GUPTA INDIA: WHY IS GUPTA INDIA CALLED A GOLDEN AGE? WHAT IS THE MAHABHARATA? The Gupta dynasty was founded by the Hindu king Chandragupta I in AD 320. From their home in northeast India, the Gupta kings won control of a large empire, which lasted for more than 200 years. WHY IS GUPTA INDIA CALLED A GOLDEN AGE? The art, architecture, science, music, literature, and dance of northern India flourished under the generous and tolerant Gupta kings. Gupta mathematicians developed the number system used all over the world today, and invented the concept of zero. WHAT IS THE MAHABHARATA? TheMahabharata, or “Great Epic of India,” is the world’s longest poem. It tells the story of five Hindu princes who lose their kingdom and struggle to win it back. Written in Sanskrit, it is one of the most important works of Hindu literature.

ANCIENT GREECE: WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT MYCENAEAN KINGS? WHO DID THE ANCIENT GREEKS WORSHIP? WHAT WERE ANCIENT GREEK PLAYS ABOUT? WHY DID THE GREEKS VALUE SPORTS? Greece was home to a rich civilization that reached its peak between 500 BC and 300 BC. Its people lived by farming, fishing, crafts, and trading. They built 300 CITY-STATESand settled in colonies. In 146 BC, Greece was conquered by Rome, but many aspects of Greek culture still shape our world. WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT MYCENAEAN KINGS? Mycenaean kings were powerful from 1600 BC to 1200 BC. They were warrior chieftains who lived in fortresslike cities and ruled small kingdoms. Their name comes from the richest of these—Mycenae, in southern Greece. They employed skilled artists and craftworkers to make fine pottery and magnificent gold jewelry. They owned fleets of trading ships that sailed to many ports. WHO DID THE ANCIENT GREEKS WORSHIP? The Ancient Greeks worshiped many different gods and goddesses. They believed that these gods had magic powers and that they were human in form, but bigger and more beautiful. Each god or goddess controlled a different aspect of life. The supreme god Zeus led all other gods. His brother Poseidon ruled the sea, and another brother, Hades, ruled the underworld. Temples were homes for the gods and goddesses, and status symbols for cities. The Parthenon, Athens, was built in c. 480 BC, when Greek architecture was at its peak. It is one of the world’s most famous buildings and was made from more than 24,000 tons (21,800 metric tons) of marble. This temple was dedicated to the goddess Athena. Inside stood a 40-ft- (12-m-) tall carved statue of Athena, with solid gold armor. WHAT WERE ANCIENT GREEK PLAYS ABOUT? Greek tragedies and comedies told stories about gods and goddesses, or made fun of people such as politicians. Only men watched the plays. They thought women would find them too rude or upsetting. The plays of Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides are still performed today. WHY DID THE GREEKS VALUE SPORTS? Sports were good training for war, but city-states also organized sports competitions to form part of their religious festivals. The most famous was the Olympic Games, held every four years to honor the god Zeus. Competitors came from all over Greece. Victorious athletes won praise for themselves, and prestige for their families and towns. BIOGRAPHY: ALEXANDER THE GREAT 356–323 BC Alexander was ruler of Macedon, north of Greece. As a young man he conquered many lands, including some of the Greek city-states. When he died, his vast empire stretched from Egypt to Pakistan. CITY-STATES A city-state was made up of a town and all the land near it. Each one had its own government, laws, and way of life. City-states often fought each other, using troops of HOPLITESand huge warships. HOW DID ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY WORK? In Athens, all adult male citizens could listen to debates in the Assembly, which met on most days. Here, they could elect and expel city leaders, and vote to decide on government policies. Women, slaves, and foreigners were not able to vote. Three of the world’s most famous philosophers—Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle—lived and taught in Athens. HOPLITES Hoplites were trained foot soldiers who fought for their city-states using swords and spears. Their name came from the round hoplon (shield) that they carried for protection in battle. They also wore helmets, body armor, and plated greaves (shin guards). HOW DID THE ANCIENT GREEKS FIGHT? The Greeks used a battle formation called the phalanx. Soldiers stood side by side in rows, overlapping their shields to make a solid wall of defense as they advanced toward the enemy. Their commanders rode in horse-drawn chariots to overlook the battlefield. City-states also hired foreign experts, such as archers from Scythia, and used warships called triremes.

