IMPERIAL CHINA: WHY WERE EXAMS IMPORTANT IN CHINA? HOW DID BEIJING BECOME CHINA’S CAPITAL? WHO LIVED IN THE FORBIDDEN CITY? PORCELAIN For more than 2,000 years, from 221 BC until AD 1912, China was ruled by emperors. In that time, the capital city and the imperial dynasty (ruling family) changed. There were periods of unrest and of invasion by fierce tribes, including the Mongols, but the same system of government continued. Imperial China was a remarkably stable civilization, which led the world in art and technology, with inventions including paper, PORCELAIN, and gunpowder. Table 44. CHINA’S RULERS 221 BCQin dynasty 206 BCHan dynasty AD 221Time of disunity 581Sui dynasty 618Tang dynasty 907China divided into five dynasties 960Song dynasty 1279Yuan dynasty (Mongol) 1368Ming dynasty (last Chinese dynasty) 1644–1912Qing dynasty (Manchu dynasty from Manchuria) WHY WERE EXAMS IMPORTANT IN CHINA? The first Han emperor set up a civil service to run China. Before getting a job in the civil service, officials had to pass a series of difficult exams. Those who passed the top exams could expect jobs as government ministers, and marriage to princesses. HOW DID BEIJING BECOME CHINA’S CAPITAL? After invading China in AD 1279, the Mongol (Yuan) emperors established their capital at Beijing, which was just inside the Great Wall, in what was then the far north of China. In 1368, a new dynasty, the Ming, came to power. They kept Beijing as the capital, rebuilding and expanding the city. The Great Wall snakes across the mountains north of Beijing. Defensive walls had been built since ancient times, but most of the Great Wall as it still stands was built under the Ming emperors. WHO LIVED IN THE FORBIDDEN CITY? The imperial palace at Beijing is called the Forbidden City. Enclosed by a moat and high brick walls, this complex of palaces, halls, gardens, offices, and storehouses was built under the Ming dynasty. The imperial family lived there, along with nobles, servants, and officials. PORCELAIN Porcelain is a translucent (semitransparent) ceramic material, made of fine white clay mixed with crushed stone. It can be shaped on a potter’s wheel, or molded by hand. When fired (baked) at extremely high temperatures, it becomes waterproof, and so hard that steel cannot scratch it. WHY WAS PORCELAIN SO PRECIOUS? Porcelain was first made by Chinese potters during the Tang dynasty. It was a luxury product, for the use of nobles and emperors, and for centuries no one but the Chinese knew how to make it.

MEDIEVAL EUROPE: WHO WAS POWERFUL IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE? WHAT DID MEDIEVAL PEOPLE BELIEVE? HOW DID MEDIEVAL TOWNS DEVELOP? WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE FOR PEASANT FAMILIES? BIOGRAPHY: ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE 1122–1204 CASTLES KNIGHTS Between AD 1000 and 1500, a lively society developed in Europe. Although most people still worked on the land, this was also the age of CASTLES, cathedrals, and growing towns. Gradually, the traders and craftsmen of the towns began to have more influence on government. WHO WAS POWERFUL IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE? Kings led armies of KNIGHTSand foot soldiers. They made laws, collected taxes, and encouraged trade. Nobles ran great estates, given to them on the condition that they would help the king rule. The Church was important in every area of life, providing medieval Europe with its schools, hospitals, and universities. WHAT DID MEDIEVAL PEOPLE BELIEVE? Medieval Europeans believed that God had made the world, and ruled it through his Church and the king. Few people, apart from priests and monks, could read and write. Ordinary people learned the stories of the Bible and the saints from preachers, and from the pictures painted in their churches. HOW DID MEDIEVAL TOWNS DEVELOP? Many towns grew up around markets, where farm produce was exchanged for the goods and services of specialized craftsmen, such as shoemakers and weavers. Through their guilds, traders and craftsmen regulated prices and organized the training of their apprentices. WHAT WAS LIFE LIKE FOR PEASANT FAMILIES? Most peasants worked on their local lord’s fields in return for their own plots of land. Some, called serfs, were not free, and could not travel, or marry, without their lord’s permission. Skilled men could be thatchers or carpenters. Women might weave cloth or brew ale. BIOGRAPHY: ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE 1122–1204 Eleanor of Aquitaine was the richest heiress in France. She married King Louis VII of France in 1137, but by 1154, she was married to King Henry II of England. In her old age she remained a powerful woman, ruling England during the absence of her son, King Richard. CASTLES A castle is a huge, fortified building, or set of buildings. The first castles, built around 900, were made up of a wooden fortress on top of an earth mound. Later, castles built of stone had towers, battlements, moats, and strong defensive walls. They also became prestigious homes. WERE CASTLES ONLY USED IN WARTIME? The first castles were built to shelter nobles, KNIGHTS, and soldiers in a war. After around 1200, in times of peace, each castle had its own nobleman and his family living in it. Comfortable private rooms were added for important guests. The main building of a castle was its keep (central tower). This one was built around 1130. Its stone walls would not burn, and were very hard to knock down. HOW DID GUNPOWDER AFFECT CASTLES? From around 1300, gunpowder for firing cannons began to affect warfare in Europe. Cannon balls could smash through stone walls, making castles less useful as safe strongholds. Castles continued to be built, but for show. They were intended as impressive residences rather than indestructible fortresses. KNIGHTS Knights were warriors on horseback. They came from noble families and were trained from boyhood to handle weapons, wear armor, and ride heavy war horses. Some knights owned castles and land, and kept local order. Others served in the private armies of great lords. Each knight had his own coat of arms, helping him to tell friend from foe in battle. HOW DID KNIGHTS FIGHT? Knights charged into battle on horseback, spearing enemy soldiers with their long lances, or slashing at them with heavy swords, maces, and battle-axes. On foot, they fought with daggers and short swords. This suit of armor, worn around 1380, gave good protection while the knight was on horseback, but was hot and heavy when fighting on foot. WHAT WAS THE CODE OF CHIVALRY? Knights were bound by a solemn promise to be loyal to their king. They were also supposed to respect women, protect the weak, and defend the Church. This code became known as chivalry.

