MIDDLE EASTERN EMPIRES: WHY WAS THE MIDDLE EAST SUCH A RICH PRIZE? BABYLONIANS HITTITES HEBREWS ASSYRIANS From around 2000 BC, rival peoples in the Middle East fought to either conquer or defend land. Some, like the BABYLONIANSand ASSYRIANS, were based in magnificent cities. Others, like the HITTITESand HEBREWS, arrived to settle and found new kingdoms. WHY WAS THE MIDDLE EAST SUCH A RICH PRIZE? Kings and peoples wanted to live in the Middle East because of its fertile farmland. The best land lay beside the Euphrates and Tigris rivers of Mesopotamia, but there were also fields, forests, and orchards in mountain valleys to the north and south. People also competed to control the long-distance trading routes that passed through the Middle East, linking Europe with Asia. BABYLONIANS Babylon became powerful around 1792 BC, under King Hammurabi. From 1595 BC, its people came under the rule of invaders. In 625 BC, a general called Nabopolassar drove out the foreigners and became king. Under his son, King Nebuchadnezzar (r. 605–562 BC), a great new empire emerged. HOW DID THE BABYLONIANS MEASURE TIME? Babylonians built mud-brick monuments and used them as sundials. They observed stars and planets, predicted their movements, and compiled calendars. They based their calculations on units of 60—which we still use today to measure minutes and seconds—and recorded all their findings in cuneiform writing. BIOGRAPHY: KING HAMMURABI r. 1792–1750 BC King Hammurabi conquered all of Mesopotamia to create a new kingdom, which was named after its chief city—Babylon. He introduced a strict code of law, and many crimes were punished by death. After he died, the empire weakened. HITTITES The Hittites were people who settled in Anatolia (now Turkey), in around 1700 BC. They could smelt iron, so they were able to make stronger weapons than their enemies. Around 1400 BC, Hittite city-states joined forces to create a powerful kingdom. HOW DID THE HITTITES FIGHT THEIR WARS? Fast, two-wheeled war chariots—pulled by horses—were first used by Hittite warriors around 1800 BC. Armed with bows and arrows, the charioteers would charge at ranks of enemy soldiers to scatter them. The Hittites also attacked enemy cities with the help of siege engines such as tall towers. The Hittites had two great enemies: the Ancient Egyptians and a war-like people from the state of Mitanni, in Mesopotamia. WHY DID HITTITE POWER COLLAPSE? The Hittites and their enemies fought to win the eastern Mediterranean region, with its forests, farms, and rich trading ports. In around 1200 BC, the Hittites were also attacked by invaders from Mediterranean islands, known as Sea Peoples, and by nomad tribes from the east. These wars, plus famine, destroyed Hittite power. HEBREWS The Hebrews were shepherds and farmers in Canaan, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Sea Peoples also settled there. Around 1020 BC, the Hebrews conquered these peoples and founded a powerful new kingdom, led by great kings. Saul was the first king. He was succeeded by David, and then Solomon. WHERE WAS THE PROMISED LAND? The Hebrews believed that God had promised them a home in Canaan. According to the Bible, the prophet Moses led them to this land in around 1200 BC. Later, in 922 BC, the Hebrew kingdom of Canaan divided into two separate nations—Israel in the north and Judah in the south. The people of Judah became known as Jews. ASSYRIANS The Assyrians lived in northern Mesopotamia. They grew crops in irrigated fields and built fine cities. From around 900 BC, they conquered an empire stretching from Egypt to the Persian Gulf. It collapsed when the Babylonians and Medes attacked in 612 BC. HOW DID THE ASSYRIANS FIGHT THEIR BATTLES? The first Assyrian soldiers were farmers, who left their fields when called up to fight. But by around 740 BC, the Assyrian kings had developed fierce new armies made up of captured foreigners. They fought with swords, spears, bows and arrows, and battering rams. They demanded tributes of lumber, metal, and horses from weaker peoples.

