CONQUISTADORS: WHO WAS THE GOD FROM THE SEA? HOW DID THE CONQUISTADORS DEFEAT SO MANY PEOPLE? WHO KILLED THE INCA EMPEROR? BIOGRAPHY: HERNÁN CORTES 1485–1547 EL DORADO In the 16th century, Central and South America were invaded by Spanish soldiers called conquistadors, who overthrew the Aztec and Inca empires. Many went in search of a rich land called EL DORADO. WHO WAS THE GOD FROM THE SEA? In 1517, Aztec spies saw conquistadors on the coast and relayed news of these pale, bearded strangers to Emperor Moctezuma II. He believed that their arrival marked the return of a long-departed god and king called Quetzalcoatl. HOW DID THE CONQUISTADORS DEFEAT SO MANY PEOPLE? The conquistadors were few in number, but they had ships, horses, armor, and deadly firearms. In Mexico they increased their numbers by joining up with native peoples rebelling against Aztec rule. WHO KILLED THE INCA EMPEROR? In 1532, a band of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro met the Inca emperor Atahualpa. They tricked him into being captured, and demanded a vast ransom of silver and gold for his release. It was paid, but in 1533 they executed him anyway. BIOGRAPHY: HERNÁN CORTES 1485–1547 Cortés was born in Spain. In 1518 he was given command of a force of 550 soldiers. He landed in Mexico, and reached the Aztec capital in 1519. He was greeted peacefully, but soon there was bitter fighting. In 1521 Cortés destroyed the city, and in 1522 he became the Spanish governor of this newly conquered land. EL DORADO El Dorado means “the golden one”—it is the Spanish name for a mythical land in South America, said to be rich in gold beyond all dreams. WHY DID THE CONQUISTADORS SEEK EL DORADO? Conquistadors were often brave, but they were also quarrelsome and violent, driven by a desperate desire for gold and power. Many died in remote jungles, still vainly searching for the riches of El Dorado.

ENGLISH CIVIL WAR: WHO WAS “OLD IRONSIDES”? WHO WERE ROUNDHEADS AND CAVALIERS? WHO WERE THE DIGGERS AND LEVELERS? WHAT WAS THE COMMONWEALTH? From 1642 to 1648 people in the British Isles were split by a war between King Charles I and Parliament. The king was said to be influenced by his wife, a French Catholic. He brought in unpopular taxes and tried to force his will on Parliament. This led to civil war. WHO WAS “OLD IRONSIDES”? Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658) was a farmer and Member of Parliament. In the English Civil War he proved himself to be a brilliant soldier. He and his armored troopers became known as Ironsides. He led a savage invasion of Catholic Ireland in 1649. WHO WERE ROUNDHEADS AND CAVALIERS? The forces of Parliament included many of the more extreme Protestants, called Puritans (also known as Roundheads, because of their short haircuts). The royalists were called Cavaliers (meaning “knights”). Their war ended with the capture of Charles I. WHO WERE THE DIGGERS AND LEVELERS? The leaders of the Parliamentary forces were mostly country landowners, squires, and merchants. Many of the poor people who fought for them wanted the land to be shared and equal rights for all. Cromwell crushed these Diggers and Levelers in 1649. WHAT WAS THE COMMONWEALTH? In 1649 a republic, or Commonwealth, was declared. There was now a Council of State instead of a king. However, the army was impatient for greater change, so in 1653 power was handed over to Oliver Cromwell, who was given the title “Lord Protector”. Cromwell died and under his son the Commonwealth soon collapsed. In 1660 the monarchy was restored, but with limited powers.