MEDITERRANEAN SEAFARERS: WHAT MADE THE TRADERS SO PROSPEROUS? From around 2000 BC, people living close to the Mediterranean Sea, such as the MINOANS, Mycenaeans, and PHOENICIANS, built strong wooden ships powered by sails and oars. They established long-distance sea routes linking Europe, Africa, and Asia, and became wealthy sea traders. Later, they sailed to explore and set up colonies. WHAT MADE THE TRADERS SO PROSPEROUS? Traders braved the stormy Mediterranean waters to earn as much as possible through overseas business. The most profitable cargoes included silver from Spain (used to make coins), tin from Britain, and copper from Cyprus. The tin and copper metals were smelted to make bronze. Phoenician cloth, colored purple with a dye made from shellfish, was so expensive that only kings and queens could afford to buy it. MINOANS From 3000 BC to 1450 BC, Minoan kings ruled the eastern Mediterranean area from the island of Crete. The kings grew rich by trading with other islands and demanding offerings from less powerful peoples. They lived in vast, elegantly decorated palaces. WHY DID MINOAN POWER COLLAPSE? Inc.1450 BC, the Mediterranean island of Thera (now Santorini) was destroyed by a volcanic eruption. At nearby Crete, sea levels rose, dust blotted out the Sun, and the Minoans’ crops died out. Then the palace at Knossos, Crete, was attacked by the Mycenaeans. Byc.1100 BC, the Minoan civilization had disappeared. PHOENICIANS The Phoenicians lived on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and were powerful from around 1000 BC to 500 BC. They lived as farmers, foresters, and craftworkers who were highly skilled in woodworking, glass-making, and textile production. WHERE DID THE PHOENICIANS TRAVEL TO TRADE? The Phoenicians sailed all over the Mediterranean Sea. A few ventured farther—to western Spain, southeast Britain, and western Africa—and built new cities in the regions where they traded. Their most famous city was at Carthage, in North Africa, which remained powerful until the Romans destroyed it in 146 BC.

PERSIAN EMPIRE HOW WAS THE PERSIAN EMPIRE GOVERNED? WHAT WAS THE ROYAL ROAD? ROYAL PALACE BIOGRAPHY: KING DARIUS I r. 522–486 BC SATRAPS From 539 BC to 331 BC, the Persian Empire was the most powerful state in the world. Ruled from Persia (now Iran), it stretched from Egypt to India. It had rich resources of water, fertile farmland, and gold. The Persians worshiped a fire god, Zoroaster. HOW WAS THE PERSIAN EMPIRE GOVERNED? Persian rulers claimed the proud title of “King of Kings” and demanded total obedience from their subjects. Under King Darius, the empire was divided into 20 provinces to try to stop any single region from becoming too powerful. Each province was ruled by a governor, called a SATRAP. WHAT WAS THE ROYAL ROAD? This was the longest highway in the Persian Empire. It ran for more than 1,550 miles (2,500 km) from Sardis, in western Turkey, to the empire’s capital, Susa, near the Persian Gulf. A giant network of roads linked the empire’s provinces. Messengers traveled on horseback to deliver urgent royal commands or news, while merchants used camel trains to transport goods. ROYAL PALACE In 520 BC, King Darius gave orders for a magnificent new palace to be built at Persepolis, in Persia. He commanded leaders from all over the empire to bring tributes (forced gifts) to him there. BIOGRAPHY: KING DARIUS I r. 522–486 BC Known as Darius the Great, Darius I reorganized the Persian government, won great victories in Turkey, and led an invasion of Greece. But his army was defeated by Greek soldiers at the famous battle of Marathon in 490 BC. This started a long-lasting war with the Greeks that eventually brought down the Persian Empire. SATRAPS Satraps were local rulers appointed by the king to govern individual provinces. Their job was to enforce law and order, and to collect taxes and tributes. They worked with Persia’s army commanders to defend the empire’s frontiers from enemy attack. COULD THE SATRAPS BE TRUSTED? Persian kings did not trust the satraps. They employed special spies, known as “the king’s ears,” to make sure that the satraps were not stealing taxes and tributes. But some satraps did become powerful, and plotted against the king. Some joined with enemies of the empire, such as Alexander the Great, the Greek leader who conquered the Persian Empire in 331 BC.

