AGE OF MIGRATIONS: WHO WERE THE BARBARIANS? WHO WERE THE HUNS? In AD 285 the Roman Empire divided into eastern and western parts, each with its own emperor. Despite this reorganization, by around 400 the western empire could no longer hold out against waves of invading barbarian tribes from northeastern Europe. In 410, Rome itself was attacked. WHO WERE THE BARBARIANS? For the Romans, the Germanic tribes moving across the empire were destructive, disorderly “barbarians.” Over time, these migrant peoples did settle down, eventually giving their names to their new homelands: the Franks in France, the ANGLES AND SAXONSin England, the Lombards in northern Italy, and so on. Table 43. BARBARIAN ATTACKS AD 235Germanic tribes start to invade 410Visigoths capture Rome 435Vandals take Roman North Africa 451Hun invasions 455Vandals destroy Rome 476Last western emperor deposed WHO WERE THE HUNS? The Huns were a nomadic people from today’s Turkestan. Mounted on swift ponies, and armed with bows and arrows, Hun armies rode deep into the Roman Empire in search of plunder. They were not interested in conquering land. ANGLES AND SAXONS Angles and Saxons, who were later known as Anglo-Saxons, lived along the North Sea coast. They began to raid Britain while it was under Roman rule. After 410, when the Roman army left, they arrived in larger numbers to settle, and gradually took over much of eastern Britain. WHO WAS BURIED IN SHIPS? The Angles and Saxons were pagan, seafaring people, and ships played an important part in their culture. They believed that boats could ferry a dead person’s spirit to the next world. People who had been wealthy when they were alive were buried in ships, together with the comforts and treasures they were expected to enjoy in the next world. Poorer Anglo-Saxons were sometimes buried with a few ship’s planks. WHY DID ANGLES AND SAXONS MOVE TO BRITAIN? Around 200, the climate became warmer and sea levels rose, which made life more difficult for the Angles and Saxons living on the North Sea coast. At the same time, they were being squeezed by other westward-moving Germanic peoples. Some of the first Anglo-Saxons in Britain may have been soldiers, hired to protect villages against other raiders.

MAYA: WHO RULED MAYAN KINGDOMS? WHY DID THE MAYA BUILD PYRAMIDS? The Maya lived in Central America and were powerful from around AD 250 to 900. Farmers and traders, they built spectacular cities and developed a system of writing that used picture symbols called GLYPHS. WHO RULED MAYAN KINGDOMS? The Maya were divided into kingdoms, each of which had a city and a ruler, who acted as war leader, lawmaker, and chief priest. After 900 Mayan civilization declined, possibly because their farming methods led to exhausted fields and failing crops. WHY DID THE MAYA BUILD PYRAMIDS? Pyramids were the largest buildings in Mayan cities and were built as temples and royal tombs. Shrines where sacrifices were made to the gods were at the top, while burial chambers were hidden deep inside. The pyramids were built of stone, and covered with red-painted plaster, but this plaster has not survived. MAYAN GLYPHS Mayan glyphs were painted on walls and pots, and carved into pieces of jade and monuments of stone. They were also written into books called codices, which were made out of long strips of bark paper that folded up like screens. This complex writing system was controlled by scribes of very high rank. WHEN WAS THE RIDDLE OF THE GLYPHS SOLVED? The study of Mayan hieroglyphs began 200 years ago. By the 1950s, scholars had worked out the glyphs for the names of rulers and animals. Then, in 1960, it became clear that most Mayan inscriptions are historical. They record important events, such as the births, marriages and deaths, and the victories in battle, of the godlike Mayan kings.

