginning of cold war *.1947— Gandhi's civil disobedience movement leads to an independent India *.1949—Communist victory in Chinaunder Mao Zedong *.1950s— Abstract expressionismintroduced

Time Tangled Island: Ancient Greece Factropica Fast Facts and quizzes Ancient Greece Quiz! Factropica Fast Facts The Oracle of Delphi, which dates to 1400 B.C., was the most important shrine in Greeceand was considered the center of the world. The Oracle at Delphi is also known as Pythiaor Sybil. People believed the Pythia could see into the future. People traveled from all over Greece and beyond to ask the Oracle of Delphi questions, ranging from when to plant crops to predict opportune times to wage war. If people didn't like Pythia's predictions, she would make another for more gold. Greek city-states agreed to work together to protect Delphi, which is on Mount Parnassus. The Oracle of Delphi was a religious site from pre-historic times to c. 395, when the Roman Emperor Theodosiusordered it closed. According to Greek legend, the first Olympics occurred in 776 BC. Opinions differ about their origins. Some credit them to Hercules, who brought a sacred olive tree to Olympia. Another myth says the hero Pelopsestablished the festival after defeating King Oenomaus in a chariot race. Olympia was famous for its temples and monuments, especially 40-foot tall, gold and ivory Statue of Zeus, which was built c. 432 BC. It is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The Lion Gate at Mycenae, which stood at the entrance to the city of Mycenae, was built c. 1250 BC. Mycenae was a center of commerce and culture in ancient Greece. Triremes were a type of ship developed and used in Greece in the 5th century B.C. These ships, which were used in warfare, had three groups of rowers who sat almost on top of each other on each side of the ship.