MIDDLE EASTERN EMPIRES: WHY WAS THE MIDDLE EAST SUCH A RICH PRIZE? BABYLONIANS HITTITES HEBREWS ASSYRIANS From around 2000 BC, rival peoples in the Middle East fought to either conquer or defend land. Some, like the BABYLONIANSand ASSYRIANS, were based in magnificent cities. Others, like the HITTITESand HEBREWS, arrived to settle and found new kingdoms. WHY WAS THE MIDDLE EAST SUCH A RICH PRIZE? Kings and peoples wanted to live in the Middle East because of its fertile farmland. The best land lay beside the Euphrates and Tigris rivers of Mesopotamia, but there were also fields, forests, and orchards in mountain valleys to the north and south. People also competed to control the long-distance trading routes that passed through the Middle East, linking Europe with Asia. BABYLONIANS Babylon became powerful around 1792 BC, under King Hammurabi. From 1595 BC, its people came under the rule of invaders. In 625 BC, a general called Nabopolassar drove out the foreigners and became king. Under his son, King Nebuchadnezzar (r. 605–562 BC), a great new empire emerged. HOW DID THE BABYLONIANS MEASURE TIME? Babylonians built mud-brick monuments and used them as sundials. They observed stars and planets, predicted their movements, and compiled calendars. They based their calculations on units of 60—which we still use today to measure minutes and seconds—and recorded all their findings in cuneiform writing. BIOGRAPHY: KING HAMMURABI r. 1792–1750 BC King Hammurabi conquered all of Mesopotamia to create a new kingdom, which was named after its chief city—Babylon. He introduced a strict code of law, and many crimes were punished by death. After he died, the empire weakened. HITTITES The Hittites were people who settled in Anatolia (now Turkey), in around 1700 BC. They could smelt iron, so they were able to make stronger weapons than their enemies. Around 1400 BC, Hittite city-states joined forces to create a powerful kingdom. HOW DID THE HITTITES FIGHT THEIR WARS? Fast, two-wheeled war chariots—pulled by horses—were first used by Hittite warriors around 1800 BC. Armed with bows and arrows, the charioteers would charge at ranks of enemy soldiers to scatter them. The Hittites also attacked enemy cities with the help of siege engines such as tall towers. The Hittites had two great enemies: the Ancient Egyptians and a war-like people from the state of Mitanni, in Mesopotamia. WHY DID HITTITE POWER COLLAPSE? The Hittites and their enemies fought to win the eastern Mediterranean region, with its forests, farms, and rich trading ports. In around 1200 BC, the Hittites were also attacked by invaders from Mediterranean islands, known as Sea Peoples, and by nomad tribes from the east. These wars, plus famine, destroyed Hittite power. HEBREWS The Hebrews were shepherds and farmers in Canaan, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Sea Peoples also settled there. Around 1020 BC, the Hebrews conquered these peoples and founded a powerful new kingdom, led by great kings. Saul was the first king. He was succeeded by David, and then Solomon. WHERE WAS THE PROMISED LAND? The Hebrews believed that God had promised them a home in Canaan. According to the Bible, the prophet Moses led them to this land in around 1200 BC. Later, in 922 BC, the Hebrew kingdom of Canaan divided into two separate nations—Israel in the north and Judah in the south. The people of Judah became known as Jews. ASSYRIANS The Assyrians lived in northern Mesopotamia. They grew crops in irrigated fields and built fine cities. From around 900 BC, they conquered an empire stretching from Egypt to the Persian Gulf. It collapsed when the Babylonians and Medes attacked in 612 BC. HOW DID THE ASSYRIANS FIGHT THEIR BATTLES? The first Assyrian soldiers were farmers, who left their fields when called up to fight. But by around 740 BC, the Assyrian kings had developed fierce new armies made up of captured foreigners. They fought with swords, spears, bows and arrows, and battering rams. They demanded tributes of lumber, metal, and horses from weaker peoples.