ANCIENT ROM: HOW DID ROME EXPAND? WHAT WAS THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT ROME? HOW WERE ROMAN SOLDIERS RECRUITED? Rome began, around 1000 BC, as a settlement of farmers and shepherds in central Italy. Over the course of the next thousand years, it developed into a powerful city-state, and became the capital of an empire that stretched from Britain in the north to Arabia in the southwest. Opened by Emperor Titus in AD 80, the Colosseum was the largest amphitheater in Rome. For the blood-thirsty “games” staged here, gladiators and animals were imported from every corner of the empire. HOW DID ROME EXPAND? Gradually, the Roman Republic conquered its neighbors, until, by 260 BC, it controlled all of Italy. Next, the Romans defeated the Carthaginians, which by 100 BC gave Rome control of the Mediterranean. At the heart of the government of this expanding Roman Republic were the politicians called SENATORS. WHAT WAS THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT ROME? Jupiter, Minerva, Vesta, and Mars were among the chief gods and goddesses of Ancient Rome. On special occasions, animals were sacrificed to them in temples. Before going into battle, for example, a public sacrifice would be made to Mars, the god of war. Throughout the empire a wide range of non-Roman religions were tolerated, so long as they did not disrespect official Roman gods and the EMPERORS. HOW WERE ROMAN SOLDIERS RECRUITED? In the early days of Rome, every citizen had to be prepared to fight, but soldiers of the Roman imperial army were paid, highly trained professionals who signed on for 20-25 years of service. The ordinary foot soldier was equipped with a short sword, two javelins, and a heavy shield of leather and wood. When he was not at war, he was building forts and roads. SENATORS The Roman Republic was ruled by the Senate, the council of noblemen that controlled all the top jobs in the government and army. After 27 BC, when the Roman Republic was replaced by the Roman Empire, the Senate continued to play an important part in politics. WHY WAS JULIUS CAESAR MURDERED? In 44 BC, five years after he had become the sole ruler of Rome, Julius Caesar was murdered in the Senate building. His assassins were a group of senators who thought he had become too powerful. They also resented the fact that Julius Caesar had rewarded hundreds of his supporters by making them senators. As a result, the Senate, which for most of its history had between 300 and 600 members, was packed with 900 senators. EMPERORS After Julius Caesar’s death, Rome was divided by civil wars. By 27 BC, his adopted son Octavian was master of the Roman world. Under the title Augustus, which means “revered” in Latin, he became the first Roman emperor. His reign brought peace and prosperity to a war-weary world. WHY DID ROMANS GET BREAD AND CIRCUSES? Rome was the largest city in the world. By AD 300, it had a million inhabitants, many of whom were hungry and unemployed. To stop them from rioting, they were given “bread and circuses.” The “bread” was the regular ration of grain issued to Roman citizens, and the “circuses” were the free entertainments and chariot races provided by politicians and emperors. FIRST EMPEROR Augustus reigned for nearly 50 years. He reorganized coins, laws, and taxation.

MAURYAN INDIA: WHAT WERE THE CITIES OF MAURYAN INDIA LIKE? HOW DID ASHOKA SPREAD BUDDHISM? The Maurya dynasty ruled India from 322 BC to 185 BC. Its greatest king was Ashoka (273–232 BC). He began his reign as a warrior, but after becoming a Buddhist, he tried to pursue peaceful policies. WHAT WERE THE CITIES OF MAURYAN INDIA LIKE? Mauryan cities were defended by steep banks of earth and timber walls. At Ashoka’s capital, Pataliputra (near modern Patna), they stretched for 9 miles (14 km). Inside were temples, reservoirs, palaces, storehouses, and workers’ houses. HOW DID ASHOKA SPREAD BUDDHISM? Ashoka set up tall stone pillars in important places, carved with Buddhist teachings and his own promises to rule well. He tried to make peace between different peoples in his empire, but after he died, the empire split into smaller states, until a new empire emerged under the Guptas.

EARLY AMERICANS: HOW DID EARLY AMERICANS LIVE? HOW DID EARLY AMERICANS HONOR THEIR GODS? The first Americans crossed the land bridge that linked Siberia with Alaska during the last Ice Age. Gradually, they spread through the continent. By around 8000 BC there were people in almost every part of the Americas. HOW DID EARLY AMERICANS LIVE? The first Americans were hunters, gatherers, and fishermen, and this way of life continued in tropical rainforests and cold northern woods. Other peoples became farmers. In the Andes of South America they grew potatoes and herded llama. In fertile river valleys, MOUND BUILDERSgrew corn, beans, and squash. In semideserts, the PUEBLOpeople farmed irrigated fields. HOW DID EARLY AMERICANS HONOR THEIR GODS? The rituals of early Americans were closely connected with persuading the gods, or spirits, to continue to provide sunshine and rain. With gifts of blood and food, and sacrifices of animals and young people, they honored the gods on whom life depended. WHICH METALS DID EARLY AMERICANS TREASURE? Around 1500 BC, craftworkers in South America discovered how to shape nuggets of gold, silver, and copper by hammering them, stretching them into wire, or melting them and casting them in molds. They crafted jewelry, ritual objects, and images of gods. PUEBLOS From around AD 800, in parts of southwest North America, rooms were stacked on top of each other to make villages called pueblos. People living in these apartments also became known as Pueblos. HOW MANY PEOPLE LIVED IN A PUEBLO? Some pueblos, like that at Pueblo Bonito, in New Mexico, may have had as many as 650 rooms, and more than 30 ceremonial chambers (kivas). Each room could house a whole family, so the population of a pueblo could have been well over 3,000. MOUND BUILDERS Between 700 BC and AD 550, Adena and Hopewell peoples in the Ohio Valley built huge earth mounds. Some were meeting places for long-distance traders. Others were holy monuments or tombs. WHERE WERE AMERICA’S FIRST CITIES? Around AD 800, mound builders by the Mississippi River also began to build cities. The largest was Cahokia, near St. Louis. It covered almost 6 sq miles (16 sq km) and had over 120 earth mounds. About 10,000 people lived there by 1200.