TUDOR AGE: HOW DID TUDOR MERCHANTS BECOME WEALTHY? WHO WAS THE GREATEST TUDOR MONARCH? WHY DID HENRY VIII QUARREL WITH THE POPE? CHURCH OF ENGLAND The Tudors were a family of Welsh, French, and English descent. From 1485 to 1603 they ruled England, Wales, and rebellious Ireland. The Tudor kingdom became a powerful force in Europe and the New World. HOW DID TUDOR MERCHANTS BECOME WEALTHY? The Tudor economy depended on wool and the cloth trade, which was centered in the English region of East Anglia. To expand their trade, merchants and ships’ captains began to seek new business in distant lands. WHO WAS THE GREATEST TUDOR MONARCH? Henry VIII was followed as ruler by his three children, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. Elizabeth was a strong and popular ruler, and a shrewd politician. She never married. Her reign saw battles with Spain, exploration of the New World, and a flowering of poetry and theater. Table 47. TUDOR MONARCHS TUDOR MONARCHS 1485Henry VII wins throne from Richard III 1509Henry VIII is crowned king 1547Rule of the boy king Edward VI 1553Reign of Mary I 1558Elizabeth I becomes queen 1603Death of Elizabeth I BIOGRAPHY: HENRY VIII 1491–1547 As a young man, Henry was handsome and intelligent. He loved hunting and dancing, and also composed music. As king, he became increasingly arrogant, selfish, and overweight. He married six times and had two of his wives executed. His reign was marked by political plotting, religious strife, and rebellion. WHY DID HENRY VIII QUARREL WITH THE POPE? King Henry VIII married his elder brother’s widow, a Spanish princess called Catherine of Aragon. Although she had a daughter, Mary, she did not produce the male heir Henry wanted. The king fell in love with a beautiful courtier named Anne Boleyn. When the Pope refused to give him a divorce, Henry VIII made himself head of a CHURCH OF ENGLAND. CHURCH OF ENGLAND Henry VIII finally broke with the Roman Catholic Church in 1534. However, he also rejected the Protestant teachings of Martin Luther. In 1559, after years of religious conflict, Elizabeth I created a reformed Church of England that contained both Catholic and Protestant elements. It was, and still is, headed by the monarch. WHY DID RELIGION TROUBLE THE TUDORS? Henry VIII’s political quarrel with the Pope coincided with the bitter religious quarrels of the Reformation in Europe. Edward VI and Elizabeth I were both Protestant, while Mary I was an ardent Catholic. Many ordinary people were tortured and executed for having a different faith than the reigning monarch.

INCAS: GOLD MASK WHO RULED THE INCA EMPIRE? HOW DID INCA SOCIETY FUNCTION? WHO WAS DESCENDED FROM THE SUN AND MOON? The Inca people lived in the Andes mountains of Peru. Between the 12th century and 1532, they conquered an empire that was only 200 miles (320 km) wide, but that stretched for 2,240 miles (3,600 km), from Colombia to Chile. GOLD MASK Craftsmen had privileged status in Inca society. Metalworkers from various parts of the empire made masks of shining gold. It was greed for such gold and treasure that lured Spanish invaders to Peru in 1532. WHO RULED THE INCA EMPIRE? The Incas formed a ruling elite. They were a small highland tribe who came to govern 12 million people, speakers of 20 different languages. Conquered chiefs were allowed to keep some local power, provided they adopted the Inca way of life. HOW DID INCA SOCIETY FUNCTION? Nobles who were loyal to the emperor were made governors, generals, or priests. They wore golden earplugs as a badge of rank. Most citizens were poor farmers, but they also had to serve the state as soldiers, builders, or laborers. WHO WAS DESCENDED FROM THE SUN AND MOON? The Inca emperor claimed descent from Inti, the Sun god, and the empress from Mamakilya, the Moon goddess. Other gods and goddesses represented the sea, thunder, and the goodness of the Earth. The Incas also revered the holy places used by earlier Andean peoples.

AZTECS: WHERE WAS THE CITY IN THE LAKE? HOW DO WE KNOW ABOUT AZTEC LIFE? HUMAN SACRIFICE The Aztec, or Mexica, people founded the last of the great civilizations that existed in Mexico before the Spanish invasion. Their powerful empire lasted from around 1325 to 1521. The Aztecs were farmers, warriors, and builders of great cities. WHERE WAS THE CITY IN THE LAKE? In 1325, a band of migrating Aztecs came to a large island in Lake Texcoco. When their priests saw an eagle land on a cactus there, they declared that this was the place to build a splendid new city, Tenochtitlán. This is now the site of Mexico City. HOW DO WE KNOW ABOUT AZTEC LIFE? After the Spanish invaded Tenochtitlán, they described many aspects of Aztec life, such as law, schooling, farming, and HUMAN SACRIFICE. Many artifacts from the Aztec Empire have also survived, including feather cloaks, jewelry, pottery, and knives. HUMAN SACRIFICE Human sacrifice is the killing of people for religious reasons. The Aztecs believed that the gods had sacrificed themselves for their people. They wished to repay that debt. WHY DID BLOOD FLOW SO FREELY? Being sacrificed was believed to be a great honor for the victims. Even so, the victims were often captured enemy troops who were taken to the capital to be killed on the pyramid of the Great Temple. At a four-day ceremony in 1487, tens of thousands of captives were sacrificed.