NEW ZEALAND: WHEN DID NEW ZEALAND GAIN SELF-RULE? WHAT BECAME OF THE MAORIS? New Zealand is known to the Maoris as Aotearoa. Dutch and English navigators charted these islands, and by the 19th century, traders and whaling crews were landing there. The islands came under British rule in 1840. WHEN DID NEW ZEALAND GAIN SELF-RULE? Britain granted the colonists self-rule in 1852. The country prospered from sheep farming and from the discovery of gold in 1862. In 1893, New Zealand became the first country to give women the vote. In 1907, it became a Dominion, a fully independent nation within the British Empire. WHAT BECAME OF THE MAORIS? The Maoris had possessed firearms since the arrival of the first foreigners. After 1840, the settlers seized more and more land, so between 1845 and 1847, the Maoris rose up in revolt. A second war took place from 1860 to 1872. This won the Maoris representation in the New Zealand Parliament. TREATY OF WAITANGI In 1840, the British signed a treaty with a gathering of Maori chiefs on North Island. It guaranteed Maori rights to the land, but these were ignored by the settlers.

AUSTRALIA: WHY WERE CONVICTS SENT TO AUSTRALIA? WHAT HAPPENED TO THE ABORIGINALS? WHEN DID AUSTRALIA BECOME A NATION? BIOGRAPHY: JAMES COOK 1728–1779 The coasts of Australia were first mapped by Dutch explorers in the 17th century and by the British in the 18th. In 1788, the British founded a colony in New South Wales and went on to settle the rest of this vast land. WHY WERE CONVICTS SENT TO AUSTRALIA? From 1788 until 1852, the British sent criminals to Australia for punishment. The new country was built with forced labor. Free settlers were soon arriving also, to seek their fortune—especially after gold was discovered in 1851. WHAT HAPPENED TO THE ABORIGINALS? About two million Aboriginals lived in Australia in 1788. By 1900 only 50,000 survived. Many died of diseases introduced by the settlers. Others were murdered or driven off their land. Some worked as police trackers, or as laborers on sheep stations. WHEN DID AUSTRALIA BECOME A NATION? The various colonies founded in Australia by the British were mostly granted self-rule in the 1850s. There was great rivalry between them, but they finally agreed to unite as states within a single federal Commonwealth in 1901. BIOGRAPHY: JAMES COOK 1728–1779 Captain Cook was a brilliant English navigator who explored the coasts of Australia and New Zealand. He landed at Botany Bay in New South Wales in 1778 and claimed the land for Britain. Cook was killed in Hawaii by natives of the islands.

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR: WHY DID THE STATES FIGHT EACH OTHER? HOW MANY PEOPLE DIED? WHAT WAS THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD? DID THE CIVIL WAR END SLAVERY IN THE US? BIOGRAPHY: ABRAHAM LINCOLN 1809–1865 In 1860 and 1861, a group of southern states, known as the Confederacy, withdrew from the United States. A civil war began when the Confederates attacked a federal fort in Charleston, South Carolina. In 1865, the Union defeated the Confederacy in this fierce conflict. WHY DID THE STATES FIGHT EACH OTHER? The northern states were building an industrial economy. The agricultural southern states still relied on slave labor. They resented the increasing power of the north and feared that the federal government in Washington would impose reforms and end slavery. HOW MANY PEOPLE DIED? The US was reunited at a terrible cost. The northern troops lost 359,000 soldiers, while the southerners lost 258,000. Civilians suffered from looting and from the devastation of railroads, towns, and cotton plantations. GRANT VERSUS LEE In 1864, the Union general Ulysses S. Grant clashed with the Confederate general Robert E. Lee in a bid to capture Spotsylvania Court House in northern Virginia. Casualties were heavy. The battle was a draw. WHAT WAS THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD? This was a secret network of escape routes and hideouts for African American slaves. Between 1786 and 1861, activists such as Harriet Tubman (c.1820–1913) helped about 50,000 slaves escape to freedom in the northern states and Canada. DID THE CIVIL WAR END SLAVERY IN THE US? Abraham Lincoln proclaimed an end to slavery in 1863, and it was finally abolished in the southern states after the war. African Americans remained poor, and the southern states passed laws that prevented them from voting or gaining equal status despite constitutional amendments guaranteeing these rights. BIOGRAPHY: ABRAHAM LINCOLN 1809–1865 Lincoln was elected President in 1860 and again in 1864. He supported strong federal government and opposed slavery. Having led the Union to victory in the Civil War, he was assassinated at a theater in Washington, D.C., in 1865.