ANCIENT EGYPT: WHY WERE NILE FLOODS IMPORTANT? WHO DID THE EGYPTIANS WORSHIP? WHY DID EGYPTIAN CIVILZATION LAST SO LONG? PHARAOHS PYRAMIDS MUMMIFICATION From around 3100 BC to 30 BC, the dry desert land of Egypt was home to an advanced civilization. The Ancient Egyptians produced massive PYRAMIDS, fabulous golden treasures, and wonderful works of art. They invented hieroglyphs, and were expert engineers. WHY WERE NILE FLOODS IMPORTANT? The Nile River flows through Egypt on its way to the sea. Every year, between June and October, it flooded the surrounding desert and covered the land with fertile silt (fine mud). Ancient Egyptian farmers were able to grow excellent crops on this land, including wheat, barley, grapes, figs, and many different types of vegetables. WHO DID THE EGYPTIANS WORSHIP? The Egyptians worshiped hundreds of gods and goddesses. Gods like Osiris, ruler of the underworld, looked human. Others were shown as animals, such as the cat-goddess Bastet, who brought fertility. The most important was ram-headed Amun, king of the gods. WHY DID EGYPTIAN CIVILZATION LAST SO LONG? Egypt became wealthy through farming and trade. Its power was built up by strong governments, led by PHARAOHSand staffed by well-trained scribes (officials). The nation was defended by huge armies. Table 42. EGYPT’S HISTORY 5500–3100 BCPre-Dynastic Period: before the time of the Pharaohs 3100 –2686 BCEarly Dynastic Period: Upper and Lower Egypt are united—Menes becomes first pharaoh 2686–2181 BCOld Kingdom: age of the pyramids 2181–2055 BCFirst Intermediate Period: breakdown of centralized government 2055–1650 BCMiddle Kingdom: Egypt reunited 1650–1550 BCSecond Intermediate Period: invasion of Hyksos people, who are then defeated 1550–1069 BCNew Kingdom: Egypt at its greatest 1069–747 BCThird Intermediate Period: breaks into small states 747–332 BCLater Period: invaded by Assyrians, then Persians 332–30 BCPtolemaic Period: conquered by Alexander the Great and ruled by his general’s family 30 BC–AD 395Roman Period: Egypt part of Roman Empire PHARAOHS Ancient Egypt was ruled by powerful kings called pharaohs, who took the roles of chief priest, war leader, and head of government. Egyptians believed that the pharaohs were living links between people and gods, and that they actually became gods after death. WHAT DOES “PHARAOH” MEAN? The name pharaoh came from two Egyptian words,per-aa, meaning “great house” or “palace.” Later, the name for such a building was also used to refer to the king living there. It was used to show great respect. PYRAMIDS Massive stone tombs protected the bodies of dead pharaohs. These pyramids represented stairways leading to the sky. They took great skill to plan and build, and were designed to keep out robbers—but no pharaoh’s MUMMYhas ever been found inside one. WHO BUILT THE PYRAMIDS? The pyramids were constructed by teams of skilled professional builders, such as stone masons, who were paid very well for their work. During the flood season, when the Nile River washed over the farmlands, royal officials commanded peasant farmers to assist the professional workers in building the pyramids. These pyramids were built in around 2500 BC for the pharaohs Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura. They were originally covered in limestone and topped with gold. The tallest, the Great Pyramid, is 482 ft (147 m) high. MUMMIFICATION A mummy is a dead body that has been carefully preserved, or mummified. Workers removed organs that might rot, then dried the body with natron (salty crystals) and wrapped it in resin-soaked bandages. WHY WERE PEOPLE MUMMIFIED AFTER DEATH? Ancient Egyptians thought that people were made up of five elements. These elements were the body, its ka (spirit), ba (personality), name, and shadow. By preserving the body, the Egyptians believed that they could keep the other four elements alive. If the body decayed, to them the person would stay dead forever.