CRUSADES: WHY WAS THE FIRST CRUSADE CALLED? WHAT DID THE CRUSADERS BRING BACK TO EUROPE? In 1095, Pope Urban II called for a war against the Muslim rulers of Jerusalem. This was the First Crusade. Over the next two centuries, Christian armies from Europe fought more crusades, but none was successful. WHY WAS THE FIRST CRUSADE CALLED? For centuries, Christian pilgrims had been visiting the Holy Land, where Jesus had lived and which had been ruled by Muslims since 637. The First Crusade happened because, by the 11th century, the region’s rulers were less sympathetic to Christian pilgrims. WHAT DID THE CRUSADERS BRING BACK TO EUROPE? Crusaders returned with apricots, lemons, rice, dyes, spices, perfume, soap, and glass mirrors. They also brought back a musical instrument, the ancestor of the modern guitar.

NORMANS: WHAT HAPPENED IN 1066? WHY WAS NORMAN SICILY SO REMARKABLE? The Normans were descended from Viking warriors who settled in Normandy, northwest France, in AD 912. They conquered large areas of Europe, from England to southern Italy. Norman kings were strong rulers. WHAT HAPPENED IN 1066? The Normans invaded England in 1066. They were led by the Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, who became king of England. He removed English nobles, and gave their land to Normans. Norman nobles ran the government, and Norman priests led the Church. Norman rulers spoke French, and built castles. They imposed heavy taxes and harsh laws. WHY WAS NORMAN SICILY SO REMARKABLE? In 1060–1091, Sicily was conquered by Normans. The island’s new rulers were tolerant of its Muslim inhabitants, and after the conquest it flourished as a multicultural center of art and learning. Norman Sicilian kings encouraged the work of Arab geographers and scientists, and sponsored the translation of Greek classic texts into Latin.

VIKINGS WHERE DID THE VIKINGS TRAVEL? HOW DID THE VIKINGS GET THEIR FIERCE REPUTATION? HOW DID THE VIKINGS WORSHIP THEIR GODS? LONGSHIPS Late in the 8th century, Viking raiders from Norway, Denmark, and Sweden began to sweep across Europe. In their versatile LONGSHIPS, the Vikings sailed vast distances. Their golden age of trade, exploration, and colonization lasted until AD 1100. WHERE DID THE VIKINGS TRAVEL? The Vikings raided and settled along the coasts of Britain, Ireland, and continental Europe. They crossed the Atlantic to reach Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland. Viking merchants traveled through Russia to Constantinople, exchanging the amber, furs, and whale oil of the north for wine, silks, spices, and silver coins from the Middle East. HOW DID THE VIKINGS GET THEIR FIERCE REPUTATION? The Vikings were not Christian, and they saw isolated monasteries and churches as easy targets for hit-and-run raids. But the first people to write about the Vikings were monks who had suffered in these raids. As a result, Viking atrocities were better recorded than Viking achievements. HOW DID THE VIKINGS WORSHIP THEIR GODS? The Vikings worshiped their gods in the open air, choosing natural landmarks such as big rocks, unusual trees, and waterfalls. Their most important gods were Odin, the god of knowledge, Thor, the god of metalwork and thunder, and Frey, the goddess of fertility. After around 1000, Viking peoples became Christian. LONGSHIPS Viking ships were the best in Europe. Besides the longships used for raiding and war, they had special fishing boats. For long-distance voyages, they built deeper, broader ships called knorrs. HOW WERE VIKING SHIPS BUILT? Viking ships were made of planks of oak or pine wood, nailed to a heavy central keel (supporting timber). This made them strong but flexible. The mast was made from a tall tree trunk and supported a huge square sail. There were oars for each crewman, to row the ship when there was no wind. The shallow hull of a longship made it less likely to capsize. It could be sailed in shallow water close to land, to make a surprise attack. Its planks overlapped for extra strength. Tarred wool was crammed between the planks to keep water out.