AGE OF EMPIRE: THE WORLD IN 1900 WHY DID EUROPEANS WANT TO RULE THE WORLD? HOW WERE PEOPLE TREATED BY THEIR RULERS? BRITISH RAJ SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA FRENCH FOREIGN LEGION From the 19th century until the early 20th, much of the world was governed by a few very powerful European nations. The BRITISH RAJcontrolled the riches of India. The FRENCH FOREIGN LEGIONdefended remote forts in the Sahara desert, and there was a SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICAby empire-builders. Table 55. EMPIRE 1800–1918 1824Dutch and British divide southeast Asian territories 1883–1885Germany gains colonies in Africa and Pacific 1885Belgian rule in the Congo 1887French rule Indochina 1899–1902Second South African (“Boer”) War 1904Federation of French West Africa 1918German and Ottoman empires broken up after defeat in World War I THE WORLD IN 1900 The chief empire-builders were the French, British, Germans, Danish, Belgians, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese. The United States and Japan were also gaining overseas territories. The Russian Empire now ruled the whole of northern Asia. However, the Chinese Empire was losing territory to foreign powers. WHY DID EUROPEANS WANT TO RULE THE WORLD? The reasons were many. The factories of the newly industrialized lands needed resources, such as rubber. Some empire-builders wanted land for settlement; others were praying for converts to Christianity. HOW WERE PEOPLE TREATED BY THEIR RULERS? Most empire-builders claimed to be bringing civilization to peoples whom they believed to be inferior. Although the ruling countries did build towns, ports, and railroads, in some colonies the local peoples were treated little better than slaves. BRITISH RAJ By the 19th century, real power in India was held by the British East India Company. Following an uprising by Indian soldiers in 1857, British government rule, or Raj, was imposed on India in 1858. WHO BECAME EMPRESS OF INDIA? Queen Victoria (1819–1901) was declared Empress of India in 1876. Under her rule, Great Britain became the world’s most powerful nation. Victoria had a shrewd grasp of politics and took a close interest in her government’s foreign policy. India was believed to be one of the most important parts of the British Empire. The two countries had a great cultural influence on each other. SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA As explorers discovered new lands in Africa, European powers rushed in to take them over. The French clashed with the British in Sudan, and the Germans gained lands in East and West Africa. WHAT HAPPENED IN BERLIN IN 1884? In 1884–1885, the world’s most powerful nations held a conference in Berlin, the capital of Germany. They divided between themselves vast regions of Africa. They knew little of these distant lands and did not consult the peoples living there. Borders were drawn up to serve their own political needs. FRENCH FOREIGN LEGION Empires needed large armies to suppress rebellions or fight rival powers. The Foreign Legion was formed by the French in 1831 to fight in colonial wars. It was recruited from foreigners and gained a reputation for tough discipline. WHERE DID THE LEGIONNAIRES FIGHT? They fought wherever France needed them in their empire. The Legion was most famously associated with desert campaigns in North Africa. French territory stretched all the way from Algeria south to the Congo River. France also ruled Madagascar, French Guiana, and islands in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, and South Pacific.

SOUTH AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE: WHO WAS KNOWN AS THE LIBERATOR? WHO ENDED PORTUGUESE RULE IN BRAZIL? WHEN DID ARGENTINA BECOME INDEPENDENT? WHAT WERE SOUTH AMERICA’S NEW ECONOMIES? The American empires founded by Spain and Portugal broke up in the 19th century. These European countries were no longer powerful, and their colonies struggled to break away. Wars brought liberation, but independence was often followed by strife between the new nations. Table 53. LIBERATION 1816Argentina declares independence 1818San Martín liberates Chile 1819Gran Colombia is founded 1820Brazil annexes Uruguay 1821Peru gains independence Venezuela and Ecuador are liberated 1822Brazil breaks away from Portugal 1825Bolivia is liberated WHO WAS KNOWN AS THE LIBERATOR? Simón Bolívar, “the Liberator,” helped to free much of South America. He fought in Venezuela and ruled Colombia and Ecuador. He freed Peru, and Bolivia was renamed in his honor. Other freedom fighters included Bernardo O’Higgins and José de San Martín, who fought in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. THE TURNING POINT Bolívar was born in Venezuela. He defeated the Spanish at Carabobo in 1821. Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama all became part of an independent republic called Gran Colombia. Venezuela withdrew from this in 1829. WHO ENDED PORTUGUESE RULE IN BRAZIL? When Portugal was invaded by the French emperor Napoleon in 1807, the Portuguese royal family fled to their colony of Brazil. King John VI returned home in 1821, leaving his son Pedro to rule Brazil for him, but in 1822, Pedro declared himself to be emperor of an independent Brazil. WHEN DID ARGENTINA BECOME INDEPENDENT? The capital city of Argentina, Buenos Aires (meaning “fair winds”), was founded by the Spanish in the 16th century. In 1810, its people rose up against Spanish rule, gaining their independence in 1816. There followed a civil war between the city-dwellers and the ranchers of the provinces. The country was finally united in 1861. GAUCHOS OF ARGENTINA The Gauchos were Argentine cowboys of part Spanish, part Indian descent. These daring, hard-living rogues opposed the new Buenos Aires government, backing their own leaders in a struggle for power. WHAT WERE SOUTH AMERICA’S NEW ECONOMIES? In the 19th century, South America’s gold and silver mines began to run out. A new source of wealth was needed. In Brazil, plantations of coffee and rubber were set up, while Argentina’s grasslands supported sheep and cattle. When refrigeration was invented, huge amounts of beef were exported from Buenos Aires.