MESOPOTAMIA: HOW WERE THE SUMERIAN CITIES RULED? HOW WERE THE ZIGGURATS BUILT? Mesopotamia is the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Farmers used the river water to irrigate fields and grow plentiful crops. Around 3500 BC, the Sumerians in southern Mesopotamia built the world’s first cities, including Ur, Uruk, and Eridu. HOW WERE THE SUMERIAN CITIES RULED? Mighty kings, who commanded large armies, had strong cities, great palaces, and magnificent royal tombs made. The kings were assisted by priests and well-trained scribes, who collected taxes, controlled irrigation projects, and took charge of laws governing city crafts and trade. Priests also served the gods in ziggurats (temples). HOW WERE THE ZIGGURATS BUILT? Mesopotamian builders built ziggurats and houses from bricks made of mud mixed with chopped straw (left to dry and harden in the sun). Teams of workmen moved huge loads of bricks using sleds on wooden rollers, or carried smaller quantities in baskets on their backs. Mud was used as a mortar to bind the bricks. ZIGGURAT AT UR Ziggurats were holy “mountains,” where people could get closer to the gods. The ziggurat at Ur (in modern Iraq) was built in around 2100 BC. Originally, it had three tall terraces (raised levels), one on top of the other, which were planted with trees and flowers. A shrine to Nanna, the Moon god, stood at the top. Today, only the temple’s lower section survives.

FIRST SCRIPTS: WHAT WERE EARLY FORMS OF WRITING LIKE? WHERE ELSE DID PEOPLE USE PICTOGRAMS? Writing was invented in Mesopotamia, around 3200 BC. Cities had grown so big that people could no longer do business by keeping every detail in their heads. Rulers needed to keep track of who had paid their taxes, which craftworkers had been given rations, and how many goods they had made. WHAT WERE EARLY FORMS OF WRITING LIKE? The first writing was made up of pictograms—small pictures representing objects or expressing actions or ideas. These writing systems, which included CUNEIFORM, were complicated, and few people managed to learn them. WHERE ELSE DID PEOPLE USE PICTOGRAMS? Different forms of picture-writing developed in Egypt, China, and Meso- (Middle) America. In the Indus Valley, scribes used pictures combined with symbols—a system that today’s experts have still not explained. CUNEIFORM Cuneiform is the name given to the wedge-shaped script, written using trimmed reeds, developed by scribes in Sumer around 2900 BC. It was borrowed by other Middle Eastern peoples to write and develop their own languages, before the ALPHABETwas developed. HOW WAS THE FIRST SCRIPT WRITTEN? The first pictograms were scratched on to tablets of wet clay, using stalks from reeds that grew beside Mesopotamian rivers. The tablets were then dried in the sun to preserve the written text. Scribes (people trained to copy manuscripts) soon began to trim the reeds to make a triangular tip, which created clear, wedge-shaped marks. ALPHABET The world’s first alphabet was invented in around 1000 BC by the Phoenicians, who lived in the eastern Mediterranean region. Unlike pictogram scripts, the alphabet used letters that stood for individual sounds. WHY WAS THE FIRST ALPHABET SO IMPORTANT? The Phoenicians discovered that letters could be put together in different combinations to spell almost all known words. Alphabetic writing needed fewer than 30 letters, compared with the 600 cuneiform symbols used by Sumerian scribes, or the 5,000 characters used by Chinese scholars. This made it much easier to learn, so literacy (reading and writing) became much more widespread in societies using alphabetic scripts. ROSETTA STONE In 196 BC, Egyptian scribes carved the same text in three different scripts on this stone. It was discovered in Rosetta, Egypt, in 1799, and provided the key to translating Egyptian hieroglyphs.

INDUS VALLEY: HOW DID THE PEOPLE OF THE INDUS VALLEY LIVE? WHY DID INDUS VALLEY CITIES DISAPPEAR? FIND OUT MORE Between around 3500 BC and 2000 BC, people in the Indus Valley built more than 100 towns. The largest were Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, with populations of 40,000. These towns had large temples, granaries, brick houses, and streets laid out in neat grid patterns. HOW DID THE PEOPLE OF THE INDUS VALLEY LIVE? Farmers grew wheat, barley, cotton, and rice on land fertilized by yearly Indus River floods. They also raised animals. In towns, people made cloth, pottery, metalwork, and jewelry. On the coast, they went abroad to trade. WHY DID INDUS VALLEY CITIES DISAPPEAR? At Mohenjo-Daro, the Indus River changed its course, causing a water shortage. Other towns may have been destroyed by floods, disease, or invaders. But nobody knows for sure why the Indus Valley civilization collapsed.