FRENCH REVOLUTION: WHY DID THE FRENCH RISE UP? WHAT HAPPENED ON JULY 14? BIOGRAPHY: MAXIMILIEN DE ROBESPIERRE 1758–1794 REIGN OF TERROR The years 1789 to 1799 marked a turning point in European history. In France, calls for political reform were overtaken by a revolution that swept away the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the power of the Church. The revolution was followed by a REIGN OF TERROR. WHY DID THE FRENCH RISE UP? In 1789, the French aristocracy and leading churchmen led privileged lives and had great power. However, the middle classes wanted more power for themselves. Taxes were high, the country was bankrupt, and the poor were starving. King Louis XVI failed to bring in reforms in time to stop a revolution. WHAT HAPPENED ON JULY 14? On July 14, 1789, the people of Paris were afraid that the army had been ordered to attack them. They armed themselves and marched to the Bastille, a royal fort used as a prison, in search of gunpowder. They attacked and captured the fort. The revolution had begun. BIOGRAPHY: MAXIMILIEN DE ROBESPIERRE 1758–1794 Robespierre became one of the most radical leaders of the revolution. He whipped up a climate of fear, and soon his opponents were being sent to the guillotine. He himself was seized and beheaded without trial in 1794. REIGN OF TERROR The French Revolution succeeded in overthrowing a corrupt and unjust system of government, but it soon ran out of control. First, aristocrats were executed, and then the revolutionaries turned on each other in a bloodbath. The Reign of terror had begun, in which the state governed by fear. HOW MANY PEOPLE DIED? During the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), about 40,000 people were executed or murdered. A guillotine was set up in the Place de la Révolution in Paris. This wooden frame contained a sharp blade that dropped onto the victim’s neck. Although it was supposed to be a humane method of execution, its efficiency meant that hundreds were dying every day. WHEN DID THE TERROR END? The creator of the Reign of Terror, Robespierre, was seized by his opponents in the National Convention and beheaded in 1794. In 1795 there were major uprisings. Order was restored by a soldier named Napoleon Bonaparte. Power passed to a five-man group called the Directory, and by 1799 Napoleon had seized power for himself. The revolution was over.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT: WHO PUT TOGETHER A GREAT BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE? WHO ABOLISHED GOD? Scientific advances of the 17th and 18th centuries encouraged new ideas, and this led European philosophers to declare that humans progressed by using reason and logic, rather than faith or superstition. This period became known as the Enlightenment, or Age of Reason. WHO PUT TOGETHER A GREAT BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE? New information systems were needed for this new age. Dictionaries began to appear, and a 17-volume encyclopedia, edited by Denis Diderot, was published in France in 1751–1772. Its contributors included thinkers such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire. WHO ABOLISHED GOD? In 1793, the French National Convention abolished the worship of God and forbade what it regarded as superstitious festivals. A new calendar was drawn up, one that began not with the birth of Christ but with a current human event, the French Revolution.

SLAVE TRADE: HOW WAS THE SLAVE TRADE ORGANIZED? HOW WERE SLAVES TREATED IN THE NEW WORLD? BIOGRAPHY: TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE 1746–1803 PLANTATIONS People have been bought and sold as slaves around the world through much of history. This trade reached new heights in the 16th to 19th centuries, as Arabs and Europeans plundered Africa. In the 18th century, it is believed that up to eight million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic Ocean. HOW WAS THE SLAVE TRADE ORGANIZED? West African slaves were normally captured by African raiders. At the coast they were exchanged for European guns or textiles. The European traders packed the slaves into ships and sailed for the New World. Once the Africans were sold, the European captains picked up cargoes before sailing home. HOW WERE SLAVES TREATED IN THE NEW WORLD? After the ordeal of the Atlantic crossing, the slaves were prepared for auction. Once sold, they were forced to work long hours on PLANTATIONSfor no pay. Many slaves were treated with cruelty, and were chained and branded. Those who tried to escape were punished by whipping or even hanging. BIOGRAPHY: TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE 1746–1803 Toussaint was a freed slave from the French colony of St. Dominique (Haiti). He joined a slave uprising in 1791. When revolutionary France abolished slavery, Toussaint became a respected leader. However, after a change of government, he was seized and imprisoned. PLANTATIONS Slaves in the Caribbean and the US were forced to work on plantations—estates where sugar cane, cotton, or other crops were grown. The owners paid workers no wages, so their profits were huge. WHY WERE PLANTATIONS CREATED? Plantations in the New World marked the start of farming on an industrial, global scale. Plantations produced “cash crops”—crops grown for sale and export rather than local use. The use of slave labor reduced costs.

AMERICAN REVOLUTION: WHY DID THE COLONISTS REVOLT? WHAT WAS THE BOSTON TEA PARTY? WHO FOUGHT IN THE WAR? DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE The period 1765-1788 saw great changes in North America. The 13 eastern colonies demanded democratic government, and went to war against Britain in 1775. In 1776 they issued a DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, and in 1781 the British command surrendered the fight. WHY DID THE COLONISTS REVOLT? The people who had settled in North America valued personal freedom. Many of them had left Europe because of their strong religious or political views. They protested when the British government imposed taxes on them without consulting the local governing bodies of the colonies. WHAT WAS THE BOSTON TEA PARTY? Taxes paid on imported goods were very unpopular. In 1773, colonists disguised as American Indians boarded an English ship in Boston Harbor and threw its cargo of highly taxed tea overboard. This became known as the Boston Tea Party. WHO FOUGHT IN THE WAR? British troops, including German mercenaries, were supported by colonial loyalists. The rebellious Patriots formed a Continental Army after 1775, defeating the British at Saratoga Springs in 1777. The French sent 6,000 troops to fight the British. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In 1774, Patriots convened the first in a series of Continental Congresses in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to coordinate their struggle against the British. The 1776 Congress issued a Declaration of Independence, laying down its principles of freedom. A full United States government was founded in 1788. WHO CALLED FOR FREEDOM? The 1776 Declaration of Independence was issued in Philadelphia, in the name of John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress. It was written by Thomas Jefferson, who later became the third US president. It declared that “all men are created equal” and have a right to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” These ringing words inspired revolutionaries around the world. BIOGRAPHY: GEORGE WASHINGTON 1732–1799 Born in Virginia, Washington was a wealthy landowner and served with the British army. In 1775 he was chosen to command the rebel American army, which he led to victory in 1781. He oversaw the new constitution and in 1789 became the first US president.

AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION: WHY DID CHANGES TAKE PLACE IN FARMING? WHO WORKED ON THE LAND? BIOGRAPHY: THOMAS WILLIAM COKE 1752–1842 MECHANIZATION The 18th and 19th centuries saw great changes across Europe and North America in the way people farmed. Scientific methods were used to improve crop yields and breed better livestock. MECHANIZATIONmade farming more efficient. Seeds had been scattered by hand until Jethro Tull’s seed drill (developed in about 1701) made it possible to plant seeds in rows, which could then be easily hoed. WHY DID CHANGES TAKE PLACE IN FARMING? At this time there was a new interest in science and technology. Many old crafts were becoming modern industries, and farming was no exception. This was necessary, as cities were growing and their populations needed more food. In France, an inefficient farming system had resulted in famine and political unrest. WHO WORKED ON THE LAND? In many parts of Europe, farming had changed very little since the Middle Ages. Peasants labored in the fields in great poverty and often had little freedom to move away from their villages. In Britain, farm work was increasingly carried out by large numbers of low-wage laborers. BIOGRAPHY: THOMAS WILLIAM COKE 1752–1842 Thomas Coke was one of the new landowners determined to improve agriculture. He replaced rye with wheat on his land in Norfolk, England, and bred cattle, sheep, and pigs. He also became a Member of Parliament. MECHANIZATION In the 1800s, new machines, such as reaping and threshing machines, were invented to do jobs that had previously been done by hand. DID MACHINES REPLACE PEOPLE? These new inventions were brought in to make farming easier and also to reduce costs. By the 1830s, English farm laborers were beginning to worry that mechanization would lead to loss of jobs. They protested by smashing new machinery and burning haystacks. Their fears were valid. In the next 150 years, the number of farmworkers declined rapidly.